1. The term Psycholinguistics was coined in 1936 by Jacob Robert Kantor.

2. Perception of continuous speech is different from our perception of individual words

3. Figurative language is language that literally means one thing but is taken to mean
another.
4. Numerous studies show that meaning predominates in our retention of sentences.
5. For Building Global Structure ,we need to consider what aspect of performance is being.
6. Every conversation has a topic development phase which is framed by opening and
closing phrase.
7. Until the early part of their second year, infants communicate with their world primarily
in nonverbal ways.
8. Pre-operational stage is Toddler and Early Childhood.

Q. Explain Memory (3 marks)

Memory: “process of retaining information over time” What do we remember after one exposure
to a single sentence? e, our memory for sentences is a mixture of the meaning of the sentences,
their wording, and the inferences we draw at the time of comprehension. Numerous studies show
that meaning predominates in our retention of sentences.
Q. Define lexical objects (3 marks)
The basic objects (such as words) described in a lexicon. It is becoming
customary in lexicography and computational linguistics to refer to the lexical sign, i.e. an object
associated with attributes denoting orthogonal kinds of lexical information. A
second kind of lexical object is the lexical sign class or archi-sign in which similar lexical
objects are grouped together, each characterized by subsets of the lexical information
required to characterize specific lexical signs. These class-based generalizations may be
organized in terms of implication rules (redundancy rules), subsumption lattices, type
hierarchies, or default inheritance hierarchies.
Q. There are six semantic networks. Name any three of them. (3 marks )
• Definitional Networks
• Assertional Networks
• Implicational Networks
• Executable Networks
• Learning Networks
• Hybrid Networks
Q. Explain briefly "Propositional Representation"(5 marks)
Propositional representation is the psychological theory, first developed in 1973 by Dr. Zenon
Pylyshyn that mental relationships between objects are represented by symbols and not by
mental images of the scene. A propositional network describing the sentence "John believes that
Anna will pass her exam" is Each circle represents a single proposition, and the connections
between the circles describe a network of propositions. Another example is the sentence "Debby
donated a big amount of money to Greenpeace, an organization which protects the environment",
which contains the propositions "Debby donated money to Greenpeace", "The amount of money
was big" and "Greenpeace protects the environment". If one or more of the propositions is false,
the whole sentence is false
Q. How we can identify "Participants and Non-participants"(5 marks).
During conversations, speakers establish their and others' participant roles (who participates in
the conversation and in what capacity)
• We resort to a variety of strategies when dealing with overhearers, including disclosure,
concealment, and indifference
• We resort to a variety of strategies in private conversations to conceal our meaning from
eavesdroppers, including referring to personal events (for example, the event we talked about
yesterday)
Q. Write down the "Semantic and Syntactic factors in Speech perception"(5 marks)
Context and Speech Recognition
A word isolated from its context becomes less intelligible (Pollack & Pickett, 1964).
Phonemic Restoration
1. It was found that the *eel was on the axle.
2. It was found that the *eel was on the shoe
Mispronunciation detection
1. It has been suggested that students be required to preregister
Overall, Contextual information powerfully influences the perception of individual speech
segments. Our perception of speech segments in continuous speech appears to be an interaction
of various levels of analysis that proceed simultaneously in the course of language processing.

Q. Turn taking

Turn-taking has been described as a process which obtain a distribution of talk across two
participants. The time gap between one person stopping and the other starting being just a few
fractions of a second, yet the co-ordination is achieved with some rapidity and turns are
appropriated in orderly fashion.

Q. Motor theory

The motor theory of speech perception is the hypothesis that people perceive spoken words by
identifying the vocal tract gestures with which they are pronounced rather than by identifying the
sound patterns that speech generates.
• A theory of speech perception based on the notion that perception proceeds ‘‘by reference’’ to
production (Liberman et al., 1967).

 Listeners use implicit articulatory knowledge

• The main rationale for the motor theory is that it deals effectively with the lack of Invariance.

• Teaching students to produce sounds silently aids them in the identification of new sounds.

• The areas responsible for language perception and production are distinct and separate and

• The motor theory would expect a closer neurological link between these functions.

