Power System

Protection and Relaying

This textbook provides an excellent focus on the advanced topics of the power
system protection philosophy and gives exciting analysis methods and a cover of
the important applications in the power systems relaying. Each chapter opens with
a historical pro le or career talk, followed by an introduction that states the chapter
objectives and links the chapter to the previous ones, and then the introduction for
each chapter. All principles are presented in a lucid, logical, step-by-step approach.
As much as possible, the authors avoid wordiness and detail overload that could hide
concepts and impede understanding. In each chapter, the authors present some of the
solved examples and applications using a computer program.
Toward the end of each chapter, the authors discuss some application aspects of
the concepts covered in the chapter using a computer program.
In recognition of requirements by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology (ABET) on integrating computer tools, the use of SCADA technology is
encouraged in a student-friendly manner. SCADA technology using the Lucas-Nülle
GmbH system is introduced and applied gradually throughout the book.
Practice problems immediately follow each illustrative example. Students can follow
the example step by step to solve the practice problems without ipping pages or looking
at the book’s end for answers. These practice problems test students’ comprehension and
reinforce key concepts before moving on to the next section.
Power System Protection and Relaying: Computer-Aided Design Using SCADA
Technology is intended for senior-level undergraduate students in electrical and
computer engineering departments and is appropriate for graduate students, indus-
try professionals, researchers, and academics.
This book has more than ten categories and millions of power readers. It can
be used in more than 400 electrical engineering departments at top universities
worldwide.
Based on this information, targeted lists of the engineers from speci c disciplines
include the following:

• Electrical, computer, power control, technical power system, protection,

design, and distribution engineers

Designed for a three-hour semester course on “power system protection and

relaying,” the prerequisite for a course based on this book is knowledge of standard
mathematics, including calculus and complex numbers.
Power System Protection
and Relaying
Computer-Aided Design Using
SCADA Technology

Samir I. Abood and John Fuller

First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
2385 Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton, FL 33431

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Samir I. Abood and John Fuller

Reasonable e orts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
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ISBN: 9781032495507 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781032495521 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003394389 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
 Dedicated to my great parents who never stop giving of
themselves in countless ways; my beloved brothers and sisters;
my dearest wife, who leads me through the valley of darkness
with the light of hope and support; and my beloved kids Daniah
and Mustafa, whom I can’t force myself to stop loving.
Samir I. Abood
Dedicated to my family and especially to my wife Sherylle,
who has been beside me in reaching this point in life,
and highest regards to my mother, Bernice Fuller, who
sacri ced so that this period in time is a reality.
John Fuller
Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................xix
Authors ....................................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Power Protection Systems ........................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 1
1.2 Philosophy of Power System Protection .................................... 1
1.3 Effects of Faults .........................................................................2
1.4 Performance Requirements of Protection System .....................3
1.5 Basic Protection Scheme Components ...................................... 5
1.6 Protective Relay .........................................................................6
1.7 Transducers ................................................................................ 6
1.7.1 Current Transformer.....................................................6
1.7.1.1 IEC Standard Accuracy Classes ................... 7
1.7.2 Voltage Transformer .....................................................9
1.7.3 Magnetic Voltage Transformer (VT) ........................... 9
1.7.4 Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVT)...................... 9
1.8 Relay Connection to the Primary System ............................... 14
1.9 CT Error .................................................................................. 14
1.10 Protective Zones ...................................................................... 18
1.10.1 Backup Protection ...................................................... 18
1.10.2 Selectivity and Zones of Protection Selectivity ......... 18
1.11 R–X Diagram ........................................................................... 21
Problems .............................................................................................24

Chapter 2 Protective Relays ................................................................................ 29

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 29
2.2 Data Required for the Relay Setting........................................ 29
2.3 Class of Measuring Relays ......................................................30
2.4 Basic De nitions and Standard Device Numbers ...................30
2.4.1 De nitions of Terms ...................................................30
2.4.2 Devices Numbers ....................................................... 31
2.5 Classi cation of Relays............................................................ 32
2.6 Types of Relays ........................................................................ 33
2.6.1 Electromagnetic Relays ..............................................34
2.6.1.1 Electromechanical Relays...........................34
2.6.1.2 Magnetic Induction Relays .........................34
2.6.1.3 Magnetic Attraction Relays ........................ 38
2.7 Comparator Relays .................................................................. 42
2.7.1 Generalized Amplitude Comparator .......................... 43

vii
viii Contents

2.8 Advantages of Electromechanical Relays ...............................44

2.9 Solid-State Relays ....................................................................44
2.9.1 Solid-State Relay Principle of Operation ...................44
2.10 Computerized Relay ................................................................ 47
2.10.1 Digital Relays ............................................................. 47
2.10.2 Digital Relays Operation ............................................ 47
2.10.3 Signal Path for Microprocessor Relays ...................... 47
2.10.4 Digital Relay Construction .........................................48
2.10.5 Advantages of Digital Relays ..................................... 49
2.11 Numerical Relays..................................................................... 50
2.11.1 Numerical Measurement Treatment ........................... 50
2.11.2 Advantages of Numerical Technology ....................... 50
2.12 Electromagnetic vs. Computerized ......................................... 50
Problems ............................................................................................. 51

Chapter 3 Protection Systems with SCADA Technology ................................... 53

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 53
3.2 Background.............................................................................. 53
3.2.1 Bene ts and Drawbacks .............................................54
3.2.2 Applications................................................................54
3.2.3 Challenges .................................................................. 55
3.3 SCADA System and Its Levels ................................................ 55
3.4 Basic Functions of the SCADA Systems ................................. 56
3.4.1 Remote Supervision ................................................... 56
3.4.2 Remote Control of the Process ................................... 56
3.4.3 Graphics Trends Presentation..................................... 56
3.4.4 Alarm Presentations ................................................... 56
3.4.5 Storage of Historical Information .............................. 56
3.4.5.1 Field Instrumentation.................................. 56
3.4.5.2 PLCs and RTUs .......................................... 57
3.4.5.3 Remote Communications Networks ........... 57
3.4.5.4 SCADA Host Software ............................... 58
3.5 SCADA Architecture Development ........................................60
3.6 Security.................................................................................... 61
3.7 Future Implementations ........................................................... 62
3.8 Hardware Devices ................................................................... 62

Chapter 4 Faults Analysis ................................................................................... 75

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 75
4.2 Fault Concept ........................................................................... 75
4.3 Types of Faults ......................................................................... 77
4.4 Symmetrical Fault Analysis .................................................... 78
4.4.1 Simpli ed Models of Synchronous Machines for
Transient Analysis ...................................................... 79
Contents ix

4.4.2 Transient Phenomena ................................................. 82

4.4.3 Three-Phase Short-Circuit Unloaded
Synchronous Machine ................................................84
4.4.4 Effect of Load Current ...............................................90
4.5 Unsymmetrical Faults Analysis............................................... 91
4.6 Symmetrical Components .......................................................92
4.6.1 Positive-Sequence Components .................................92
4.6.2 Negative-Sequence Components ................................92
4.6.3 Zero-Sequence Components ......................................92
4.7 Effect of Symmetrical Components on Impedance ................94
4.8 Phase Shift ∆/Y Connection ∆/Y ............................................94
4.9 Sequence Network of Unloaded Generator ............................. 95
4.9.1 Positive-Sequence Network ........................................96
4.9.2 Negative-Sequence Network ......................................96
4.9.3 Zero Sequence ............................................................97
4.10 Analysis of Unsymmetrical Faults Using the Method of
Symmetrical Component ......................................................... 98
4.10.1 Single Line-to-Ground Fault .................................... 100
4.10.2 Line-to-Line Fault .................................................... 101
4.10.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault .................................. 104
4.11 Fault Classi cation ................................................................ 106
4.12 Assumptions and Simpli cations .......................................... 106
4.13 Fault Voltage-Amps ............................................................... 107
4.14 Fault Analysis by the SCADA System .................................. 109
4.15 Measurement of Zero-Sequence Impedance ......................... 110
4.16 Symmetric (Three-Pole) Short Circuit .................................. 111
4.17 Asymmetric Short Circuits .................................................... 112
4.17.1 Single-Pole Short Circuit (Earth Fault) .................... 112
4.17.2 Two-Pole Short Circuit with Earth Fault.................. 113
4.17.3 Two-Pole Short Circuit without Earth Fault............. 114
4.18 Earth Faults and Their Compensation ................................... 115
4.18.1 Earth-Fault Compensation ....................................... 115
4.18.2 Earth Fault with an Isolated Neutral Point ............... 115
4.19 Overcurrent Time Protection ................................................. 116
Problems ........................................................................................... 119

Chapter 5 Fuses and Circuit Breakers............................................................... 123

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 123
5.2 Load and Fuse Current .......................................................... 123
5.3 Fuses, Sectionalizes, Reclosers ............................................. 126
5.4 ELCB, MCB, and MCCB...................................................... 128
5.4.1 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)................... 128
5.4.2 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)............................ 129
5.4.3 Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) .................... 129
5.5 Construction and Working of a Fuse ..................................... 129
x Contents

