THERMODYNAMICS

General Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. Its forms can be transformed from one form to another. All changes
of energy that occur in a system result from energy transfers in and out the system.

Conservation of Energy
Forms of Energy
Potential Energy (PE)
Kinetic Energy (KE)
Internal Energy (U)
Flow Energy or Flow Work (FE)
Work (W)
Heat (Q)
Heat and Work are the only mechanisms of energy transfer.
Energy Added is considered to be net heat transfer to the closed system and the Energy Leaving is considered
to be net work done by the closed system.
Stored Energy is the total energy stored within the system. Part of the stored energy may take the form of
potential energy which is the gravitational energy due to height above a chosen datum line or kinetic energy
due to velocity.

Conservation of Energy for Closed System

Engineering systems which are analyzed as closed systems do not move. Therefore, it will be assumed that the
effects of gravity and motion are negligible. This means that there is no change in the kinetic energy or in the
potential energy of a closed system.

Conservation of Energy for Cycles

A thermodynamic cycle is composed of processes that cause the working fluid to undergo a series of state
changes through a series of processes such that the final and initial states are identical.
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Conservation of Energy for Open Systems
Steady-state, Steady-flow Processes

∑ 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = ∑ 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒕

Considering all forms of energy flow into in and out form the control volume with the mass, the mathematical
form of the steady-state, steady-flow first law becomes.

𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝑸 = ∑ 𝒎 (𝒖 + 𝒑𝒗 + + 𝒈𝒛) − ∑ 𝒎 (𝒖 + 𝒑𝒗 + + 𝒈𝒛) + 𝑾
𝟐 𝟐
𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒔

Assumptions for energy equation

➢ Steady flow
➢ Uniform flow at the inlet and outlet
➢ Heat into the control volume is positive
➢ Work out of the control volume is positive

➢ Nozzle – a device that increases the velocity of a flowing fluid.

➢ Turbine – a device that produces work by using a set of rotating blades to extract energy from a fluid.
➢ Mixing Chamber – a device that combines at least two inlet flows to form a single outlet flow.
➢ Diffuser – a device that decreases the velocity of a flowing fluid.
➢ Throttling Device – an adiabatic device that provides a sudden pressure drop.
➢ Pumps, Compressors, Blowers – devices that increase the pressure of a fluid.
➢ Heat Exchange – a device used to transfer thermal energy from a hotter fluid to a colder fluid.
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SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction to Thermodynamics
There are some processes in nature that take place without the application of any outside force. Examples of
these are the flow of water downhill, the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body, and the movement
of air from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure. These are spontaneous (natural) processes.
The spontaneous flow of heat is the focus of the second law of thermodynamics.
In the previous lessons, the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle) was applied to
processes involving thermodynamic systems. Energy is a conserved property, and no process has taken place
in violation of the first law of thermodynamics. Hence, it is reasonable to conclude that a process must satisfy
the first law to occur. However, satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will actually take
place.
It is a common experience that a cup of hot coffee left in a cooler room eventually cools off. This process
satisfies the first law of thermodynamics since the amount of energy lost by the cup of coffee is equal to the
amount gained by the surrounding air. Now consider the reverse process-the cup of hot coffee getting even
hotter in a cooler room as a result of heat transfer from the room air. This process never takes place. Yet,
doing so would not violate the first law as long as the amount of energy lost by the air is equal to the amount
gained by the cup of coffee.
It is clear from the above illustration that processes proceed in a certain direction and not in the reverse
direction. The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, but satisfying the first law does not
ensure that such process will actually occur. This inadequacy of the first law to identify whether a process can
take place is remedied by introducing another general principle, the second law of thermodynamics. It can be
shown later that the reverse processes discussed above violate the second law of thermodynamics. This
violation is easily detected with the help of a property called entropy. A process will not occur unless it
satisfies both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics declares that all forms of energy are convertible to one another. It states that
when one form of energy is converted into another, identical quantities of energy are involved regardless of
the feasibility of the process. We know by experience that heat flows spontaneously from a high temperature
to a low temperature. But heat flowing from a low temperature to a higher temperature with no expenditure
of energy to cause the process to take place would not violate the first law.
Moreover, the second law puts a limitation on the conversion of some forms of energy to others. It allows us
to determine the scope of an energy conversion and whether an energy conversion is possible. It provides a
means of evaluating the thermodynamic performance of systems and processes so that technically sound
design decisions can be made. With the principles developed from the second law, engineers can evaluate the
performance of actual systems by comparing them with ideal systems. It is becoming increasingly important
and it should play a major role in the analysis of engineering problems.
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Reversible and Irreversible Processes
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any change in either system
or surroundings. It means both system and surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the
reverse process. Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible.
Reversible processes do not occur and they are only idealizations of actual processes. There are two reasons
as to why the concept of the reversible process is used:
1. they are easy to analyze (since system passes through a series of equilibrium states); and
2. they serve as limits (idealized models) with which the actual processes can be compared.
Internally Reversible - when the system can be returned to its initial equilibrium state without leaving any
permanent change in the system. Ideal cycles are composed of internally reversible processes.
Totally Reversible - when both the system and its surroundings are capable of returning to their initial
equilibrium states without leaving any permanent changes in either. A Carnot cycle is composed of totally
reversible processes.
Irreversibility - can be thought of as representing a loss of work. A process is called irreversible if the system
and all parts of its surroundings cannot be restored to their respective initial states after the process has
occurred. All real processes are irreversible. Actual cycles are composed of irreversible processes.
The following are some factors that cause a process to become irreversible:
• Solid - solid friction
• Mixing of dissimilar gases or liquids
• Mixing of identical fluids initially at different pressures and temperatures
• Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference
• Viscous flow of a fluid
• Fluid flow through valves and porous plugs (throttling)
• Inelastic deformation
• Electric resistance
• Chemical reactions
How can a reversible heat-transfer process be possible?
A heat-transfer process approaches a reversible process as the temperature difference between the two
bodies approaches zero. It is one in which the heat is transferred through an infinitesimal temperature
difference. Since all actual heat-transfer processes are through a finite temperature difference then they are
all not reversible or irreversible and the greater the temperature difference the greater the irreversibility.
Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates in a cycle and receives a given amount of heat from a
high-temperature body and does an equal amount of work.
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It implies that it is impossible to build a heat engine that has a thermal efficiency of 100%. The thermal
efficiency of practical heat engines typically ranges from 10 to 40 percent. Thus some portion of the heat
supplied from a high-temperature source in practice is always rejected to a low temperature-sink.
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can produce a
net amount of work while exchanging heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the maximum possible
efficiency is less than 100 percent.

