LECTURE 1.

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF MECHANICS

Mechanics - a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of
rest or motion of bodies subjected to the action of forces.

Mechanics → motion or force,

Newtonian (or Classical) Mechanics → based on Newton’s Laws English
scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727).

Applications. Modern research and development in the fields of vibrations, stability,

and strength of machines and structures, rocket and spacecraft design, robots,
automatic control, engine performance, fluid flow, electrical machines and apparatus
are highly dependent upon the basic principles of mechanics.

Branches of Mechanics

Mechanics of Rigid Mechanics of

Mechanics of Fluids
Bodies Deformable Bodies
Statics Strength of Materials Compressible Fluids
Dynamics Incompressible Fluids

1. Mechanics Of Rigid Bodies

A basic requirement for the study of the mechanics of deformable bodies and the
mechanics of fluids (advanced courses). Essential for the design and analysis of
many types of structural members, mechanical components, electrical devices,
etc., encountered in engineering. It is assumed that bodies are completely rigid –
does not deform under load!

A. Statics. A branch of mechanics that deals with the bodies that are acted on by
balanced forces. A force system acting on a body is said to be balanced if it has
no tendency to change the state of rest or motion of the body in any way. If a
body is in equilibrium, the force system acting on it must be balanced. State of
Equilibrium - either at rest or moving along a straight path with a constant
velocity. Statics constitutes a very important part of mechanics since it presents
solution methods for the determination of support forces at bodies in equilibrium
and establishment of relationships between external loads and internal force
distribution. Numerous practical engineering problems involving load carrying
members can be solved by using the Principles of Statics.

B. Dynamics – deals with motion of bodies (accelerated motion). Kinematics deals

with the geometry of motion without taking into consideration the loading that
causes this motion. Kinetics considers the loads that cause the motion.

2. Mechanics Of Deformable Bodies.

Analysis of the amount of deformation in the member or its resistance against

failure.
3. Mechanics Of Fluids

It is concerned with liquids and gases at rest or in motion. A comprehensive

knowledge of mathematics is essential for the solution of almost all problems in
mechanics.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

SPACE, TIME, MASS, and FORCE.

Space, time, and mass are the basic concepts in mechanics used as a mental frame
of reference for the study of mechanics. They are absolute quantities (independent of
each other). Force is a derived quantity.

Space is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by
linear or angular measurements relative to a specific coordinate system. For three
dimensional problems, three independent coordinates are needed. For two
dimensional problems only two coordinates will be required.

Time is a concept for measuring the succession and the duration of events. Time is
a basic quantity in Dynamics.

Mass is a measure of the translational inertia of the body, which is its resistance to a
change in velocity. The quantity of matter in a body. The mass of a body affects the
gravitational attraction force between it and other bodies. The concept of mass is used
to characterize and compare two bodies on the basis of certain fundamental
mechanical experiments depending on the definitions given above.
For example:
1. Two bodies of the same mass will be attracted by the Earth in the same
manner.
2. They will also offer the same resistance to a change in translational motion.

Force. A force represents the action of one body on another. Force can be generated
either by the direct contact of bodies or by their effect at a distance. Forces always
occur in pairs. Forces of a pair are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Force is a vector quantity. The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, by
the direction of its action and by its point of application. A force tends to move a body
in the direction of its action (the push – pull effect of the force). In addition, a force
tends to rotate the body about any axis which does not intersect the line of action of
the force and which is not parallel to it (the moment effect of the force).

Idealization in Mechanics
The mathematical description of a real engineering problem can become very
complex. Thus, idealization (or models) and assumptions are used in
mathematics in order to simplify the application of the theory.

Particle is a body of negligible dimensions. In the mathematical sense, a particle is a

body whose dimensions are considered to be near zero so that we may analyze it as
a mass concentrated at a point. We often choose a particle as a differential element
of the body. We may treat a body as a particle when its dimensions are irrelevant to
the description of its position or the action of forces applied to it. A body considered
as a particle is taken as a unique point, which is generally the mass center of the body.
A particle has mass but no shape and dimensions. In so doing, the principles of
mechanics are reduced to a rather simplified form, since the geometry of the body will
not be involved in the analysis of the problem. The line of actions of all the forces
applied to the body must pass through this point. Forces can only exert push – pull
effects on a particle.
Rigid Body is an idealized body composed of a large number of particles all of which
always remain at fixed distances from each other. In addition to the tendency to move
a body in the direction of its application, a force may also tend to rotate a body about
an axis. A rigid body is assumed to undergo no deformation under the action of applied
forces. Its shape and dimensions remain fixed under all loading conditions and at all
times.

Point Force is an idealized force assumed to act at a point on a body. A constant

force exerted on a body by another is actually distributed over the area of contact
between two bodies. If the area of contact is relatively small, the contact force between
the two bodies may be considered as a point (concentrated) force.

