BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION (P21CV302)

UNIT –III: Masonry, Arches and Floors

Masonry: Definition of terms used in masonry, bonds in brickwork, English bond, Flemish bond,
reinforced brickwork, stone masonry, rubble masonry, coursed rubble masonry, composite
masonry.

Arches: Masonry arches, classification, lintels, types and classifications, shoring, underpinning.

Floors: Types of flooring (materials and method of laying), mosaic, marble, polished granite,
industrial flooring, vitrified flooring. 08 Hours

Self study component: Rattrap bond, factors affecting selection of flooring materials, epoxy
flooring, Advances in flooring.
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Introduction

 The term masonry is used to indicate the art of building the structures in either stones or bricks.

 It may be defined as the construction of building units bonded together with mortar.

 The masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and other similar
components of a structure.

 Depending upon the type of material used, masonry can be broadly divided in the following
categories:

a) Stone masonry
b) Brick masonry
c) Reinforced masonry
d) Hollow concrete block masonry
e) Load bearing wall tile masonry

Definition of terms used in masonry

Following are some of the technical terms used in masonry work

1) Arrises: The edge formed by the intersection of plane surfaces of brick is called arrises.

2) Bed: The lower surface of a brick or stone in each course.

3) Course: a Course is a horizontal layer of masonry

4) Bed joint: the horizontal layer of mortar upon which the bricks or stones are laid is known as
a bed joint.

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5) Stretcher: a stretcher is the longer face of the brick (23cmX1 1.4cm) as seen in the elevation
of the wall. A course of bricks in which all the bricks are laid as stretcher on facing is known
as a stretcher course.

6) Header: It is the shorter face of the brick (11.4cm X 7.6cm) as seen in the elevation of the
wall. A course of bricks in which all the bricks are laid as headers on facing is known as
header course.

7) Quions: The exterior angle or corner of a wall is known as quoin. The stones or bricks
forming the quoins are known as stone quoins or quoin bricks.

8) Lap: The horizontal distance between the vertical joints in successive courses is called lap.

9) Perpend: It is a imaginary vertical line which includes the vertical joint separating two
adjoining bricks.

10) Racking back: It is a termination of a wall in a stepped fashion.

11) Toothing: It is the termination of the wall in such a fashion that each alternate course at the
end projects in order to provide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a later
stage.

12) Closer: A piece of brick which is used to close up the bond at the end of brick courses is
known as a closer. Following are the types of closers:
a) Queen closer
b) King closer
c) Beveled closer
d) Mitred closer

13) Bat: It is the portion of the brick cut across the width. Thus, a bat is smaller in length than the
full brick.

14) Face: The surface of wall exposed to the weather is known as the facing.

15) Back: The inner surface of wall which is not exposed to the weather.

16) Backing: The material used in the formation of the back of the wall.

17) Facing: The material used in the face of the wall.

18) Hearting: The inner portion of the wall between the facing and backing.

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Bonds in Brickwork

Construction of brick units bonded together with mortar is termed as brick masonry. Two essential
components of brick masonry are:

1) Bricks
2) Mortar

Bricks

Bricks are the products of the clay. It is defined as a small, solid building unit in the shape of a
rectangular block composed of inorganic, non metallic substances of mineral origin and hardened
by heat.

The main constituents of bricks are:

a) Silica-(50-60%)
b) Alumina (clay) – (20-30%)
c) Lime – (10%)
d) Iron oxide – (5-6%)
e) Magnesia- (<1%)

Types of Bricks
Bricks used in masonry are of two:
1) Traditional Bricks
2) Modular brick

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Traditional Bricks

 These are those which are not standardized in size.

 The dimensions of traditional bricks vary from 20 to 25cm in length, 10 to 13cm in width and
5-7.6cm in thickness (height).

 The commonly adopted size of traditional brick is 23cm X 11.4cm X 7.6cm.

