UNIT – III

Logical Agents
Knowledge-Based Agent in Artificial intelligence
o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions and reasoning to
act efficiently.
o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an internal state
of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge after observations and take
actions. These agents can represent the world with some formal representation and act
intelligently.
o Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
o Knowledge-base and
o Inference system.
A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:
o An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.
o An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts
o An agent can update the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce appropriate actions.
The architecture of knowledge-based agent:

The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based agent. The
knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment by perceiving the environment. The input
is taken by the inference engine of the agent and which also communicate with KB to decide as per the
knowledge store in KB. The learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by learning new
knowledge.
Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a knowledge-based agent, it is also known as
KB. It is a collection of sentences (here 'sentence' is a technical term and it is not identical to sentence in
English). These sentences are expressed in a language which is called a knowledge representation
language. The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the world.
Why use a knowledge base?
Knowledge-base is required for updating knowledge for an agent to learn with experiences and take
action as per the knowledge.
Inference system
Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system allows us to add a new sentence to
the knowledge base. A sentence is a proposition about the world. Inference system applies logical rules to
the KB to deduce new information.
Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update the KB. An inference system works
mainly in two rules which are given as:
o Forward chaining
o Backward chaining
Operations Performed by KBA
Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in order to show the intelligent behavior:
1. TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives from the environment.
2. ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform.
3. Perform: It performs the selected action.
The knowledge-based agent takes percept as input and returns an action as output. The agent maintains
the knowledge base, KB, and it initially has some background knowledge of the real world. It also has a
counter to indicate the time for the whole process, and this counter is initialized with zero.
Each time when the function is called, it performs its three operations:
o Firstly it TELLs the KB what it perceives.
o Secondly, it asks KB what action it should take
o Third agent program TELLS the KB that which action was chosen.
Various levels of knowledge-based agent:
A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:
1. Knowledge level
Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to specify what the
agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these specifications, we can fix its behavior. For
example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go from a station A to station B, and he knows the
way from A to B, so this comes at the knowledge level.
2. Logical level:
At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is stored. At this level,
sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level, an encoding of knowledge into logical
sentences occurs. At the logical level we can expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the destination
B.
3. Implementation level:
This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation level agent perform
actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an automated taxi agent actually implement his
knowledge and logic so that he can reach to the destination.
Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:
There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent:
1. Declarative approach: We can create a knowledge-based agent by initializing with an empty knowledge
base and telling the agent all the sentences with which we want to start with. This approach is called
Declarative approach.
2. Procedural approach: In the procedural approach, we directly encode desired behavior as a program
code. Which means we just need to write a program that already encodes the desired behavior or agent.
However, in the real world, a successful agent can be built by combining both declarative and procedural
approaches, and declarative knowledge can often be compiled into more efficient procedural code.
THE WUMPUS WORLD IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
WUMPUS WORLD:
The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a knowledge-based agent and to
represent knowledge representation. It was inspired by a video game Hunt the Wumpus by Gregory Yob
in 1973.
The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms connected with passageways. So there are
total 16 rooms which are connected with each other. We have a knowledge-based agent who will go
forward in this world. The cave has a room with a beast which is called Wumpus, who eats anyone who
enters the room. The Wumpus can be shot by the agent, but the agent has a single arrow. In the Wumpus
world, there are some Pits rooms which are bottomless, and if agent falls in Pits, then he will be stuck
there forever. The exciting thing with this cave is that in one room there is a possibility of finding a heap
of gold. So the agent goal is to find the gold and climb out the cave without fallen into Pits or eaten by
Wumpus. The agent will get a reward if he comes out with gold, and he will get a penalty if eaten by
Wumpus or falls in the pit.
Following is a sample diagram for representing the Wumpus world. It is showing some rooms with Pits,
one room with Wumpus and one agent at (1, 1) square location of the world.

There are also some components which can help the agent to navigate the cave. These components are
given as follows:
a. The rooms adjacent to the Wumpus room are smelly, so that it would have some stench.
b. The room adjacent to PITs has a breeze, so if the agent reaches near to PIT, then he will perceive
the breeze.
c. There will be glitter in the room if and only if the room has gold.
d. The Wumpus can be killed by the agent if the agent is facing to it, and Wumpus will emit a
horrible scream which can be heard anywhere in the cave.
PEAS description of Wumpus world:
To explain the Wumpus world we have given PEAS description as below:
Performance measure:
o +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of the cave with the gold.
o -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or falling into the pit.
o -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow.
o The game ends if either agent dies or came out of the cave.
Environment:
o A 4*4 grid of rooms.
o The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing toward the right.
o Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen randomly except the first square [1,1].
o Each square of the cave can be a pit with probability 0.2 except the first square.
Actuators:
o Left turn,
o Right turn
o Move forward
o Grab
o Release
o Shoot.
Sensors:
o The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not diagonally).
o The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room directly adjacent to the Pit.
o The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where the gold is present.
o The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a wall.
o When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a horrible scream which can be perceived anywhere in the
cave.
o These percepts can be represented as five element list, in which we will have different indicators
for each sensor.
o Example if agent perceives stench, breeze, but no glitter, no bump, and no scream then it can be
represented as:
[Stench, Breeze, None, None, None].
The Wumpus world Properties:
o Partially observable: The Wumpus world is partially observable because the agent can only
perceive the close environment such as an adjacent room.
o Deterministic: It is deterministic, as the result and outcome of the world are already known.
o Sequential: The order is important, so it is sequential.
o Static: It is static as Wumpus and Pits are not moving.
o Discrete: The environment is discrete.
o One agent: The environment is a single agent as we have one agent only and Wumpus is not
considered as an agent.
Exploring the Wumpus world:
Now we will explore the Wumpus world and will determine how the agent will find its goal by applying
logical reasoning.
Agent's First step:
Initially, the agent is in the first room or on the square [1,1], and we already know that this room is safe
for the agent, so to represent on the below diagram (a) that room is safe we will add symbol OK. Symbol
A is used to represent agent, symbol B for the breeze, G for Glitter or gold, V for the visited room, P for
pits, W for Wumpus.
At Room [1,1] agent does not feel any breeze or any Stench which means the adjacent squares are also
OK.