Hence, The motor theory of speech perception claims that we perceive speech sounds by
identifying the intended phonetic gestures that may produce the sounds. In addition, the theory
has implications for neurolinguistics and language acquisition in children.

Q. PROPERTIES of speech error

Common Properties of Speech Error Spontaneous speech errors (slips of the tongue), although
infrequent, reveal planning units in the production of speech. Slips tend to occur in highly
regular patterns.

• Elements that interact with one another tend to come from similar linguistic environments

 the little burst of beaden (beast of burden)

 you’re not a poojin pitterdowner, are you? (Pigeon putterdowner)
 children interfere with your nife lite (night life).

Second, elements that interact with one another tend to be similar to one another. Sesame Street
crackers (sesame seed crackers)

Third, even when slips produce novel linguistic items, they are generally consistent with the
phonological rules of the language

Finally, speech errors reveal consistent stress patterns.

To sum up , with regard to common properties, speech errors are hardly random; in fact, they
occur in highly regular patterns. Elements of interaction and consistency of phonological rules
with linguistic items are the main features of the properties.

Q. Example of metaphor

 Metaphors are not creative expressions but rather instantiations of underlying conceptual
metaphors.
 Metaphors are accessed quickly because they instantiate conceptual metaphors
Hence, the evidence to date does not support the pragmatic theory that we comprehend figurative
language by first considering and then rejecting the literal meaning. The conceptual theory
appears best equipped to explain instances in which we automatically access figurative meaning.

Q. Grammatical concept of children

Lexical development refers to changes that occur in vocabulary knowledge over childhood, and
how children of different ages assign meanings to words, and how these meanings change in
response to various experiences.

Children’s acquisition of the sound system of their language does not occur in isolation of the
communicative processes rather, children come to the task of learning phonology with some
knowledge of how to communicate in nonverbal ways.

Children acquire grammatical morphemes gradually, over a period of years. During this time,
their sentences get longer and more complex. Some of the changes in sentence length reflect the
fact that children are now able to express agent, action, and object in a single sentence.

Children acquire grammatical morphemes gradually throughout the preschool years. Complex
syntactic constructions such as negatives, questions, and relative clauses are also developed
during the preschool years.

Q. Give your concept about linguistic productivity in 3 4 lines

Ability to create and comprehend novel utterances. We produce new sentences always in terms
of referents and often in terms of forms. We store rules for creating sentences instead of storing
sentences. Hence , Four basic grammatical concepts are duality of patterning, morphology,
phrase structure, and linguistic productivity.

Q. Lexical access

How language users recognize a lexical item’s meaning is an important concept. Thus the

models of lexical access attempt to explain how individuals access words and their related

meanings in our minds. There are two major classes of models that detail how lexical entries are

retrieved during reading and listening tasks. The first type of model is known as serial search

models, whereas the second type are parallel access models.

Q. Working memory

Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily
holding information available for processing. Individual differences in working memory might
influence how we comprehend discourse.
• The limited resources of working memory are allocated to processing certain tasks as well as to
temporarily storing the results of these tasks.

• Daneman and carpenter developed a complex reading span task to examine trade-off position
of tasks.

• They found a significant correlation between reading span and reading comprehension

• Individuals with smaller reading spans had smaller working memory capacity.

Q. Role of agreement in linguistics planning:

Agreement happens when a word changes form depending on the other words to which it relates.
For example, in Standard English , one may say I am or he is, but not "I is" or "he am". This is
because the grammar of the language requires that the verb and its subject agree in person.

Bock and Cutting (1992) examined agreement errors as a function of the material that intervened
between the head noun and the verb.

The report of the destructive fires were accurate. (16) The report that they controlled the fires
were printed in the paper.

Agreement poses a problem for most current production models . e.g. “The largest of them is
red”

There are nouns that do not carry the plural morpheme but nonetheless agree with the plural
forms of verbs e.g. “the personnel are very busy this time of year”.

Eberhard et al. (2005) state “Agreement is not only syntactic, not only semantic, and not only
pragmatic, but all of these things at once’’ (p. 531).