5.6 Characteristics of a Fuse ....................................................... 130

5.6.1 Fuse Current-Carrying Capacity .............................. 130
5.6.2 Breaking Capacity .................................................... 130
5.6.3 Rated Voltage of Fuse .............................................. 131
5.6.4 I2t Value of Fuse ....................................................... 131
5.6.5 Response Characteristic of a Fuse............................ 133
5.7 Classi cation of Fuses ........................................................... 133
5.8 Types of Fuses ....................................................................... 133
5.8.1 DC Fuses .................................................................. 134
5.8.2 AC Fuses .................................................................. 134
5.9 Cartridge Fuses...................................................................... 135
5.10 D–Type Cartridge Fuse ......................................................... 135
5.11 HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) Fuse or Link-Type
Cartridge Fuse ....................................................................... 136
5.12 HV Fuses ............................................................................... 136
5.13 Automotive, Blade Type, and Fuses of Bolted Type ............. 136
5.14 SMD Fuses (Surface Mount Fuse), Chip, Radial, and
Lead Fuses ............................................................................. 137
5.15 Fuse Characteristics............................................................... 138
5.15.1 Fuse Type ................................................................. 138
5.15.2 Rated Currents and Voltages .................................... 139
5.15.3 Conventional Non-Fusing and Fusing Currents ....... 139
5.15.4 Operating Zone ........................................................ 139
5.15.5 Breaking Capacity .................................................... 139
5.15.6 Selectivity ................................................................. 140
5.16 Rewireable Fuses ................................................................... 140
5.17 Thermal Fuses ....................................................................... 140
5.18 Resettable Fuses .................................................................... 140
5.19 Uses and Applications of Fuses ............................................. 141
5.20 HV Circuit Breakers .............................................................. 148
5.20.1 Oil Circuit Breakers ................................................. 148
5.20.1.1 Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB) ............ 149
5.20.1.2 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB) ... 150
5.20.2 SF6 Circuit Breakers ................................................ 151
5.20.2.1 Disadvantages ........................................... 152
5.20.2.2 Applications .............................................. 152
5.20.3 Vacuum Circuit Breakers ......................................... 152
5.20.3.1 VCB Circuit Breaker Components ........... 153
5.20.4 Air-Blast Circuit Breakers ........................................ 153
5.20.4.1 Types of Air-Blast Circuit Breakers ......... 154
5.21 Directional Overcurrent Time Protection ............................. 155
5.22 Testing Direction Recognition............................................... 157
Problems ........................................................................................... 158

Chapter 6 Overcurrent Relay ............................................................................ 161

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 161
Contents xi

6.2 Overcurrent Relay.................................................................. 161

6.2.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay ............................. 162
6.2.2 De nite Time Overcurrent Relay ............................. 162
6.2.2.1 Application................................................ 162
6.2.2.2 The Drawback of the Relay ...................... 163
6.2.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay .............................. 163
6.2.4 IDMT Relay ............................................................. 163
6.2.5 Very Inverse Relay ................................................... 164
6.2.5.1 Application of the Very Inverse Relay ...... 165
6.2.6 Extremely Inverse Relay........................................... 165
6.2.7 Directional Overcurrent ........................................... 165
6.3 Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Multiplier
Setting (TMS) ........................................................................ 168
6.4 Standard Formula for Overcurrent Relay .............................. 169
6.5 Relay Coordination ................................................................ 178
6.5.1 Primary and Backup Protection ............................... 178
6.5.2 Method of Relay Coordination ................................. 178
6.5.2.1 Discrimination by Time............................ 178
6.5.2.2 Discrimination by Current........................ 179
6.5.2.3 Discrimination by Both Time and
Current ...................................................... 180
6.6 Requirements for Proper Relay Coordination ....................... 184
6.7 Hardware and Software for Overcurrent Relays ................... 188
6.8 Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection............................. 189
6.8.1 Undervoltage Test ..................................................... 189
6.8.2 Overvoltage Test ....................................................... 189
6.8.3 Hysteresis Test .......................................................... 190
6.9 Directional Power Protection ................................................ 192
6.10 Testing Forward and Reverse Power ..................................... 193
6.10.1 Test of Forward Power.............................................. 193
6.10.2 Test of Reverse Power .............................................. 194
Problems ........................................................................................... 194

Chapter 7 Transmission Line Protection........................................................... 199

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 199
7.2 Distance Relay ....................................................................... 199
7.3 Setting of Distance Relay ...................................................... 201
7.4 Drawback of Distance Relay .................................................202
7.5 Parallel Ring Mains ...............................................................202
7.6 Impedance, Reactance, and MHO Relay .............................. 203
7.6.1 Impedance Relay Protection Setting Diagram .........204
7.6.2 Reactance Relay Protection Setting Diagram ..........204
7.6.3 MHO Relay Protection Setting Diagram .................206
7.7 Fundamentals of Differential Protection Systems................. 221
7.8 Directional Overcurrent Relay .............................................. 222
7.9 Direction or Phase of the Fault Current ................................ 222
xii Contents

7.10 Protection of Parallel Lines (Parallel Operation) .................. 223

7.11 Minimum Pick-Up Value.......................................................224
7.12 Parametrizing Non-Directional Relays ................................. 227
7.13 Time Overcurrent Relays....................................................... 227
7.14 Directional Time Overcurrent Relays ................................... 227
7.15 High-Speed Distance Protection ........................................... 228
7.16 Further Settings ..................................................................... 229
7.16.1 Characteristic Data ................................................... 230
Problems ........................................................................................... 232

Chapter 8 Transformer Protection .................................................................... 235

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 235
8.2 Transformer Functions .......................................................... 235
8.2.1 Transformer Size ...................................................... 235
8.2.2 Location and Function .............................................. 236
8.2.3 Voltage ...................................................................... 236
8.2.4 Connection and Design ............................................ 236
8.3 Faults on Power Transformer................................................. 237
8.4 Main Types of Transformer Protection ................................. 237
8.4.1 Percentage Differential Protection ........................... 237
8.4.2 Overcurrent Protection ............................................. 241
8.4.2.1 Protection with Fuses................................ 242
8.4.2.2 Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays ............... 242
8.4.2.3 Instantaneous Relays ................................ 242
8.4.3 Earth Fault and Restricted Earth Fault
Protection ................................................................. 243
8.4.4 Buchholz Relay.........................................................244
8.4.4.1 Principle of Operation ..............................244
8.4.5 Oil Pressure Relief Devices...................................... 245
8.4.6 Oil Temperature (F49) .............................................. 245
8.4.7 Winding Temperature (F49) .....................................246
8.5 Voltage Balance Relay ........................................................... 247
8.6 Transformer Magnetizing In-rush ......................................... 247
8.6.1 The Magnitude of Magnetizing In-rush Current .....248
8.6.2 Harmonics of Magnetizing In-rush Current ............ 250
8.7 Modeling of Power Transformer Differential Protection ...... 258
8.7.1 Differential Protection Dif culties .......................... 258
8.7.1.1 In-rush Current During Initial
Energization .............................................. 258
8.7.1.2 False Trip Due to CT Characteristics ....... 259
8.7.1.3 False Trip Due to Tap Changer ................. 259
8.8 Percentage Differential Relay Modeling ...............................260
8.9 Phasor Model ......................................................................... 263
8.10 Three-Phase to Ground Fault at the Loaded Transformer .... 265
8.11 Magnetizing In-rush Current................................................. 269
Contents xiii

8.12 Three Phases to Ground Fault at the Loaded Transformer ... 269
8.13 Phase-to-Ground External Fault at the Loaded
Transformer ........................................................................... 270
8.14 Two-Phase-to-Ground Fault at the Loaded Transformer ...... 271
Problems ........................................................................................... 271

Chapter 9 Generator, Motor, and Busbar Protection ........................................ 273

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 273
9.2 Generator Fault Types ........................................................... 273
9.2.1 Rotor Protection ....................................................... 275
9.2.2 Unbalanced Loading ................................................ 275
9.2.3 Overload Protection .................................................. 276
9.2.4 Overspeed Protection ............................................... 276
9.2.5 Overvoltage Protection ............................................. 276
9.2.6 Failure or Prime-Mover............................................ 276
9.2.7 Loss of Excitation .....................................................277
9.2.7.1 Recommended Settings ............................ 277
9.3 Effects of Generator Bus Faults............................................. 278
9.4 Internal Faults ........................................................................ 278
9.4.1 Differential Protection (Phase Faults) ...................... 278
9.4.2 Differential Protection (Ground Faults) ................... 281
9.4.3 Field Grounds ........................................................... 281
9.4.4 Phase Fault Backup Protection .................................282
9.4.5 The 95% Stator Earth Fault Protection (64G1) ........ 282
9.4.6 The 100% Stator Earth Fault Protection (64G2) ...... 282
9.4.7 Voltage Restrained Overcurrent Protection
(51/27 G) ................................................................... 283
9.4.8 Low Forward Power Relay (37G) .............................283
9.4.9 Reverse Power Relay (32G) ...................................... 283
9.4.10 Generator Under Frequency Protection (81 G) ........ 283
9.4.11 Generator Overvoltage Protection (59 G).................284
9.5 Typical Relay Settings ........................................................... 289
9.6 Motor Protection.................................................................... 289
9.6.1 Typical Protective Settings for Motors ..................... 291
9.6.2 Motor Protective Device .......................................... 291
9.6.3 Motor Protection by Fuses ....................................... 292
9.7 Bus Bars Protection ............................................................... 293
9.7.1 Bus Protection Schemes ........................................... 293
9.7.2 Bus Differential Relaying Schemes.......................... 294
9.7.2.1 Basic Differential System .........................294
9.7.2.2 Bus Differential Protection with
Overcurrent Relays ................................... 295
9.7.2.3 Bus Protection with Percentage
Differential Relays .................................... 295
xiv Contents