Is it possible to save the rejected heat in a power cycle?

The answer is no, because without the cooling in condenser the cycle cannot be completed. Every heat engine
must waste some energy by transferring it to a low-temperature reservoir in order to complete the cycle, even
in an idealized cycle.
Two principles are drawn from the above statement:
1. The cycle efficiency of an irreversible power cycle is always less than the cycle efficiency of a reversible
power cycle when each operates between the same two reservoirs.
2. All reversible power cycles operating between the same two thermal reservoirs have the same cycle
efficiency. It implies that the specific states, working fluid, or specific processes of the reversible power cycle
are unimportant to the cycle efficiency. Reversibility and reservoir temperatures prescribe the cycle efficiency.
Thermal Efficiency - the index of performance of a work-producing device or a heat engine is defined by the
ratio of the net work output (the desired result) to the heat input (the cost to obtain the desired result).
The thermal efficiencies of work-producing devices are low. Ordinary spark-ignition automobile engines have a
thermal efficiency of about 20%, diesel engines about 30%, and power plants in the order of 40%.
What is the maximum efficiency that an engine can have since it is impossible to have an efficiency of
100%?
The answer is to define an ideal process that is called a reversible process. The efficiency can be maximized by
using reversible processes.
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Carnot Cycle
If the efficiency of all heat engines is less than 100% what is the most efficient cycle we can have?
The efficiency can be maximized by using reversible processes. The most efficient reversible cycle is the Carnot
cycle. It is a totally reversible cycle named after Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot. Note that the reversible cycles
cannot be achieved in practice because of irreversibilities associated with real processes. However, reversible
cycles provide upper limits on the performance of real cycles. The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle
operating between two specified temperature emits.
An important consequence of the second law is that no engine can be more efficient than the Carnot cycle. It
therefore forces the conclusion that no amount of machine design will produce an engine more efficient than
the Carnot cycle.
Four Reversible Processes of a Carnot Cycle
1-2: Reversible isothermal expansion
The gas expands slowly, doing work on the surroundings. Reversible heat transfer from the high-temperature
reservoir at T to the gas which is also at T
2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion
The cylinder-piston assembly is now insulated (adiabatic) and the gas continues to expand reversibly (slowly).
So, the gas is doing work on the surroundings, and as a result of expansion the gas temperature reduces from
T1, to T.
3-4: Reversible isothermal compression
The gas is allowed to exchange heat with the low-temperature reservoir at temperature T as the gas is being
slowly compressed. So, the surroundings is doing work (reversibly) on the system and heat is transferred from
the system to the surroundings (reversibly) such that the gas temperature remains constant at T1.
4-1: Reversible adiabatic compression
The gas temperature is increasing from T, to T, as a result of compression.
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