 The average weight of a brick will be about 3 to 3.5kg

Modular Bricks

 If bricks are large, it is difficult to burn them properly and they become too heavy to be placed
with a single hand.

 On the other hand if bricks are small, more quantity of mortar is required.

 Hence BIS has recommended the bricks of uniform size. Such bricks are known as modular
bricks.

 Nominal size of these bricks are 20cm x 10cm x 10cm.

Mortar

 Mortar acts as a cementing material and unites the individual brick units together to act as a
homogeneous mass.

 Mortar is a homogeneous mixture produced by uniform mixing of a binder with sand and water
to make a paste of required consistency.

 Following are the types of mortar used in masonry:

a) Mud mortar
b) Cement mortar
c) Lime mortar
d) Composite mortar

Bonds in Brick work

 A bond is an arrangement of layers of stones or bricks by which no continuous vertical joints

are formed.

 Bond is the interlacement of bricks, formed when they lay those immediately below or above
them.

 Bonds of various types are distinguished by their elevation or face appearance

 It is essential to eliminate continuous vertical joints in the face of the wall.

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 The bond distribute the load coming on the structure evenly and prevents the formation of a
vertical crack

 A wall having continuous vertical joint does not act as a homogeneous mass to distribute the
super imposed loads.

Bonds in Brick Work

Following are the types of bonds provided in brick work:

1) Stretcher bond
2) Header bond
3) English bond
4) Flemish bond
5) Facing bond
6) Dutch bond
7) Raking bond
8) Zigzag bond
9) English cross bond
10) Garden wall bond
11) Brick on edge bond

Stretcher Bond

In this type of bond, all the bricks are arranged in the stretcher courses. Figure below shows the
elevation of a wall with a stretcher bond. The stretcher bond is useful for one-brick partition walls
as there are no headers in such walls. As this bond does not develop proper internal bond, it
should not be used for walls having thickness greater than that of one-brick wall.

Fig: Stretcher Bond

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Header Bond

In this type of bond, all the bricks are arranged in header courses. Figure below shows the
elevation of a wall with the header course. The overlap is usually kept equal to half the width of
brick and it is achieved by using three-quarter brickbats in each alternate courses as quoins. This
bond does not have strength to transmit pressure in the direction of the length of the wall. Hence it
is not suitable for load bearing walls. However this bond is used for curved surfaces in brickwork
stretchers, if used for curved surfaces, would project beyond the face of the wall.

Fig: Header Bond

English Bond

 This is the most commonly used bond. It is considered to be the strongest bond.

 Following are the features of English bond:

1) It consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers

2) In this bond, vertical joints of the header courses come over each other, similarly the vertical
joints of the stretcher courses also come over each other.

3) There is no continuous vertical joint

4) Every alternate header comes centrally over the joint between two stretchers in course below.

5) Queen closer is put next to the quoin header to develop the face lap.

6) In the stretcher course, the stretchers have a minimum lap of 1/4th their length over headers.

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7) Walls of even multiple of half bricks represent the same appearance on both faces. Thus a
course showing stretchers on the front face will also show stretchers on the back face.

8) Wall of odd multiple of half bricks will show stretchers on one face and headers on the other
face.

9) The hearting (middle portion) of each of the thicker walls consists entirely of headers.

10) The queen closers are not required in stretcher courses.

Flemish Bond

In this type of bond, each course is co mprised of alternate headers and stretchers. Every alternate
course starts with a header at the corner (quoin header). Quoin closers are placed next to the quoin
header in alternate courses to develop the face lap. Every header is centrally supported over the
stretcher below it.

Flemish bonds are two types:

1) Single Flemish bond
2) Double Flemish bond

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1) Single Flemish bond

Special features of Flemish bond:

 This bond is a combination of English and Flemish bond.

 This bond uses the strength of the English bond and appearance of Flemish bond

 In this work the facing of the wall consists of Flemish bond and the backing consists of English
bond in each course.
 It is used for those walls having thickness atleast equal to 11/2 brick.