9.7.2.4 Bus High-Impedance Voltage

Differential Protection ..............................300
9.7.2.5 Bus Partial Differential Protection ...........300
Problems ........................................................................................... 301

Chapter 10 High-Impedance Faults .................................................................... 305

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 305
10.2 Characteristics of HIFs .......................................................... 305
10.3 HIF’s Detection .....................................................................306
10.3.1 Feature Extraction ....................................................306
10.3.2 Pattern Recognition (Classi cation) .........................307
10.4 Power Distribution Network ..................................................307
10.5 Source Model.........................................................................309
10.6 Power Transformer Model .....................................................309
10.7 Line Model ............................................................................ 310
10.8 Load Model ........................................................................... 311
10.9 Shunt Capacitor Model .......................................................... 312
10.10 Nonlinear Load Model .......................................................... 314
10.11 Induction Motor Model ......................................................... 317
10.12 Fault Model ............................................................................ 318
10.12.1 Symmetrical Fault Model ........................................ 318
10.12.2 Line-to-Ground Fault Model ................................... 319
10.12.3 Line-to-Line Fault Model ........................................ 321
10.13 Procedural Events Modeling and Techniques ....................... 322
10.14 The Fourier Transform .......................................................... 323
Problems ........................................................................................... 324

Chapter 11 Grounding of Power System............................................................. 325

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 325
11.2 The Concept of Grounding .................................................... 325
11.3 Purposes of System Grounding ............................................. 326
11.4 Methods of System-Neutral Grounding ................................ 328
11.4.1 Ungrounded System ................................................. 329
11.4.2 Methods of System-Neutral Grounding ................... 330
11.4.3 Reactance Grounding ............................................... 332
11.5 Equivalent-Circuit Representation of Grounding Systems ... 335
11.6 Touch and Step Voltages........................................................ 338
11.7 Typical Inspection ................................................................. 341
11.8 Grounding Electrodes ............................................................ 342
11.9 Grounding Veri cation Control System ................................ 342
11.10 Soil Measurements ................................................................344
11.10.1 The Soil Model ........................................................344
11.10.2 Soil Characteristics .................................................. 345
11.10.3 Wenner Method .......................................................346
11.10.4 Driven Rod Technique ............................................. 347
Contents xv

11.11 Resistance of Grounding Systems ......................................... 349

11.12 Types of the Electrode Grounding System ............................ 350
11.12.1 Hemispherical Electrode Hidden in Globe .............. 351
11.12.2 Two Hemispheres Inserted in Earth ......................... 353
11.12.3 Other Simple Grounding Systems ........................... 354
11.13 Measurement of Ground Electrode Resistance ..................... 356
11.13.1 Three-Electrode Method .......................................... 356
11.13.2 Show Up of Potential Method ................................. 358
11.13.3 Theory of the Fall of Potential ................................. 358
11.13.4 Hemispherical Electrodes ........................................360
11.13.4.1 General Case ........................................... 361
11.13.5 Electrical Center Method ......................................... 361
Problems ........................................................................................... 362

Appendix A: Relay and Circuit Breaker Applications ..................................... 365

Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 375
Index ...................................................................................................................... 381
Preface
The protection is the electric power engineering branch that deals with equipment
design and operation (called “relays” or “protective relays”) that detects abnormal
conditions of the power system and initiates corrective action as quickly as pos-
sible to bring the power system back to its normal state. A key aspect of protective
relaying systems is the rapid response, often requiring a few milliseconds response
times in order. Consequently, human interference in the operation of the defensive
mechanism is not feasible. The response must be automated and swift and trigger
minimal power system disruption. These general criteria rule the whole subject:
accurate diagnosis of trouble, speed of response, and minimal disruption to the
power system. We need to analyze all potential faults or irregular conditions in the
power system to achieve these objectives.
This book aims to provide a good understanding of the power system’s protection
and its applications and optimization. This book begins with the study of the concept
of protection and relays. It then presents their applications in the different types of
con gurations shown in lucid detail. It optimizes the protective scheme’s location
in power and uses the power electronics devices installed to protect the power sys-
tem. This book is intended for college students, both in community colleges and
universities. This book is also intended for researchers, technicians, technology, and
skills specialists in power and control systems. This book presents the relationship
between the power system’s quantities and their protection and management. This
book’s major goal is to brie y introduce protecting the power system covered in
two semesters. This book is appropriate for juniors, senior undergraduate students,
graduate students, industry professionals, researchers, and academics.
This book is organized into 12 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the philosophy of
power system protection and the effect of faults on the protection system’s power
systems and performance requirements. The relay connection to the power system
and protective zones is also introduced in this chapter.
Chapter 2 concerns some aspects of data required for the relay setting and relay
types; it also discusses the digital relay operation, signal path for microprocessor
relays, and digital relay construction.
In recognition of requirements by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology (ABET) on integrating computer tools, using Lucas-Nülle SCADA soft-
ware is encouraged in a student-friendly manner. The reader does not need to have
previous knowledge of SCADA. The material of this text can be learned without
SCADA. However, the authors highly recommend that the reader studies this mate-
rial in conjunction with the SCADA system. Chapter 3 provides a practical introduc-
tion to SCADA technology.
Chapter 4 deals with fault analysis, rst, introduction to the faults in power sys-
tems, transient phenomena, and three-phase short circuit – an unloaded synchronous
machine. Second, the short circuit theory consists of balanced and unbalanced fault
calculation in general and conventional methods for small systems. These fault types
involve single line-to-ground faults, line-to-line faults, and double line-to-ground

xvii
xviii Preface

faults. The last three unsymmetrical fault studies will require the knowledge and use
of tools of symmetrical components. This chapter also deals with network models,
shunt elements, fault analysis, and algorithms for short-circuit studies.
The description of fuses and circuit breakers, their types, and their speci cations
are discussed in Chapter 5. This chapter includes an introduction to the construc-
tion and working of a fuse, its characteristics, and its applications. It also discusses
high-voltage circuit breakers. A directional overcurrent time protection design using
Lucas-Nülle GmbH power system/SCADA network devices is explained.
Chapter 6 presents the overcurrent relay, PSM, time grading, and relay coordina-
tion method; this chapter also discusses requirements for proper relay coordination
and hardware and software for overcurrent relays. Overvoltage and undervoltage
protection using Lucas-Nülle GmbH power system/SCADA network devices is
explained. Also, the directional power protection system using SCADA technology
is discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 7 describes the preceding transmission lines protection, distance relay as
impedance, reactance, and MHO relay. The fundamentals of differential protection
systems used to protect transmission lines are also discussed. Protection of parallel
lines (parallel operation) and parametrizing non-directional relays using the SCADA
system are discussed. Directional time overcurrent relays and high-speed distance
protection using SCADA technology are explained in this chapter.
Chapter 8 presents transformer protection, types, connection, and mathematical
models for each type of device. Overcurrent relays, differential relays, and pressure
relays may secure the transformer and be controlled with winding temperature mea-
surements, and chemical analysis of the gas above the insulating oil for incipient
trouble is discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 9 deals with generator protection and generator fault types. It also pres-
ents motor and busbar protection. This chapter brie y discusses the types of internal
faults and various abnormal operating and system conditions. Additional protective
schemes, such as overvoltage, out of step, and synchronization, should also be con-
sidered depending on the generator’s cost and relative importance.
Chapter 10 presents the concept of feeder con guration, HIF modeling, nonlinear
load modeling, and capacitor modeling. The three test case systems’ designs and data
are presented in this chapter. Also, the technique validation and algorithm veri ca-
tion are presented in this chapter.
Finally, descriptions about earthing in the power system, types, and speci ca-
tions are discussed in Chapter 11. Also, it includes analysis procedures of electric
power system grounding. Besides, it identi es techniques that can be applied to eval-
uate substation grounding systems (as well as indication line towers grounding). It
also presents soil resistivity measurement methods; two measurement methods are
de ned: the three-limit method and the four-limit method.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Prairie View A&M University for providing a platform
where faculty, administrators, PhD students, and private and governmental entities can
contribute to a book that will be used in the education of future power engineers and for
providing a resource to contribute to advancing the knowledge of power systems and
continuing the technical foundation building for the production of future engineers.
It is our pleasure to acknowledge the outstanding help and support of the team at
CRC Press in preparing this book, especially from Nora Konopka and Prachi Mishra.
The authors appreciate the suggestions and comments from several reviewers,
including Professor Zainab Ibrahim, Electrical Engineering Department, University
of Baghdad, and Dr. Muna Fayyadh, American InterContinental University. Their
frank and positive criticisms improved this work considerably.
Finally, we express our profound gratitude to our families, without whose coop-
eration this project would have been dif cult, if not impossible. We appreciate feed-
back from professors and other users of this book. We can be reached at siabood@
pvamu.edu and [email protected].

xix
Authors
Samir I. Abood received his BS and MS from the University of Technology,
Baghdad, Iraq, in 1996 and 2001, respectively. He earned his PhD in the Electrical
and Computer Engineering from Prairie View A&M University. From 1997 to 2001,
he worked as an engineer at the University of Technology. From 2001 to 2003, he
was a professor at the University of Baghdad and Al-Nahrain University. From 2003
to 2016, he was a Middle Technical University/Baghdad-Iraq professor. He is an
electrical and computer engineering professor at Prairie View A&M University in
Prairie View. He is the author of 30 papers and 12 books. His main research interests
are sustainable power and energy systems, microgrids, power electronics and motor
drives, digital PID controllers, digital methods for electrical measurements, digital
signal processing, and control systems.