Agent's second Step:

Now agent needs to move forward, so it will either move to [1, 2], or [2,1]. Let's suppose agent moves to
the room [2, 1], at this room agent perceives some breeze which means Pit is around this room. The pit
can be in [3, 1], or [2,2], so we will add symbol P? to say that, is this Pit room?
Now agent will stop and think and will not make any harmful move. The agent will go back to the [1, 1]
room. The room [1,1], and [2,1] are visited by the agent, so we will use symbol V to represent the visited
squares.
Agent's third step:
At the third step, now agent will move to the room [1,2] which is OK. In the room [1,2] agent perceives a
stench which means there must be a Wumpus nearby. But Wumpus cannot be in the room [1,1] as by
rules of the game, and also not in [2,2] (Agent had not detected any stench when he was at [2,1]).
Therefore agent infers that Wumpus is in the room [1,3], and in current state, there is no breeze which
means in [2,2] there is no Pit and no Wumpus. So it is safe, and we will mark it OK, and the agent moves
further in [2,2].

Agent's fourth step:

At room [2,2], here no stench and no breezes present so let's suppose agent decides to move to [2,3]. At
room [2,3] agent perceives glitter, so it should grab the gold and climb out of the cave.
What is knowledge representation?
Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is
knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how machines
do all these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe
Knowledge representation as following:
o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial intelligence.
Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave
intelligently like a human.
What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:
o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets
are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base.
It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used
as a technical term and not identical with the English language).
Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and situations.
Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:
Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:
1. Declarative Knowledge:
o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.
2. Procedural Knowledge
o It is also known as imperative knowledge.
o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do
something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
3. Meta-knowledge:
o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.
4. Heuristic knowledge:
o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches,
and which are good to work but not guaranteed.
5. Structural knowledge:
 o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
The relation between knowledge and intelligence:
Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial intelligence.
Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents. An agent is only
able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or experience about that input.
Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then how you
will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.
As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the environment and
using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behavior:
o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what components
help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from
its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input. The learning component is
responsible for learning from data captured by Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main
components are knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components are involved in
showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are independent with each other
but also coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation
and reasoning.
Approaches to knowledge representation:
There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:
1. Simple relational knowledge:
o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact about a set
of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the relationship
between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.
Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18
Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance and class,
and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:

3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
a. Marcus is a man
 b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;
man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to do
specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and Prolog
language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.
Requirements for knowledge Representation system:
A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.
1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.
2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to produce new knowledge
corresponding to existing structure.
3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most productive directions by storing
appropriate guides.
4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using automatic methods.
Techniques of knowledge representation
There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no
ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions. This representation lays down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely
defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into
logics using syntax and semantics.
Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:
a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics
Advantages of logical representation:
1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.
Disadvantages of logical Representation:
1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so efficient.
2. Semantic Network Representation
Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic networks,
we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes
representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic networks
can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to
understand and can be easily extended.
This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:
a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)
b. Kind-of-relation
Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
Statements:
a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs.
Each object is connected with another object by some relation.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the complete
network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after
traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store
the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g.,
for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.
Advantages of Semantic network:
1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.
3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an
entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be
of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.
Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which enable us to
put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is
needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and
facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge representation in
artificial intelligence.
Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and objects. A
single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are connected. In
the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is
a type of technology which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing
and machine visions.
Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:
Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his age is 25, he
lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the frame representation for this:
 lots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
Disadvantages of frame representation:
1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.
2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.
4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then action". It has
mainly three parts:
o The set of production rules
o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle
In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production rule fires
and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be
applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete
process is called a recognize-act cycle.
The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule can write
knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.
If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together, this is
called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it is called a
conflict resolution.
 Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
Advantages of Production rule:
1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an individual
rule.
Disadvantages of Production rule:
1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the result of
the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based production
systems are inefficient.
Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence
Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by propositions.
A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a technique of knowledge
representation in logical and mathematical form.
Example:
1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.
Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:
o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any
symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
 o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid
sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as " Where is
Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
Syntax of propositional logic:
The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge representation. There
are two types of Propositions:
a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions
o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single
proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example:
1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic
propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
Example:
1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence logically. We
can create compound propositions with the help of logical connectives. There are mainly five
connectives, which are given as follows:
1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or
negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P
and Q are the propositions.
 Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also known as
if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If I am breathing,
then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.
Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible scenarios. We can
combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the representation of these
combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical
connectives:
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-up of 8n
Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.
Precedence of connectives:
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or logical
operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem. Following is the list of
the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct interpretations. Such as ¬R ∨
Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.
Logical equivalence:
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be logically
equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.
Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A ⇔B. In below truth
table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is Equivalent to B
Limitations of Propositional logic:
o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
o Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
o In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or logical
relationships.