2) Double Flemish bond

Special features of double Flemish bond are:

 Alternate headers and stretcher are laid in each course.

 The facing and backing of the wall, in each course have the same appearance.
 In walls having thickness equal to odd multiple of half bricks, half bats and 31/4 bats are amply
used.
 For walls having thickness equal to even multiple of half bricks, no bats are required. A header
or stretcher will come out as header or stretcher on the same course in front as well as back
faces.

Comparison of English bond and Flemish bond

1) English bond is stronger than Flemish bond for walls thicker than 1 ½ brick.
2) Flemish bond gives more pleasing appearance than the English bond.
3) Broken bricks can be used in the form of bats in Flemish bond. However more mortar is
required.
4) Construction with Flemish bond requires greater skill in comparison to English bond.
Reinforced Brickwork

 Reinforced brick work is the one in which the brick masonry is strengthened by the provision
of mild steel flats, hoop iron, expanded mesh or bars. It uses first class bricks with high
compressive strength. This type of masonry is capable of resisting compressive, tensile and
shear stress. Dense cement mortar is used to embed the reinforcement.
 The reinforcing material may be of:
a) Hoop iron
b) Mild steel bars
c) Mild steel flats
d) Expanded mesh

 The reinforcement can be laid either in horizontal or in vertical direction.

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Horizontal Reinforcement

Horizontal reinforcement for wall consists of either:

1) Wrought iron-flat bars, known as hoop iron
2) Steel mesh

Generally 2 strips of hoop iron are used per header brick and one hoop iron per stretcher brick.
Mild steel flat bars may have width between 22 to 32mm and thickness equal to 0.25 to 1.6mm
protection against rust is provided by dipping the bars in hot tar. At the ends the bars are beaten
flat and then double hooked to bars coming from transverse direction. At the junctions the bars
crossing each other are interlaced and single hooked.

Another form of horizontal which is more commonly used is the provision of steel meshed strips
called Exmet made from their rolled steel plates which are cut and stretched by a machine to
diamond network. Such a strip is known as expanded metal (Exmet). These strips are available in
widths of 65, 178 and 2320-305mm with thickness of 0.6, 0.8, and 1mm. they are supplied in coils
of 83m length. To prevent corrosion the metal in the coil form is coated with oil and then dipped
in asphaltum paint.

Vertical Reinforcement

It is in the form of mild steel bars is provided in brick columns, brick walls and brick retraining
walls. Vertical mild-steel bars are then placed in the holes. These bars are the anchored by steel
plate at some interval. Brick retaining walls are reinforced when the height is upto 3m since work
is cheaper.

The bricks opposite each bar are purpose made, having a groove. The size of the groove is kept
slightly more than the diameter of the bar so that it may be grouted in with cement mortar, to
prevent corrosion.

Reinforced brickwork is adopted in the following circumstances:

1) When the brickwork has to bear tensile or shear stresses.

2) When it is required to increase the longitudinal bond.
3) When the brickwork is supported on soil which is susceptible to large settlement.
4) When it is supported to act as a beam or lintel over openings.
5) When it has to resist lateral loads, such as in retaining walls
6) When it has to carry heavy compressive loads.

Stone Masonry

The building units (commonly known as masonry units) may be stones, bricks or precast blocks,
it is called as Stone Masonry.

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Classification of Stone Masonry

Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction, degree of refinement used in
shaping the stone and finishing adopted, the stone masonry can be classified as follows:
Masonry Rubble Masonry Ashlar Masonry
1) Coursed Rubble 1) Ashlar fine
2) Uncoursed Rubble 2) Ashlar rough tooled
3) Random Rubble 3) Ashlar rock/quarry faced
4) Dry Rubble 4) Ashlar chamfered
5) Polygonal Rubble 5) Ashlar block in course
6) Flint Rubble 6) Ashlar facing

Rubble Masonry
In this type of construction, the stones of irregular size are used. The stones are obtained from
quarry are taken in use in the same form or they are broken and shaped in suitable sizes by means
of hammer as the work proceeds. Since stones of irregular size are used, the masonry will have
wide joints.