John Fuller is an electrical and computer engineering professor at Prairie View

A&M University in Prairie View, Texas. He received a BSEE degree from Prairie
View A&M University and a master’s degree and a PhD degree from the University
of Missouri, Columbia. He has researched some funded projects over a 48-year teach-
ing career in higher education. Some of the major projects of his research efforts are
hybrid energy systems, stepper motor control, the design and building of a solar-pow-
ered car, nuclear survivability and characterization on non-volatile memory devices,
nuclear detector/sensor evaluation, and some other electrical and computer-related
projects. Dr. Fuller is presently the coordinator of Title III funding to the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering in developing a solar-powered home. He is
also the Center for Big Data Management associate director in the Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering. In addition to teaching and research duties
with college-level students, he is also active in the PVAMU summer programs for
middle and high school students. Dr. Fuller has also held administrative positions as
head of the Department of Electrical Engineering and as interim dean of the College
of Engineering at Prairie View A&M University. In 2018, he was recognized as the
Texas A&M System Regents Professor.

xxi
 1 Introduction to Power
Protection Systems

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Power system protection is a philosophy of system reliability with maximum safety
protection and other aspects related to protection coordination. It is a science of mon-
itoring power systems, detecting faults, initiating an operation to isolate faulted parts,
and ultimately tripping the circuit breaker.
The aims of power system protection are to:

i. Minimize dangerous effects on the workers and establish techniques and

procedures due to the abnormal current in the power system.
ii. Avoid damage to power system components involved in failure and human
injury prevention.
iii. Limit the service duration interruption whenever equipment fails, adverse
natural events occur, or human error occurs on any portion of the system.

Protection engineering and technicians are involved in designing and implementing

“protection schemes.” Protection schemes are specialized power systems control that
monitors the system, detects faults or abnormal conditions, and initiates corrective
action. In power system networks, the con guration should be given all the equip-
ment necessary to generate, transmit, distribute, and utilize electric power.
This chapter focuses on the philosophy of power system protection and the effect
of faults on the power system and performance requirements. The relay effect of con-
nection to the power system and protective zones is also introduced in this chapter.

1.2 PHILOSOPHY OF POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

A fault is an abnormal power system state that generally consists of short circuits
and open circuits. An open-circuit condition minimally occurs and is normally less
severe than a short-circuit condition. If short circuits are allowed to persist on a
power system for an extended period, many or all of the following undesirable effects
are likely to occur:

i. Reduced stability of the power system.

ii. Damage to the equipment that is in the vicinity of the fault due to heavy
current, unbalanced current, or low voltage.
iii. Explosions that may occur in equipment with hazards.
iv. Disruptions in the entire power system service area by the action of cas-
caded protective systems in cascading.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-1 1
2 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 1.1
Typical Short-Circuit Type Distribution
Type Rate of Occurrence (%)
Single-phase ground 70–80
Phase-phase ground 17–10
Phase-phase 10–8
Three-phase 3–2

Causes of short-circuit faults are as follows:

i. Insulation failure due to lightning.

ii. Birds and animals bridging insulators.
iii. Dig-ups for underground cables.
iv. Collapsing poles.
v. Breaking of conductors.
vi. Effect of a vehicle collision.
vii. Wind-borne debris.
viii. Incorrect operation by personnel.

The frequency of the faults incidence on different items in a power system is given
in Table 1.1.

1.3 EFFECTS OF FAULTS

The effect of the fault on the power system includes the following:

i. Huge currents can ow through parts of the power network.

ii. These huge currents can only ow for a very short time (within 10 ms to 3 s);
otherwise, equipment and generators would be damaged.
iii. Arcs, sparking, and the heating effect of short-circuit currents.
iv. Signi cant mechanical forces can be caused by short-circuit currents, which
can potentially damage equipment.
v. Fault currents can escape from the network conductors and ow through
paths that could create a hazard to people or livestock.

Fault occurrence can be minimized and controlled by:

i. Adequate insulation and coordination with lightning arresters.

ii. Overdesigning for mechanical strength.
iii. Provision of overhead ground wires.
iv. Blocking or interlocking of undesirable switching operations.
v. Regular maintenance practices.
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 3

Protective gear detects a fault using the:

i. Current magnitude utilizing overcurrent protection.

ii. Current in the abnormal path.
iii. Current balance.
iv. Voltage balance using overvoltage or undervoltage protection.
v. Power direction.
vi. Change of parameters.
vii. Damage to equipment.
viii. None electrical parameters.
ix. The magnitude of current in the earth and neutral – Earth fault protection.
x. Magnitude and angle of impedance (ratio V/I) protection.
xi. Difference between two currents – Differential protection.
xii. Difference between phase angles of two currents – Phase comparison
protection.
xiii. Temperature – Thermal protection.
xiv. Specials, i.e., transformer gas protection.
xv. The magnitude of frequency – Overvoltage or under-frequency protection.
xvi. The magnitude of the negative sequence current.

1.4 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTION SYSTEM

Speed, selectivity, sensitivity, security, and reliability are the keys required for reli-
able operation and the safety of a power system. Selectivity requires that the protec-
tion framework accurately detects faults in its protection zones. Sensitivity is the
relay’s ability to pick up even the smallest faults possible. Safety is a property that
describes a false trigger or the defense system’s ability to refrain from working when
it is not meant to do. So, dependability is the degree of con dence that the relay will
function properly. Reliability requires the protection system’s operability to ensure
that the overall design provides suf cient protective measures, even though some of
the protective apparatus might have failed.
The area of power engineering dealing with the design, implementation, and
operation of safety devices, called “relays” or “protective relays,” is power system
protection. The purpose of these devices is to detect irregular conditions in the power
system and take appropriate steps as quickly as possible to restore the power system
to its usual operating mode. The relays have to meet the following criteria to achieve
the desired performance:

i. Sensitivity: This term is sometimes used when referring to the minimum

operating standard of relays or full safety schemes (current, voltage, power,
etc.). When their primary operational parameters are tiny, relays or security
schemes are said to be vulnerable.
ii. Speed: It is the relay’s capacity to isolate faults as quickly as possible, miti-
gate harm to power system equipment, safeguard supply continuity, and
prevent the loss of synchronism and consequent power system failure.
4 Power System Protection and Relaying

iii. Stability: It is the relay’s ability to remain unaffected by incidents outside its
security region, including external faults or heavy load situations.
iv. Selectivity: It is the ability to isolate only the faulted zone.
v. Safety: It is the ability to secure against improper activity.

No.of correct trippings

%Security = × 100 (1.1)
Total no.of trippings

It should be affordable and should not restrict the rating of primary plants
and equipment. It should not have any “blind spots,” i.e., unprotected zones.
vi. Discrimination: It is between load (normal) and fault (abnormal) condi-
tions. It should not be confused with non-damaging transient conditions.
Discrimination is a relay system’s ability to discriminate between internal
and external faults to its intended protective zones.
vii. Dependability: A relay is dependable if it trips only when expected.
Dependability is the degree of certainty that the relay will operate correctly.
It can be improved by increasing the sensitivity of the relaying scheme.

No.of correct trippings

%Dependability = × 100 (1.2)
Total no.of desired trippings

viii. Reliability: It is the ability not to “fail” in its function. It can be achieved
by redundancy. Redundancy in protection depends on the criticality of the
apparatus. Reliability can be improved by providing backup protection.

No.of correct trips

% Reliability = × 100 (1.3)
No.of desired trips + No.of incorrect trips

The number of the desired tripping can be greater than or equal to the correct
tripping.
The optimal implementation and coordination of protective relays are obtained
considering the objectives, the system’s topology to be protected, the typical opera-
tion scenarios, and the probable fault occurrences.

Example 1.1

An overcurrent relay was monitored and had an observed performance over one
year. It was found that the relay operated 15 times, out of which 13 were correct
trips. If the relay failed to issue a trip decision on four occasions, compute the
relay’s dependability, security, and reliability.

Solution

Number of correct trips = 13

Number of desired trips = 13 + 4 = 17

Introduction to Power Protection Systems 5

Dependability = Number of correct trips/Number of desired trips

= 13/17 = 76.47%

Security = Number of correct trips/ Total number of trips = 13/15 = 86%

(
Reliability = Number of correct trips/ Number of desired trips + number of incorrect trips )
= 13/ (17 + 2 ) = 68.42%

1.5 BASIC PROTECTION SCHEME COMPONENTS

Protective gear is a collective term that covers all the equipment used for detect-
ing, locating, and initiating the removal of a fault from the power system. The term
includes all types of relays, direct a.c. trips, fuses, accessories such as CTs, VTs, d.c.
and a.c. wiring, and any other device related to the protective relays. The protective
gear does not include circuit breakers, the main switchgear, or other devices used to
open the contacts.
The isolation of the faults and abnormalities requires protective equipment that
senses an abnormal current ow and removes the system’s affected portion. The pri-
mary protective equipment components are shown in Figure 1.1.

i. PR – Protection relay.
ii. CB – Circuit breaker.
iii. Equip protected item.
iv. CT – Current transformer.
v. VT – Voltage transformer.
vi. DC Aux – DC auxiliary supply.
vii. HMI – Human–machine interface.
viii. PCL communications link.
ix. Tr CB – Trip coil.