So, the Agreement means that sentence parts match. Subjects must agree with verbs, and
pronouns must agree with antecedents. Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects
need plural verbs.

Q. Transformation grammar

Transformational grammar was an influential theory of grammar formulated by Chomsky in the

late 1950s (Chomsky, 1957, 1965). Language and Grammar From a linguistic perspective, a
grammar is a description of a person’s linguistic knowledge. Grammar: A formal device with a
finite set of rules that generates the sentences in the language.

Q. Editing process intervene between planning of Utterances of its articulation:

In addition to the stages of planning, evidence indicates that editing processes intervene between
the planning of an utterance and its articulation. These editing operations might provide a last
check to determine whether the planned utterance is linguistically and socially acceptable.

• Laboratory-induced speech errors

• Phonological bias technique

• ball doze

• bash door

Lexical bias effect

• big dutch

• bang doll

Results suggest that during speech we sometimes develop more than a single speech plan and
that when this occurs the two plans may compete for production which is why certain types of
errors may be understood as evidence of an editing process

Q. Three TYPES of psycholinguistic

• Developmental psycholinguistics

• Social psycholinguistics

• Educational psycholinguistics

• Neuro-psycholinguistics

• Experimental psycholinguistics

• Applied psycholinguistics

Q. define term pre linguistic

Children’s construction of language emerges from their understanding of communication prior to

language. Their comprehension and production of gestures reveal a basic understanding of
communication processes.

Development of Communicative Intent: The major criteria to reveal intent (1) waiting, (2)
persistence, and (3) development of alternative plans.

At about 8 months of age, infants become more purposeful in their behavior

 Beginning of Intentional Communication: two communicative acts: assertions (or
declaratives), the use of an object as a means of obtaining adult attention; and requests (or
imperatives), the use of adults as means to an object.

Q. scope of psycholinguistic:

 Psycholinguistics is a part of the emerging field of study called cognitive science.

• It is concerned with the relationship between the human mind and the language

• It is interested in the ways of storing lexical items and syntactic rules in mind

• It is also interested in the processes of memory involved in perception and interpretation of

texts

Q. propositional representation short note

Speakers in all languages possess abstract concepts about the sounds they articulate. In other
words, they believe that they have an accurate awareness of speech sounds that they utter.
Typically, though, there is a discrepancy between speakers’ own ideas about the sounds in their
language use, and what they are actually articulating in practice. The underlying representation
(UR) refers to speakers’ abstract concepts of their phones (language sounds), and the surface
form (SF) refers the phones that are actually produced.

This does not at all stand to mean that UR somehow ‘does not exist’, nor does it entail that UR is
an ‘incorrect’ version of SF. To clarify, the UR does exist, and it is ‘correct’ at the abstract level.
The SF is what ‘surfaces’ in speech after the UR has been modified by underging a phonological
process. Surface forms are a net result of one or more of phonological processes that occur
systematically during the last stage of language production. Phonological processes (e.g.
substitution, assimilation, epenthesis) cause the alternation of phonemes based phonological
environments in which they are found. Environments can exist within morphemes, syllables of
word segments; they can also be phrasal and exist across word boundaries when phonological
processes such as vowel harmony are at play.

Q. psycholinguistic cover three main point explain by Clark& Clark

1. Comprehension: How people understand spoken and written language

a. Imitation

b. Conditioning

c. Social cognition

2. Speech production: How people produce language

 Spoken words are selected to be produced, have their phonetics formulated and then finally
are articulated by the motor system in the vocal apparatus

3. Language Acquisition: How people learn language

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and
comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.

Q. identifying participants and nonparticipants explain:

During conversations, speakers establish their and others' participant roles (who participates in
the conversation and in what capacity)

• We resort to a variety of strategies when dealing with overhearers, including disclosure,

concealment, and indifference

• We resort to a variety of strategies in private conversations to conceal our meaning from

eavesdroppers, including referring to personal events (for example, the event we talked about
yesterday)

Conversations often take place in a context in which various types of nonparticipants are also
present.

The roles of the participants during social interaction are particularly important for understanding
spoken discourse .While these roles might be fixed in some social settings (e.g. lectures), most
conversational settings allow for shifting of roles.