The strength of rubble masonry mainly depends on three factors:

1) The quality of mortar.
2) The used of long through stones at frequent intervals.
3) The proper filling of the mortar between the spaces of stones.

Coursed Rubble Masonry

In this heights of stones vary from 50mm to 200mm. the masonry work is carried out in courses
such that the stones in a particular course are of equal heights. This type of masonry is used for
the construction for public buildings, residential buildings etc. The course rubble masonry is
further divide into 3 categories:

a) Coursed rubble masonry I sort: In this type, the stones of the same height are used and the
courses are also of same height.

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b) Coursed rubble masonry II sort: The stones to be used are of different heights. The courses
need not to be of equal heights. Only 2 stones are used to make height of one course.

c) Coursed rubble masonry III sort: The stones are of different heights. The courses need not to
be of equal heights. Only 3 stones are to be used to make up the height of one course.

Composite Masonry

When walls are constructed with two or more types of building materials, it is term as composite
masonry.

The composite masonry is adopted due to following reasons:

a) It reduces overall cost of construction.

b) This makes the structure more durable by providing materials of better quality and good
workmanship in the faces.

c) It improves the appearance of the structure by concealing the inferior work.

d) It makes the used of locally available materials to obtain optimum economy.

Types of Composite Masonry

a) Stone facing with brick backing.

b) Stone slab facing with brick backing.
c) Brick facing with concrete backing.
d) Ashlar facing with brick backing.
e) Ashlar facing with rubble backing.

Stone Facing with Brick Backing

a) In this type of composite masonry, a wall is constructed in brick work and stones are provided
on facing to appear if constructed in stone.

b) It is adopted to improve the appearance of the structure at the lesser cost.

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Stone Slab Facing with Brick Backing

a) In this type of composite masonry a wall is constructed in brick work and stone slab are used in
facing.

b) The stone slab seldom exceed 5 to 10cm in thickness and are properly secured to the brick
backing.

c) The stone may be used natural or artificial.

Brick Facing with Concrete Backing

a) In this type of construction, bricks are used as facing material and concrete as backing.

b) This type of construction is adopted to get the strength of concrete and the aesthetic of bricks.

Ashlar Facing with Brick Backing

a) In this type of composite masonry rough tooled and chamfered stones are provided in facing
while brick work is provided in backing.

b) It is preferable to use the height of ashlar as a multiple of brick thickness plus masonry joints.

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Ashlar Facing with Rubble Backing

a) In this type of composite rough tooled and chamfered stones are provided in facing while
rubble masonry in backing.

b) This may reduce the cost of construction as the rubbles are available at a cheap rate.

Reinforced Brick Masonry

Brick work strengthened by introduction of mild steel flats, hoop iron, expanded mesh or bars is
termed as reinforced brick masonry. This reinforced brick masonry is capable of resisting both
compressive as well as tensile and shear stress. On account of its ability to resist lateral forces,
reinforced brick masonry is extensively used in seismic areas. It is essential to use first class
bricks (having crushing strength of 140 kg/sq. cm or more) and rich and dense cement mortar in
the reinforced brick work. The reinforcement should be effectively bedded and surrounded with
mortar cover of 15 to 25 cm. This is necessary to protect the reinforcement against corrosion.

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Reinforced brick masonry is frequently adopted for the construction of retaining walls especially
in places where exposed brick work is necessary from architectural considerations.

Such a wall is made by using special bricks (having grooves for accommodating reinforcing bars)
in cement mortar 1: 3 and reinforced with vertical MS rounds placed near each face. Horizontal
reinforcement in the form of steel meshed strips are also provided at every third or fourth course.

ARCHES

An arch is a structure which is constructed to span across an opening. It generally consists of

small wedge-shaped units which are joined together with mortar.

Technical Terms
Fig below shows the various elements of a segmental arch:

1) Intrados: This is the inner curve of the arch.