Bus bar CB

Power system
CT
TR
PCL
Relay
Control
VT

DC MMI
Aux.

FIGURE 1.1 The basic arrangement of a protection scheme.

6 Power System Protection and Relaying

1.6 PROTECTIVE RELAY

It is a device that receives a signal from the power system and determines whether
a “normal” or “abnormal” (measuring function) condition exists and initiates relay
signal circuit breakers to disconnect the equipment that may be affected (switching
or signaling function) if an irregular condition is present. Signal “relays” from the
system activate the circuit breaker.
The aim of the protective relaying systems is only to isolate the defective power
system portion.
Relaying devices are divided into two groups:

1. Equipment for primary relaying.

2. Backup relaying units.

The rst line of defense for protecting the devices is the primary relay.
Backup safety relaying only works when (they are slow in action) the primary
relaying system fails.

1.7 TRANSDUCERS
Apart from nonelectrical quantities (temperature, pressure, etc.), the principal item in
this category are transformers.
There are:

i. Current transformer (CT).

ii. Voltage transformer (VT) or potential transformer (PT).
iii. Linear coupler.

These equipment required to reduce the sampled quantity in their secondary as faith-
fully as possible.
CTs and VTs are used.

i. To reduce the power system currents and voltages to a safe, adequate low
value for measurements and protection use.
ii. To insulate the relay circuit from the primary power circuit.
iii. To permit the use of standardized current and voltage ratings for relays.

1.7.1 CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Current transformers are connected in series (primaries) with the protective circuit.
Because the primary current is large, the primary windings usually have very few
turns and a large conductor diameter. Figure 1.2 shows the CT connection to the
power system.
The nominal current rating of the CT secondaries is usually 1 or 5 A (e.g., 50:5,
250:1, 1,200:5).
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 7

Ip
Iron
core Secondary
windings
Ns

Is

Relay

FIGURE 1.2 CT connection in the system.

The initial problem is how to connect a low-voltage device to the high-voltage

system and have the ability to handle large fault currents (kilo-Amps). How can we
make the relay measure the currents owing in the high-voltage system to detect
these faults?
The solution uses a special type of transformer called a current transformer.
The main parts of a current transformer are:

• Iron core.
• Secondary winding.
• Primary conductor.
• External insulation.

Some current transformers do not have a primary conductor. In those cases, the
primary is the line or bus itself. The core and secondary winding are sometimes
directly installed in the circuit breakers or transformers’ bushing. These CTs are
called “bushing CTs.”
Some current transformers may have a primary that consists of several turns.
Typically, the primary number of turns is 1.
The total load connected to the CT terminal (g and h in this case) is called
“burden.”
Ideally, the secondary current of a CT is perfectly proportional to the primary
current. It will be shown later that, in reality, this is sometimes not true.
Figure 1.3 shows an equivalent circuit of CT, an exact circuit, and an approximate
circuit.

1.7.1.1 IEC Standard Accuracy Classes

The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) speci cations for the current
transformer is 15 VA Class 10 P 20, where 15 VA is the continuous VA; 10 represents
8 Power System Protection and Relaying

ip Np:Ns jXs is' R2

+ + +

Ep Es V2 ZB

_ _ _

(a)

is=(Np:N).ip jXs is' R2

Lm ie ZB
Es V2

(b)

FIGURE 1.3 Equivalent circuit of CT. (a) Exact circuit. (b) Approximate circuit.

the accuracy class; P represents protection; and 20 represents the accuracy limit cur-
rent factor.
Table 1.2 shows standard current transformer ratios, and Table 1.3 shows CT
classes and accuracies (accuracy class).

TABLE 1.2
Standard Current Transformer Ratios
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5
400:5 450:5 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5
1,000:5 1,200:5 1,500:5 1,600:5 2,000:5 240:5
2,500:5 3,000:5 3,200:5 4,000:5 5,000:5 6,000:5

TABLE 1.3
CT Classes and Accuracies (Accuracy Class)
Class %Error Application
0.1 ±0.1 Metering
0.2 ±0.2
0.5 ±0.5
1.0 ±1.0
5P ±1 Protection
10P ±3
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 9

TABLE 1.4
Standard VT Ratios
1:1 2:1 2.5:1 4:1 20:1 25:1 40:1 60:1 200:1
300:1 400:1 500:1 600:1 800:1 1,000:1 2,000:1 3,000:1 4,500:1

1.7.2 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

These provide a voltage that is much lower than the system voltage, the nominal
secondary voltage being 115 V (line–line), or 66.4 V (line to neutral) in one standard
and 120 V (line–line) or 69.4 V (line to neutral) in another.
There are two VT types, conventional electromagnetic and capacitor, for high-
voltage levels (132 kV and above). Table 1.4 shows the standard VT ratios.
There are three main types of voltage transformers:

i. Magnetic voltage transformers (ordinary two-winding types – used for LV

and MV).
ii. Capacitive voltage transformers (CVT) are used for high and extra-high
voltages.
iii. Magneto-optic voltage transformers (new).

1.7.3 MAGNETIC VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (VT)

Figure 1.4 shows a VT connection to the power system, and Figure 1.5 shows a VT
equivalent circuit referred to as the secondary side.

1.7.4 CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (CVT)

Figure 1.6 shows capacitive voltage transformers, which are classi ed into two types:

i. Coupling-capacitor voltage transformer.

ii. Capacitor – bushing voltage transformer.

Line

ip 110 V or
Np:Ns 120 V
+ + +

Vp Ep Es V2 ZB

_ _ _

FIGURE 1.4 VT connection to the system.

10 Power System Protection and Relaying

ip Np:Ns jX'1 is' R 1' jX 2 is R2

+ + +

Vp Ep Es Rc jX e V2 ZB
_ _ _

FIGURE 1.5 VT equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side.

m1

Electromagnetic
unit
Voltage divider 110/√3 V
capacitors
1a

1n
2a
m2
2n
110 V

FIGURE 1.6 Capacitive voltage transformers.

These types are shown in Figure 1.7.

VTerror : Magnitude error can be calculated from:

nVs − Vp
VTerror = × 100% (1.4)
Vp

Table 1.5 gives the voltage transformer error limits.

There are three types of VT connections, as shown in Figure 1.8.

i. Open delta connection.

ii. Delta–star connection.
iii. Star–star connection.

CTs and VTs have ratio and phase angle errors to certain degrees. Errors are more
pronounced in CTs under transient conditions and core saturation. The load on CTs
and VTs is commonly known as their burden.
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 11

High-voltage
conductor
High-voltage
conductor

Bushing
Bushing
Caoacitor
units

Bushing Tap
ground
shield

Auxiliary
capacitor

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.7 Capacitor voltage transformers: (a) coupling-capacitor voltage divider.

(b) Capacitance-bushing voltage divider.

TABLE 1.5
Voltage Transformers’ Error Limits
Class Primary Voltage Voltage Error (%) Phase Error (±minutes)
0.1 0.8 Vn, Vn, and 1.2 Vn 0.1 0.5
0.2 0.2 10
0.5 0.5 20
1.0 1.0 40
0.1 0.5 Vn 1.0 40
0.2 1.0 40
0.5 1.0 40
1.0 2.0 80
0.1 Vn 0.2 80
0.2 2.0 80
0.5 2.0 80
1.0 3.0 120
12 Power System Protection and Relaying

A
B
C

a b c
(a)
A
B
C

a b c
(b)
A
B
C

a b c
(c)

FIGURE 1.8 Different types of VT connections. (a) Open delta connection, (b) delta–star
connection, and (c) star–star connection.

Example 1.2

The delta VT connection is shown in Figure 1.9, suppose VAB = 230 ∠0° kV,
VBC = 230 ∠ − 120° kV, VCA = 230∠120° kV, the VT ratio is 110 kV/120 V, calculate
vab , vbc , and vca . If the dot mark is moved to b, recalculate the above voltage.
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 13

A
B
C

a b c

FIGURE 1.9 Con guration of Example 1.2.

Solution

110, 000
VT ratio = = 916.6
120

 1
vab = ( 230∠0° kV ) = 250.92∠0° V
916.6

 1
vbc =
916.6
( )
230 ∠ − 120° kV = 250.92∠ − 120° V

  
vca = − ( vab + vbc ) = 250.92∠120° V

If the dot mark moved to b (Figure 1.10),

 1
vab =
916.6
( )
230 ∠0° kV = 250.92∠0° V

 1
vbc = −
916.6
( )
230 ∠ − 120° kV = 250.92∠60° V

  
vca = − ( vab + vbc ) = 434.6∠ − 150° V

A
B
C

a b c

FIGURE 1.10 Another sequence connection diagram of Example 1.2.

14 Power System Protection and Relaying

Iline V line

CT
VT

Current Voltage
coil coil

FIGURE 1.11 Relay connection to the power system.

1.8 RELAY CONNECTION TO THE PRIMARY SYSTEM

Suppose the relay is connected to the power system via a current and voltage trans-
former, as shown in Figure 1.11.

Vline = Vrelay × K VT (1.5)

I line = I relay × K CT (1.6)

K VT = Voltage transfomer ratio.