LAWS OF MECHANICS

1. The Parallelogram Law: Two vectors A and B, treated as free vectors, can be
replaced by their equivalent R, which is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed
by A and B as its two sides, as shown. R is called the resultant of A and B. Hence,
the combined effect of two forces A and B (for example acting on a particle) is
equivalent to the effect of their resultant.
2. The Principle of Transmissibility: The effect of a force on a rigid body will remain
unchanged if the forced is moved to act on its line of action. In other words, a force
may be applied at any point on its given line of action without altering the resultant
effects on the rigid body on which it acts.
3. Newton’s First Law: If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, then the
particle is in equilibrium. Stated mathematically as (∑F = 0), where ∑F is the vector
sum (the resultant) of all the forces acting on the particle.
4. Newton’s Second Law: The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and is in the direction of this force. ∑F = ma
5. Newton’s Third Law: The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies
are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear.
6. Newton’s Law of Gravitation: This law states that two particles of mass m 1 and
m2 are mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces F and -F of magnitude F,
given by the formula.
F = G m1 m2 / r2
Where:
“r” is the centroidal distance between the two particles
“G” is the universal constant of gravitation equal to 6.673 x10-11 kg3 / m s2

A particular case of great importance is that of the attraction of the Earth on a

particle located at its surface. The force F exerted by the Earth on the particle is then
defined as the weight W of the particle.
W = mg
Where:
 “m” is the mass of the particle
“g” is the gravitational acceleration of the Earth

DYNAMICS
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies in
motion.

Branches of Dynamics

Dynamics is divided into two branches called kinematics and kinetics.

1. Kinematics is the geometry in motion. This term is used to define the motion
of a particle or body without consideration of the forces causing the motion.
2. Kinetics is the branch of mechanics that relates the force acting on a body to
its mass and acceleration.

Symbols and Notations

s = distance (meters, feet, kilometers)

x = horizontal displacement
y = vertical displacement
v = velocity (m/sec, feet/sec)
vf = final velocity
vi = initial velocity
a = acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)
t = time (sec, min, hour, days)

KINEMATICS
Motion of a Particle
Particle is a term used to denote an object of point size. A system of particles which
formed into appreciable size is termed as body. These terms may apply equally to
the same object. The earth for example may be assumed as a particle in comparison
with its orbit, whereas to an observer on the earth, it is a body with appreciable size.
In general, a particle is an object whose size is so small in comparison to the size of
its path.

Rectilinear Translation (Motion Along a Straight Line)

Motion with constant velocity (uniform motion)
s = vt
Motion with constant acceleration
vf = vi + at
s = vit + 1/2at2
vf2 = vi2 + 2as
Free-falling body
v = gt
h = 1/2gt2
v2 = 2gh
Note: From motion with constant acceleration, set v i = 0, vf = v, s = h, and a = g to
get the free-fall formulas.

Motion with variable acceleration

a = dv/dt
v = ds/dt
v dv = a ds
Where:
s = distance
h = height
v = velocity
vi = initial velocity
vf = final velocity
a = acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/s2 in SI = 32.2 ft/s2 in English)
t = time

Note:
• a is positive (+) if v is increasing (accelerate).
• a is negative (-) if v is decreasing (decelerate).
• g is positive (+) if the particle is moving downward.
• g is negative (-) if the particle is moving upward.

Useful conversion factors:

From To Multiply by
Kilometers per hour (kph) Meter per second (m/sec) 1 / 3.6
Meter per second (m/sec) Kilometers per hour (kph or km/hr) 3.6
Miles per hour (mph) Feet per second (fps or ft/sec) 22 / 15
Feet per second (ft/sec) Miles per hour (mph or mi/hr) 15 / 22
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Location of warning torpedo | Rectilinear Translation
Problem 1. On a certain stretch of track, trains run at 60 mph (96.56 kph). How far
back of a stopped train should be a warning torpedo be placed to signal an oncoming
train? Assume that the brakes are applied at once and retard the train at the uniform
rate of 2 ft/sec2 (0.61 m/s2).
Initial velocity
vi = 60 mph = 60(22/15)
vi = 88 ft/sec

vf2 = vi2 + 2as

02 = 882 − 2(2)s
s = 1,936 ft answer

Return in 10 seconds | Rectilinear Translation

Problem 2. A stone is thrown vertically upward and return to earth in 10 sec. What
was its initial velocity and how high did it go?