2) Extrados: This is the external curve of an arch.

3) Soffit: This is the inner surface of the arch.

4) Voussoirs: These are the wedge-shaped units forming the courses of an arch.

5) Skewback: This is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment which is so prepared to
receive the arch and from which the arch springs.

6) Crown: This is the highest point on the extrados.

7) Key: This is the wedge-shaped unit at the crown of an arch.

8) Springing points: These are the points from which the curve of an arch springs.

9) Springing line: It is an imaginary line joining the springing points of either end.

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10) Abutment: This is the end support of an arch.

11) Piers: These are the intermediate supports of an arcade.

12) Span: This is the clear horizontal distance between the supports.

13) Rise: This is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the
springing line.

14) Centre: This is the geometrical center of the curve of an arch.

Masonry Arches

An arch is a structure which is constructed to span across an opening. It generally consists of

small wedge-shaped units which are joined together with mortar.

Classification / Types of Arches

They are classified according to:

1) Shape
2) number of centers
3) workmanships and
4) Materials of constructions

Classification of arches according to shapes

Flat arch: The apparent shape of this arch is flat and usually the skewback forms an angle of 60o
with the horizontal. It forms an equilateral triangle with intrados as the base. The intrados is
apparently flat, but it is given a slight rise of camber of about 10 to 15mmper meter width of
opening to allow for small settlements. The extrados is kept horizontal and flat. These are used
only for light loads and for spans upto 1.5m.

Segmental arch: This is the most common type of arch used for buildings. The center of arch lies
below the springing line. The thrust transferred to the abutment is in an inclined direction.

Semi-circular arch: The center of the arch lies on the springing line and the shape of curve of
arch is a semi-circle. As the skewback is horizontal, the thrust transfer red to the abutment is
perfectly in vertical direction.

Horse shoe arch: The arch has the shape of a horse shoe, incorporating more than a semicircle,
such type of arch is provided mainly from architectural considerations.

Pointed or Gothic arch: It consist two arcs of circles meeting at the apex. The triangle formed
may be equilateral or isosceles (Lancet arch).

Venetian arch: This is another form of pointed arch which will have deeper depth at crown than
at springing. It consists 4 centers, all located on springing line.

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Florentine arch: This is similar to Venetian arch except that the intrados is a semicircle. This will
have three centers, all located on the springing line.

Relieving arch: This arch is constructed either on a flat arch or on a wooden lintel to provide
greater strength.

Stilled arch: It consists of a semicircular arch with two vertical portions at the sping.

Classification of arches according to number of centers

The arches are classified as:

1) One centered arch, Ex: Flat, Segmental, Semi-circular, horse shoe and stilled arches
2) Two centered arch, Ex: Pointed arch
3) Three centered arch, Ex: Florentine arch
4) Four centered arch, Ex: Venetian arch
5) Five centered arch

1) One centerd arch: Different types of arches like segmental, semicircular, flat, horseshoe and
stilted arches belongs to this category. The circular windows are used to have an architectural
effect. This perfectly circular arch is called Bull’s Eye Arch.

2) Two-centerd arch: Pointed and semi-elliptical arches comes under this category.

3) Three centered arch: This has three centers. It is in the form of semi-ellipse and Florentine
arch belongs to this category.

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4) Four centered arch: This has four center. It consists of two different curves and has the
appearance of an ellipse at the haunches. The venetine arch belongs to this category

5) Five-centered arch: This has five centers and looks like a semi circular arch.

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Classification of arches according to workmanship

Rough arch: This type of arch is constructed from ordinary uncut bricks. As the bricks are
rectangular in shape the mortar joints become wider at the extrados than at the intrados.

Axed or rough-cut arch: This type of arch is constructed from bricks which are cut to a wedge-
shape by means of an arc. The thickness of mortar joints varies from 3mm to 6mm.

Gauged arch: This type of arch is constructed from bricks which are finely cut by means of a
wire saw. The mortar joints are as thin as 1.50mm to 0.75mm.