K CT = Currnt transformer ratio.

The operating impedance of the line is

Vline Vrelay K VT K
Z line = = × = Z relay × VT (1.7)
I line I relay K CT K CT

1.9 CT ERROR
Ideally, the CT secondary is connected to a current-sensing device with zero imped-
ance, but in practice, the secondary current divides, with most owing through the
low-impedance-sensing device and some owing through the CT shunt excitation
impedance. CT excitation impedance is kept high to minimize excitation current.
The excitation impedance causes an error in the reading of the secondary current
(Tables 1.6 and 1.7).
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 15

TABLE 1.6
Current Transformer Speci cation IEC 185–IEC 44-1
Current Error at Phase Displacement at Composite Error (%)
Accuracy Rated Primary Rated Primary Current at Rated Accuracy
Class Current (%) Minutes Centiradians Line Primary Current
5P ±1 ±60 ±1.8 5
10P ±3 10

TABLE 1.7
Current Transformer Speci cation IEC 44-6
Ratio Error Phase Displacement at Maximum Instantaneous
(%) at Primary Rated Primary Current Value Error (%) at Rated
Class Rated Current Minutes Centiradians Accuracy
TPX ±0.5 ±30 ±0.9 ε = 10
±1.0 ±60 ±1.8 ε = 10
±1.0 180 ± 18 5.3±0.6 ε = 10

Example 1.3

A CT has a rated ratio of 500:5 A. A secondary side impedance is Z 2 = 0.1 + j 0.5 Ω,

and the magnetizing curve is given in Figure 1.12. Compute I2 and the CT error for
the following cases:

i. ZL = 4.9 + j0.5 Ω, I1 = 400 A (load current).

ii. ZL = 4.9 + j0.5 Ω, I1 = 1,200 A (fault current).
iii. ZL = 14.9 + j1.5 Ω, I1 = 400 A (load current).
iv. ZL = 14.9 + j1.5 Ω, I1 = 1,200 A (fault current).

100

63
E2 (V)

1 10
Ie (A)

FIGURE 1.12 Magnetization curve of Example 1.3.

16 Power System Protection and Relaying

Solution

From the magnetizing curve, substitute the points (1, 36) and (10, 100) in Frohlich’s
equation:

A ⋅ Ie
E2′ =
B + Ie

A ⋅1
63 =
B +1

A ⋅ 10
100 =
B + 10

Solving to get the constants A and B, where A = 107 and B = 0.698, Frohlich’s equa-
tion will be

107 I e
E2′ =
0.698 + I e

i. Z T = Z 2 + Z L

= 4.9 + j 0.5 + 0.1 + j 0.5

= 5.0 + j1.0 Ω = 5.009∠11.3° Ω

E2 = I 2 ⋅ Z 2

 5 
= × 400  × 5.009 = 20.4 V
 500 

20.4
Ie = 2
 107 
52 +  1 +
 0.698 + I e 

Using trial and error to nd

I e = 0.163 A

From Frohlich’s equation

107 × 0.163
E2′ = = 20.3 V
0.698 + 0.163

E2′ 20.3
I2 = = = 3.97 A
Z T 5.009

4 − 3.97
CT error% = ⋅ 100 = 0.7%
4
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 17

ii. For the same steps in part (i) E2 = 61.2 V

I e = 0.894 A

E2 = 60.1 V

I 2 = 11.78 A

CT error % = 1.8%

iii. CT error % = 3.5%

iv. CT error % = 45.1%

Example 1.4

Assume that a CT has a rated current ratio of 500/5 A. The impedance of the sec-
ondary winding Z2 = 0.242 Ω, and the burden impedance ZB = 0.351 Ω. The core
area A = 0.00193 m2. The CT must operate at a maximum primary current of 10 kA.
If the frequency is 60 Hz and the core is built from silicon steel:

i. Determine whether or not the CT will saturate.

ii. Determine the CT error.

Solution

i. The secondary current (relay side) is given by:

I s = 10, 000 × ( 5/500 ) = 100 A

If we neglect the excitation current, Ie.

I s′ ≈ I s = 100 A.

The secondary side voltage is:

Es = I s ( Z B + Z 2 )

= 100 × ( 0.351 + 0.242 ) = 59.29 V

Es = 4.44 × f × N 2 × A × Bm

The lower limit for the silicon steel saturation is

Bm = 1.2 T
18 Power System Protection and Relaying

Hence, the CT will not saturate.

From the saturation curve, the core corresponding Ie for

Es = 59.29 V is I e = 0.1 A.

Ie 0.1
ii. CTerror % = × 100% = × 100% = 0.1%
Is 100

1.10 PROTECTIVE ZONES

A complete power system is divided into “zones,” associated, for example, with an
alternator, transformer, busbar section, or a feeder end; each zone has one or more
coordinated protective systems.
The zones of the protective relay are the distance that the relay can cover the
protection.
All network elements must be covered by at least one zone or more in the power
systems. The more important elements must be included in at least two zones, where
the zones must overlap to prevent any element from being unprotected. The overlap
must be nite but small to minimize the likelihood of a fault inside this region.
A relay location usually de nes the zone boundary.

1.10.1 BACKUP PROTECTION

If the primary protection fails to operate, the backup protection will operate to
remove the faulty part from the system. The primary and the backup are indepen-
dent (relay, breaker, CT, PT). The backup relay is slower than the primary relay, but
sometimes backup protection opens more circuit breakers than necessary to clear the
fault. The backup protection provides primary protection when the usual primary
apparatus is out of service.
There are two types of backup protection depending on the method of
installation:

i. Local backup: Clears fault in the same station where the failure has occurred
(see Figure 1.13).
ii. Remote backup: Clears fault on station away from where the failure has
occurred (see Figure 1.14).

1.10.2 SELECTIVITY AND ZONES OF PROTECTION SELECTIVITY

It is de ned in terms of regions of a power system (zones of protection) for which a
given relay is responsible. The relay will be considered secure if it responds only to
faults within its zone of protection
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 19

Reach of backup relay

Reach of main relay

Main relay

Backup relay

FIGURE 1.13 Local backup protection at different locations.

Reach of main relay

Main relay Main relay

FIGURE 1.14 Remote backup protection.

Example 1.5

Consider the following simple power system, and discuss the local and remote
backup protection for two fault locations in Figure 1.15.

CASE 1: LOCAL BACKUP

i. For fault at F1: Suppose that breaker 15 operates and breaker 14 fails to
work. Therefore, breakers 11 and 13 must work as local backup protection.
ii. For fault at F2: Suppose that breaker 9 operates and breaker 8 fails to oper-
ate. Therefore, breakers 3 and 6 must operate as local backup protection.
20 Power System Protection and Relaying

2 3 10 11
1 8 F2 9 14 F1 15
12 13
4 6

5 7

FIGURE 1.15 The power system of Example 1.5.

CASE 2: REMOTE BACKUP

i. For fault at F1: Suppose that breaker 15 operates and breaker 14 fails to
operate. Therefore, breakers 10 and 12 must operate as remote backup
protection.
ii. For fault at F2: Suppose that breaker 9 operates and breaker 8 fails to
operate. Therefore, breakers 2 and 7 must operate as remote backup
protection.

Example 1.6

Consider the power system shown in Figure 1.16.

i. Mark the suitable zones.

ii. Modify the protective system.

Example 1.6
B
A

F1 D
CB1 CB5
CB3 CB4 F2

CB2 CB6

CB7
C
CB8

CB9

FIGURE 1.16 The power system of Example 1.6.

Introduction to Power Protection Systems 21

B
A

F1 D
CB1 CB5
CB3 CB4 F2

CB2 CB6

CB7
C
CB8

CB9

FIGURE 1.17 Protection zones for the power system of Example 1.6.

iii. Mark that all circuit breakers will operate when faults P1 and P2 occur, as
shown in parts (i) and (ii).

Solution

i. Figure 1.17 illustrates the distribution of the protective zone on the power
system.
ii. To modify the system in Figure 1.17, add three circuit breakers at node D
(CBs 10, 11, and 12), as shown in Figure 1.18.
iii. For part (i), if the fault occurs at point F1, circuit breakers 3, 4, and 7 will
operate, and for a fault at F2, circuit breakers 4, 5, and 6 will operate.

For part (ii), if the fault occurs at point F1, circuit breakers 3 and 10 will operate,
and for the fault at F2, circuit breakers 4, 5, and 6 will operate.

1.11 R–X DIAGRAM

A relay and a system’s characteristics can be graphically represented in only two
variables (R and X or |Z| and θ) rather than three (V, I, and θ). The R–X diagram
or Z-plane, or simply the complex plane. The complex variable Z is determined by
dividing the RMS voltage by the RMS current. The resulting Z can be expressed in
rectangular, polar form as

Z = R + jX = Z e jθ (1.8)
22 Power System Protection and Relaying

B
A

F1 CB10 D CB11
CB1 CB5
CB3 CB4 F2

CB2 CB12 CB6

CB7
C
CB8

CB9

FIGURE 1.18 Modify the power system of Example 1.6.

In addition to the plot of the operating characteristics of a given relay, the system
condition affecting the operation of this relay can be superimposed on the same R–X
diagram so that the response of the relay can be determined. The system character-
istics must be within the relay characteristics’ operation region to achieve this relay
operation. Note that the superimposed system and relay characteristics have to be in
terms of the plane quantities and the same scale. These can be both in p.u., where
Ohm is used. Both have to be on either a primary or a secondary basis, using

CT ratio 
Secondary Ω′s = Primary Ω′s ×  (1.9)
 VT ratio 

For example, in the short transmission line shown in Figure 1.19.