Solution
Return in 10 seconds = 5 seconds upward + 5 seconds downward

SI Units

Going upward (velocity at the highest point is zero):

vf = vi − gt
0 = vi − 9.81(5)
vi = 49.05 m/sec answer

Going downward (initial velocity is zero; free-fall):

h = 1/2 gt2
h= ½ (9.81) (52)
h = 122.625 m answer

English System
Going upward (velocity at the highest point is zero):
vf = vi − gt
0 = vi − 32.2 (5)
vi = 161 ft/sec answer

Going downward (initial velocity is zero; free-fall):

h = 1/2 gt2
h = 1/2 (32.2) (52)
h = 402.5 ft answer
Relative velocity | Rectilinear Translation
Problem 3. A ball is dropped from the top of a tower 80 ft (24.38 m) high at the same
instant that a second ball is thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity of
40 ft/sec (12.19 m/s). When and where do they pass, and with what relative velocity?
h = 80 ft
vA = 0
vB = 40 ft/s
g = 32.2 ft/s2

From A to C (free-fall)
h = 1/2 gt2
h1= 1/2 (32.2) t2
h1= 16.1 t2

From B to C (upward motion)

From the formula s = vit + ½ at2
h2 = vBt – ½ gt2
h2 = 40t − 1/2(32.2) t2
h2 = 40t−16.1 t2

A to C plus B to C is equal to height of the tower

h1 + h2 = h
16.1t2 + (40t − 16.1t2) = 80
40t = 80
t = 2 sec

h1 = 16.1(22)
h1 = 64.4 ft

They pass each other after 2 seconds at 64.4 ft from the top of the tower. answer

Velocity at C of stone from A (after 2 seconds)

vC1 = gt = 32.2(2)
vC1 = 64.4 ft/s

Velocity at C of stone from B (after 2 seconds)

vC2 = vB − gt = 40 − 32.2 (2)
vC2 = −24.4 ft/s → the negative sign indicates that the stone is moving downward

Relative velocity:
vr = vC1 + vC2 =64.4−24.4
vr = 40 ft/sec answer

Finding the depth of well by dropping a stone | Rectilinear Translation

Problem 4. A stone is dropped down a well and 5 sec later, the sounds of the splash
is heard. If the velocity of sound is 1120 ft/sec (341.376 m/s), what is the depth of the
well?
SI Units
h = 27,065.05 and 107.64

For h = 27 065.05 m

t = 74.2 sec >5 sec (not okay!)

For h = 107.64 m

t = 4.68 sec < 5 sec (okay!)

Thus, h = 107.64 m → answer

Train at constant deceleration | Rectilinear Translation

Problem 5. A train moving with constant acceleration travels 24 ft (7.32 m) during the
10th second of its motion and 18 ft (5.49 m) during the 12 th second of its motion. Find
its initial velocity and its constant acceleration.
vf = vi + at
7.32 = vo + 10a → equation (1)
5.49 = vo + 12a → equation (2)

Equation (1) minus equation (2)

1.83 = −2a
a = −0.915 m/sec2 answer

From equation (1)

7.32 = vo + 10 (−0.915)
vo = 16.47 m/sec answer

Velocity and acceleration from the equation of distance | Motion with Variable
Acceleration
Problem 6. The motion of a particle is given by the equation s = 2t4 – 1/6t3 + 2t2
where s is in meter and t in seconds. Compute the values of v and a when t = 2 sec.

s = 2t4 – 1/6t3 + 2t2

v = ds/dt
v = 8t3 – 1/2t2 + 4t

a = dv/dt
a = 24t2 − t + 4

When t = 2 sec
v = 8(23) – 1/2(22) + 4(2)
v = 70 m/s answer

a = 24 (22) − 2 + 4
a = 98 m/s2 answer
.
Time to wait in dropping a stone | Rectilinear Translation
Problem 7. A stone is thrown vertically up from the ground with a velocity of 300 ft
per sec (91.44 m/s). How long must one wait before dropping a second stone from
the top of a 600-ft (182.88-m) tower if the two stones are to pass each other 200 ft
(60.96 m) from the top of the tower?
Stone from the ground:
s = vit + 1/2at2
h1 = vi1t − 1/2 gt2
182.88 − 60.96 = 91.44t − 1/2 (9.81) t2
4.905t2 − 91.44t + 121.92 = 0
t = 17.19 sec and 1.44 sec
Stone from the top of the tower:
Let t2 = time to wait before dropping the second stone
h = ½ g(t−t2)2

With t = 17.19 sec

60.96 = ½ (9.81) (17.19−t2)2
t2 = 13.67 sec

With t = 1.44 sec

60.96 = ½ (32.2) (1.44−t2)2
t2 = −2.08 sec (meaningless)

Use t2 = 13.67 sec answer

Two particles released from the same height and reached the base at the same
time
Problem 8. Particles A and B are elevated 12 meters high from a given reference
base. Particle A is projected down an incline of length 20 meters at the same time
particle B is let to freely fall vertically. Find the velocity of projection of particle A if
both particles strike the base at the same time.
For particle B
h = ½ gt2
12 = ½ gt2

For particle A

Apply the formula s = vot + 0.5at2 to the vertical movement of A

s = vot + ½ at2

vAi = 0 answer