Classification of arches according to materials of construction

Stone arches: The arches can be constructed in the rubble masonry or ashlar masonry. The rubble
masonry arch is comparatively weak and hence it is used for inferior type of work.

Brick arches: These arches can be constructed from ordinary bricks or purpose made bricks. The
ordinary bricks are not cut to the shape of voussoirs and hence the rough brick arches are formed.
For getting the arch curve, the joints are made wedge shaped with greater thickness at the extrados
and smaller thickness at the intrados.

Concrete arches: These arches can be constructed of the precast cement concrete blocks or
monolithic concrete. The blocks are similar to stones and are prepared by casting cement concrete
in specially prepared moulds. The monolithic concrete arches are constructed from cast in-situ
concrete and suitable for big spans.

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Lintel
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed over the openings of doors / windows / cub boards
to support the structure over the openings. The function of arch and lintel is same, but lintels are
preferred more because of the simple construction. On the other hand, arches need strong
abutments (walls) to withstand the thrust. Lintels are more stable as they support the load by beam
action and transfer the loads vertically to the walls.

The bearing of the lintel at its end should be either 10 cm (= thickness of one brick) or 4.0 cm for
every 30 cm of span, whichever is greater. The depth of the lintel can be adopted as 1/12th of the
span or 15 cm whichever is greater.

Advantages of lintels
1) They are simple and easy in their construction.
2) They do not provide any unnecessary rise.
3) They are quite strong under normal load.
4) They provide good appearance and simple.
5) They require economical supports as they do not exert lateral thrust.

Types and Classifications of Lintels

They are classified into following types based on material of construction:

1) Wooden lintels
2) Stone lintels
3) Brick lintels
4) Steel lintels
5) RCC lintels
6) Reinforced brick lintels

1) Wooden Lintels
These are oldest type of lintels and presently they are rarely used particularly in hilly areas where
abundant quantity of timber is available. Wooden lintels are very costly, structurally weak and
susceptible for fire / decay.

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Wooden lintels consists of single piece of timber for small spans or two or more pieces of timber
held by bolts for longer spans. They are made of sound wood like, teak, sal, rose wood etc. The
amount of bearing of lintel ends should be adequate (15-20 cm). The depth of the lintel should be
1/12 of the span.

2) Stone Lintels
These are used where stone is available in abundance. They are constructed using stone slabs of
sufficient length without flaws and sometimes more than one piece of slabs are also used.

Stone lintels are not recommended due to - poor tensile strength and cannot withstand transverse
stress. They are not used for spans exceeding one meter - it is very difficult to cut the stone slab of
sufficient length and depth which is free from defects.

3) Brick Lintels
They are constructed with hard, well burnt, first class bricks and are used only when the opening
is small (<1 m). A brick lintel consists of bricks placed on end or edge. It is constructed over a
temporary wood support (centering) known as ‘turning piece’.

Following points are to be considered:

a) first class bricks are to be used
b) the depth of the brick lintels should be multiple of brick course, i.e., 10, 20cm etc.
c) brick having frogs are preferred.
d) It is because the frog filled with mortar form keys between different layers and the shear
resistance of end joints increases and thus increases the strength of brick lintel.
e) Since brick lintel is a weak form of construction, it is suitable for 1 mt span, without heavy
load.

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4) Steel lintels
It consists of rolled steel joists embedded in concrete. They are used for large openings with heavy
loads of solid walls in position such as shop fronts. The steel joists are used singly or in
combination of two or more units. If the units are more than two the tube separators are provided
to keep the joists in position.

5) RCC Lintels
Reinforced Cement Concrete lintels are most commonly used these days because of their
durability, strength and fire resisting properties. The construction of these lintels is somewhat
cheap and easy and used for bigger spans under heavy loading conditions.

They are constructed with a concrete mix of 1:2:4 proportion by volume reinforced with mild steel
bars.