Vs = I ⋅ Z L + VR (1.10)

ZL

I P+jQ
Vs VR

FIGURE 1.19 Short transmission line.

Introduction to Power Protection Systems 23

and

Vs
Zs = (1.11)
I
VR
ZR = (1.12)
I

also

Zs = Z L + Z R (1.13)

The receive end load impedance can also be expressed as

Z R = RR + jX R (1.14)

where
2
V P
RR = (1.15)
P2 + Q2

and
2
V Q
XR = (1.16)
P2 + Q2

Example 1.7

Assume that a short transmission line has the receiving end load apparent power SR
and voltage |VR| of 2.5 + j0.9 and 1.0 p.u., respectively. If the line ZL = 0.1 + j0.25 p.u.,
determine

i. Receive end impedance Z R.

ii. Send-end impedance Zs.
iii. Draw the R–X diagram.
iv. The power angle δ.

Solution

i. The real part of load impedance is:

2
V P
RR =
P 2 + Q2

1.0 ( 2.5)
2
= = 0.3541 p.u.
2.52 + 0.9 2
24 Power System Protection and Relaying

θR
δ
ZR

ZL ZS

θS
R

FIGURE 1.20 The R–X diagram of Example 1.7.

The imaginary part of load impedance is:

1.0 ( 0.9 )
2 2
V Q
XR = = = 0.1275 p.u.
P 2 + Q 2 2.52 + 0.9 2

The load impedance is:

Z R = 0.3541 + j 0.1275 p.u. = 0.3764∠19.8° p.u.

ii. The send-end impedance is:

Z s = Z L + Z R = 0.1 + j 0.25 + 0.3541 + j 0.1275

= 0.4541 + j 0.3775 p.u. = 0.5905∠39.7° p.u.

iii. The R–X diagram (Figure 1.20)

iv. The power angle is:

δ = θ s − θ R = 39.7° − 19.8° = 19.9°

PROBLEMS
1.1. A CT has a rated current ratio of 500/5 A, Z 2 = 0.1 + j0.5 Ω, and a magnetiza-
tion curve equation as
105 I e
E2 =
0.65 + I e

Compute I2 and the CT error when used to drive an overcurrent relay of

PS = 150% and its Z L = 14.9 + j1.5 Ω, with a fault current If = 1,200 A. Will
the relay detect the fault?
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 25

1.2. A CT has a rated ratio of 500:5 A, Z 2 = 0.1 + j0.5 Ω, and the magnetization
curve is shown in Figure 1.21, compute the primary current I and the CT
error for the following cases. Will the relay detect the primary current?
a. Z B = 4.9 + j 0.5 Ω, I ′ = 4 A ( Load current ) .
b. Z B = 4.9 + j 0.5 Ω, I ′ = 12 A ( Fault current ) .
c. Z B = 14.9 + j1.5 Ω, I ′ = 12 A ( Fault current ) .

FIGURE 1.21 CT exciting voltage–current characteristics of Problem 1.2.

1.3. An overcurrent relay set to operate at 6 A is connected to a multi-ratio cur-

rent transformer (whose excitation curve is given in Figure 1.22 with CT
ratio = 150:5, Zs = 0.082 Ω, and Z B = 0.85 Ω). The core area is 2.8 × 10 −3 m2
and f = 60 Hz.
i. Will the relay detect a 200 A fault current on the primary side?
ii. Determine whether the CT will saturate.
iii. Compute the percentage CT error.
26 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 1.22 Excitation curve for a multi-ratio bushing current transformer of Problem 1.3.

1.4. Figure 1.23a–c shows three typical bus arrangements. Draw the protective
zones.
i. Identify the circuit breakers that will remove the faults when the fault
occurs at P1, P2, and P3.
ii. Identify the lines removed from the service under primary protection
during a bus fault P1, P2, and P3.
Introduction to Power Protection Systems 27

(a)

(b)
P1

B1 B3 B5 B7
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4
P3
B2 B4 B6 B8
P2

(c)

FIGURE 1.23 Power system con gurations for Problem 1.4. (a) Ring bus. (b) Breaker and a
half double bus. (c) Double breaker double bus.

1.5. Assume that a short transmission line has the receiving end load SR and
|VR| of 2.8 + j1.0 and 1.0 p.u., respectively. If the line Z L = 0.15 + j 0.3p.u.,
determine
i. Receive end Z R.
ii. Send-end impedance Zs.
iii. Draw the R–X diagram.
iv. The power angle δ.
1.6. What is the effect of the fault on the power system?
1.7. An overcurrent relay was monitored and performed over one year. It was
found that the relay operated 16 times, out of which 13 were correct trips. If
the relay failed to issue a trip decision on four occasions, compute the relay’s
dependability, security, and reliability.
28 Power System Protection and Relaying

1.8. The delta VT connection is shown in Figure 1.24, suppose VAB = 100 ∠0° kV,
VAB = 100∠ − 120° kV, VAB = 100∠120° kV, the VT ratio is 110 kV/120 V,
calculate vab , vbc , and vca . If the dot mark is moved to b, recalculate the
above voltage.

A
B
C

a b c

FIGURE 1.24 Con guration of Problem 1.7.

1.9. A CT with an excitation curve in Figure 1.22 has a rated current ratio of
400:5 A and a secondary leakage impedance of 0.15 + j 0.56 Ω . Calculate
the CT secondary output current and the CT error for the following cases:
i. The impedance of the terminating device is 5 + j1.5 Ω , and the primary
CT load current is 500 A.
ii. The impedance of the terminating device is 5 + j1.5 Ω , and the primary
CT fault current is 1250 A.
iii. The impedance of the terminating device is 15 + j 2.5 Ω, and the primary
CT load current is 400 A.
iv. The impedance of the terminating device is 15 + j 2.5 Ω, and the pri-
mary CT fault current is 1250 A.
 2 Protective Relays
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A protective relay is an electrical system designed to respond to an abnormal input
condition, remove it, and trigger a contact operation after a speci ed condition is
met. Relays are used in all power transmission systems, in-home communications
systems, and industries.
In an irregular or unsafe device condition and an appropriate control circuit
initiation, a protective relay is identi ed as a relay whose function is detecting a
faulty line, apparatus, or other power condition. A fuse is often used as security
and is characterized as an overcurrent protective device with a fuse component in a
circuit opening due to heating and severed by an overcurrent condition.
This chapter presents aspects of data required for the relay setting and types of
relays; it also discusses the digital relay operation, signal path for microprocessor
relays, and digital relay construction.

2.2 DATA REQUIRED FOR THE RELAY SETTING

Data required for relay settings are

i. Short-circuit level of the power system involved, showing the type and
rating of the protection devices and their CTs.
ii. The maximum and minimum values of short-circuit currents.
iii. The impedances of the system components.
iv. Starting current and settling time of the induction motor.
v. The maximum load current.
vi. Decrement curve showing the rate of decay of the fault current supplied by
the generator.
vii. The performance curve of the CTs.

The relay setting is rst determined to give the shortest operating time at maximum
fault levels and then checked to see if the operation will also be satisfactory at the
minimum fault current expected.
All power systems aim to maintain a very high standard of service status and
reduce downtime when intolerable conditions arise. Power loss, voltage drop,
and overvoltage will occur due to natural disasters, physical injuries, equipment
malfunction, and human error disturbance.
Safety is the science, skill, and art of applying, setting, and/or fusing to provide
full sensitivity to a fault and unwanted situation.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-2 29
30 Power System Protection and Relaying

Protective relays are typically linked to the power system via CT and/or VT.
In normal operation and when the circuit breaker CB is closed, the contact closes
to energize the CB trip coil, which operates to open the breaker’s main contact and
energize the attached circuit.
The fault sequence of the event and disturbance recording indicate

• What happened?
• What did the current and voltage signals look like (CT saturation)?
• When did the protection device issue a trip signal?
• How long did the circuit breaker need to operate?
• What was the magnitude of the interrupted current?
• How did the system behave after the circuit breaker tripped?

2.3 CLASS OF MEASURING RELAYS

1. Current relay: Operate at a predetermined threshold value of current.
2. Voltage relay: Operate at a predetermined threshold value of voltage.
3. Power relay: Operate at a predetermined threshold value of power.
4. Directional relay:
• Alternating current: Operate according to the phase relationship between
alternating quantities.
• Direct current: Operate according to the direction of the current and are
usually of the permanent-magnetic, moving-coil pattern.
5. Frequency relays: Operate at a predetermined frequency. These include
over-frequency and under-frequency relays.
6. Temperature relays: Operate at a predetermined temperature in the pro-
tected component.
7. Differential relays: Operate according to the scalar or vectorial difference
between two quantities, such as current, voltage, and so forth.
8. Distance relays: Operate according to the “distance” between the relay’s
current transformer and the fault. The “distance” is measured in terms of
resistance, reactance, or impedance.