RCC lintels are either pre-cast or cast in-situ. Pre-cast li9ntels are used for small span up to 2 mts,
and proved to be economical as the same mould can be used to construct number of lintels.
Further, the construction is fast and less curing is required. For larger spans cast in situ lintels are
used and the depth of the lintel and the area of reinforcement should be accurately computed.

Depth: 15 cm depth for spans up to 1.2 m and addition of 2.5 cm for every 40 cm spans (next).
Reinforcement: For wall of 10 cm (1 brick), adopt 2 bars, addition of 10 cm thickness, plus 1 bar

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6) Reinforced brick lintels
These are used over large spans and bricks are reinforced with steel bars. The construction
procedure is similar to RCC lintels except that good bricks are used instead of concrete. The
bricks are so arranged in parallel rows 2-4 cm wide space is left longwise for inserting the
reinforcement and filled with cement mortar

SHORING

Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure.

Shoring is done under the following circumstances.

a) when a wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation and the cracks wall needs repairs
b) when an adjacent structure is to be dismantled
c) when a wall shows signs of bulging out due to bad workmanship

Shoring may be of following types:

1) Raking shores
2) Flying shores
3) Dead shores

1) Raking shores: In this method, inclined members called rakers are used to give lateral support
to the wall. A raking shore consists of wall plate, needles, cleats, rakers, bracing and sole plate
as shown in figure. The wall plate is placed against the wall and is secured by means of needles
which penetrate into the wall for a distance of about 150 mm. The wall plate distribute the
pressure evenly. The needles are secured by cleats which are nailed to the wall plate. The
rakers are interconnected by struts or braces or lacings. The feet of rakers are stiffened by
similar braces and / or hoop iron and they are connected with the sole plate by means or iron
dogs.

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2) Flying shores: Such shores are used to give horizontal support to two adjacent, parallel parts
walls which have become unsafe due to removal or collapse of the intermediate building. A
single flying shore consists of wall plate, needles, cleats, struts, straining pieces and folding
wedges. The flying shore should have a depth not les than one-thirtieth of the clear span and
width not less than one-fiftieth of its length.

3) Dead shores: in this arrangement, the horizontal members, known as the needles are supported
by vertical members known as the dead shores. The needles are driven at right angles to the
wall through the holes made in the wall. A dead shore is used when lower part of the wall has
become defective, foundation are to be deepened. Lower part of the wall is to be rebuilt or
reconstructed.

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These shores are provided to serve the following purposes.
a) to rebuild the defective lower part of the wall
b) to rebuild or deepen the existing foundation
c) to make large opening in the existing wall at lower level

UNDERPINNING
The placing of new foundation below on existing foundation or the process of strengthening the
existing foundation is known as underpinning of foundations.

Following are the situations demanding underpinning:

a) a building with deep foundation is to be constructed adjoining to an existing building.
b) settlement of existing foundation has taken place, resulting in serious cracks in the wall.
c) Basement is to be provided to an existing building.
d) The existing foundations are to be depend so as to rest them on a soil of higher bearing
capacity.

Underpinning can be carried out by the following methods:

1) Pit method
2) Pile method

1) Pit method: Wall is divided into different sections. Holes are made in the wall. The needles
with plates are inserted through these holes and supported on jacks. The pit is excavated and
the foundation is taken to required level.

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2) Pile method: In this method piles are driven at regular interval along both the sides of the wall.
The piles are connected by concrete or steel needles. This method is very much useful in clayey
soils and also in water logged areas. The existing foundation is very much relieved of the load.

FLOORS

Floor is the horizontal member of a building structure which divides a building into different
levels for the purpose of creating accommodation within the restricted space. Floor is capable of
supporting the occupants of a building furniture equipment and sometime internal partition.

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The ground floor or basement floors directly rests on the ground. On the other hand the other
floors of each storey above the ground levels are known as the upper floors, which should be
strong so as to withstand the loads which come over the floor.

The materials used for floors are bricks, stones, wood and concrete. Materials used for finishes are
glass, mud, plastic, rubber, tile, bricks, stones, concrete tiles etc.

The following points are considered before making final choice:

a) Durability
b) easy to clean
c) noiseless
d) good appearance
e) free from dampness
f) fire resistance
g) Low maintenance cost and cheap

Types of Flooring (Materials and Method of Laying)

Following are the important types of floorings:

1) Cement concrete flooring

2) Granolithic
3) Mosaic
4) Ceramic
5) Marble
6) Polished granite
7) Industrial flooring

Other types of floorings:

1) Mud and Murrum
2) Bricks
3) Tiles
4) Wood / timber
5) Glass
6) Plastic / PVC

Mosaic
In this type variety of tiles with different colours are used. Also broken tiles of china
glazed/marble/polished stones are also used and arranged in different patterns. A concrete base is
prepared and above this 5-8 cm lime surkhi mortar is spread and leveled. Above this, a layer of
cementing material about 3 mm thick consisting of slaked lime powdered marble and puzzolana
material in the ratio of 2:1:1 is spread. Upon the bed of cement mortar, small piece of broken tiles
(desired shapes) of china glazed / marble are arranged in definite patterns. The surface is gently

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rolled by a light stone roller of 30 cm dia and 40-60 cm long. The surface is allowed to dry for 24
hrs and finally rubbed with a pumice stone and allowed for 2-3 weeks before use.

Marble

This type of flooring is commonly used for superior type of floor construction, where cleanliness
is required like hospitals, places of worships and in public/private building having rich
specification. The size of the marble slabs depends upon the pattern (square, rectangular,
polygonal or varied lengths) and thickness varies from 20-40 mm. A layer of 1:4 cement mortar or
1:1:1 lime mortar (lime putty, surkhi and coarse sand) is spread with a thickness of 20 mm above
sub-grade of concrete. The marble slabs are laid on the bedding mortar, pressed and tapped with
wooden mallet. The joint between the two slabs should be very fine.

Polished Granite

This consists of comparatively thin slabs of polished stones made up on granite, gneisses, dolerite
etc. They are available in square or rectangular slabs of sizes – 300mmx300mm, 450mmx450mm,
600mmx600mm and 450x600mm and bigger even and thickness varies from 20-40 mm. The
stones should be hard, durable and of good quality. They are used for residential / commercial
buildings, hospitals, worship places etc.

Industrial Flooring

The selection of industrial flooring depends on the ‘purpose’ or ‘nature of work’ and hence choice
of material is an important criteria. However, sub base or base course to be maintained as in
concrete flooring. Here, rubber flooring, asphalt flooring are important apart from stone, mosaic
flooring.

Vitrified Flooring

Vitrified tile is basically a non-porous ceramic tile, these tiles are most commonly used for
vitrified flooring as a replacement to marble and granite flooring and are available in a vast
variety of designs and colours. Vitrified tiles are made by hydraulic pressing a mixture of clay,
silica, quartz, and feldspar. Thus creating a Vitrified tile which are hard with low porosity.

Advantages of Vitrified Tiles

1. Vitrified tiles are formed by the process of vitrification, hence it is a very strong and
homogeneous material. Clay is combined with feldspar and quartz, all the materials change to
a molten liquid glass sate and then solidify to make vitrified tiles a very hard material.
2. Vitrified tiles are scratch and stain resistant.
3. These tiles can be used for both indoor and outdoor application. In the indoors they can be
used in residential flooring, wall tiles in kitchens and bathrooms, for outdoors they are highly
suitable in high traffic areas.
4. They have a consistent design, pattern and texture.
5. Vitrified tiles are easy to lay and are easy to maintain.

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 6. Vitrified tiles are stronger than ceramic and porcelain tiles and can be used for high traffic
areas and residential areas.

Disadvantages of Vitrified Tiles

1. They are more expensive than ceramic and porcelain tiles.

2. The tiles should be treated with care other the edges might crack and chipped.

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