2.4 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STANDARD DEVICE NUMBERS

2.4.1 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
De ned subsequently are some of the important terms used in protective relaying:

i. Normally open contact (N/O): is open when the relay is not energized.
ii. Normally closed contact (N/C): is closed when the relay is not energized.
iii. Operating force or torque: that which tends to close the relay contacts.
iv. Restrain force or torque: opposes the operating force or torque and prevents
the relay contacts’ closure.
v. Pick-up: A relay is said to pick up when it moves from OFF to ON. The value
of the characteristic quantity above this change occurs, known as the pick-
up value.
Protective Relays 31

vi. Pick-up level: The value of the actuating quantity (current or voltage) on the
border above which the relay operates.
vii. Drop-out or reset level: The current or voltage value below which a relay
opens its contacts and returns to its original position.
viii. Operating time: The time that elapses between the instant when the actuat-
ing quantity exceeds the pick-up value and when the relay contacts close.
ix. Reset time is when the actuating quantity falls below the reset value to when
the touch of the relay returns to its normal location.
x. Primary relays are the relays connected directly in the circuit to be
protected.
xi. Secondary relays are connected in the circuit to be protected through CTs
and VTs.
xii. Auxiliary relays work to assist another relay in performing its role in
response to its operating circuit’s opening or closing. This relay may be
instantaneous or may have a time delay.
xiii. Reach: A distance relay operates whenever the relay impedance is less than
a prescribed value; this impedance or reactance corresponding distance is
known as the relay’s reach.
xiv. Instantaneous relay: One with no intentional time delay operates in <0.1
seconds.
xv. Blocking prevents the protective relay from tripping due to its characteris-
tics or an additional relay.
xvi. Time delay relay: One which is designed with a delaying means.
xvii. Protective relay: An electrical device designed to initiate isolation of a part
of an electrical installation or to operate an alarm signal in the event of an
abnormal condition or a fault.
xviii. Energizing quantity: The electrical quantity (current, voltage, phase shift, or
frequency), alone or in combination, is required for the relay’s functioning.
xix. Characteristics quantity: The quantity to which the relay is designed to
respond, e.g., current in overcurrent, phase angle in a directional relay, and
so forth.
xx. Setting: The actual value of the energizing or characteristics quantity at
which the relay is designed to operate under given conditions.
xxi. Flag or target: A device used for indicating the operational relay.
xxii. Overreach or underreach: Errors in relay measurements resulting in opera-
tion or failure, respectively.
xxiii. It reinforces relay, which is energized by the main relay’s contacts and its
contacts in parallel with those of the main relay.
xxiv. Pilot channel: A means of interconnection between relaying points for
protection.
xxv. Protective scheme: The coordinated arrangements for the protection of a
power system. It may include several protective systems.

2.4.2 DEVICES NUMBERS

The list of devices used in the protection scheme is given in Table 2.1.
32 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 2.1
List of Device Numbers
Code Types Code Types
1 Master element 52 AC circuit breaker
2 Closing relay/time delay starting 53 DC generator/exciter relay
3 Interlocking relay or checking 54 High-speed DC circuit breaker
4 Master contactor 55 Power factor relay
5 Stopping device 56 Field application relay
6 Starting circuit breaker 59 Overvoltage relay
7 Anode circuit breaker 60 Current/voltage balance relay
8 Control power disconnecting device 61 Machine split phase current balance
9 Reversing device 62 Time delay stopping/opening relay
10 Unit sequence switch 63 Pressure switch
12 Overspeed device 64 Ground detector relay
13 Synchronous-speed device 65 Governor
14 Under-speed device 66 Starts per hour
15 Frequency and speed matching device 67 AC directional overcurrent relay
20 Elect. operated valve (solenoid valve) 68 Blocking relay
21 The distance relay 69 Permissive control device
23 Temperature control device 71 Level switch
25 Synchronism check device/ 72 DC circuit breaker
synchronizing
26 Apparatus thermal device 74 Alarm relay
27 Under-voltage relay 75 Position changing mechanism
29 Isolating contactor 76 DC overcurrent relay
30 Annunciator relay 78 Phase-angle measuring/out-of-step protective relay
32 Power directional relay 79 AC-reclosing relay
36 Polarizing voltage/polarity device 81 Frequency relay
37 Under-current or under-power relay 83 Automatic selective control/transfer relay
38 Bearing protective device 84 Operating mechanism
39 Mechanical conduction monitor 85 Carrier/pilot-wire receiver relay
40 Field relay 86 Lockout relay
41 Field circuit breaker 87 Differential protective relay
42 Running circuit breaker 89 Line switch
43 Manual transfer/selector device 90 Regulating device
46 Phase-balance/reverse-phase relay 91 Voltage directional relay
47 Phase-sequence voltage relay 92 Power and voltage directional relay
48 Incomplete-sequence relay 94 Trip-free relay/tripping
49 Transformer thermal relay 95 Reluctance torque synchro check
50 Instantaneous overcurrent 96 Autoloading relay
51 AC time overcurrent relay

2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS

Protection relays can be classi ed based on the function they carry out, their con-
struction, the incoming signal, and the type of protection.
Protective Relays 33

1. General function: Auxiliary. Protection. Monitoring. Control.

2. Construction:
i. Electromagnetic.
ii. Solid-state.
iii. Microprocessor.
iv. Computerized.
v. Nonelectric (thermal, pressure, etc.).
3. Incoming signal:
i. Current
ii. Voltage
iii. Frequency
iv. Temperature
v. Pressure
vi. Velocity
vii. Others.
4. Type of protection:
i. Overcurrent
ii. Directional overcurrent
iii. Distance
iv. Overvoltage
v. Differential
vi. Reverse power
vii. Other.

2.6 TYPES OF RELAYS

The fundamental objective of system protection is to isolate a fault area quickly so
that the rest of the power system is protected as much as possible.
The main types of protective relays are summarized in Figure 2.1.

Types of relays

Other: pressure,
Electromagnitic Solid state Computerized
temperature

Magnetic Magnetic Numerical

Digital relay
induction attraction relay

Attracted Plunger
armature type

Wattmetric Induction
Shaded pole
type type

FIGURE 2.1 Types of relays.

34 Power System Protection and Relaying

2.6.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS

2.6.1.1 Electromechanical Relays
Research started at the end of the 19th century. In the 1930s, the relay family was
completed, and they are still in use. These relays were the oldest types used for power
systems safety, dating back almost 110 years. They work on a mechanical force the-
ory that causes a relay contact to function in response to a stimulus. Hence, in the
electromechanical relay, the mechanical force is produced by current ow in one or
more windings on a magnetic core or cores. The main advantage of such relays is
that they provide galvanic isolation in a simple, cheap, and reliable way between the
inputs and outputs, so they are still used for simple on/off switching functions where
the output contacts have to bear signi cant currents.
It is possible to classify electromechanical relays into many different types:
i. Magnetically attracted armature relays.
ii. Magnetic induction relays.
iii. Moving coil.
iv. Thermal.

However, only attracted armature and induction forms have an important applica-
tion; more modern equivalents have replaced all other types. Electromagnetic relays
are constructed of electrical, magnetic, and mechanical parts, durable, inexpensive,
and effective, and have an operating coil and different contacts.

2.6.1.2 Magnetic Induction Relays

An induction relay only operates with alternating current. It is possible to divide
magnetic induction relays into three groups:

i. Wattmeter type.
ii. Induction type.
iii. Shaded pole.

Figure 2.2 shows a force distribution of the induction relay; the principle operation of
the electromagnetic induction relay is:

Torque
Ф1 Ф2

iФ2 F1 F2 iФ1
iФ1 iФ2

FIGURE 2.2 Force distribution of the induction relay.

Protective Relays 35

The two magnets of the induction-type relay produce two alternating magnetic
elds ϕ1 and ϕ 2

ϕ1 = ϕ1m sin ω t (2.1)

ϕ 2 = ϕ 2 m sin (ω t + θ ) (2.2)

where ϕ 2 leads ϕ1 by an angle θ.

ϕ1 and ϕ 2 produce eddy currents in the rotating disk, which are iϕ1 and iϕ 2

dϕ 1
iϕ1 ∝ (2.3)
dt

dϕ 2
iϕ 2 ∝ (2.4)
dt

or

iϕ1 ∝ ϕ1m cos ω t (2.5)

iϕ 2 ∝ ϕ 2m cos (ω t + θ ) (2.6)

F1 is the force produced by the intersection of F1 and if2.

F2 is the force produced by the intersection of F2 and if1.
The net force is

F = F2 − F1 ∝ ϕ 2 ⋅ iϕ1 − ϕ1 ⋅ iϕ 2  (2.7)

Thus,

F ∝ ϕ1mϕ 2 m [ sin (ω t + θ ) ⋅ cos ω t − sin ω t cos (ω t + θ )] (2.8)

Solving to get

F ∝ ϕ1mϕ 2m sinθ (2.9)

So, the net torque will be

T = Fr ∝ F (2.10)

And can be represented in Figure 2.3.

or

T = K1ϕ1mϕ 2 m sinθ (2.11)

36 Power System Protection and Relaying

r
F

FIGURE 2.3 Force direction in the rotation disk.

Let Φ1 be the RMS value of ϕ1 and Φ2 the RMS value of ϕ 2

or

T ∝ Φ1Φ 2 sin θ (2.12)

T ∝ I1 I 2 sin θ (2.13)

T = KI1 I 2 sin θ (2.14)

The characteristics of the induction principle are suitable for AC systems. The torque
does not differ with time: no vibration, DC offset inherent rejection, and low overreach.

2.6.1.2.1 Wattmetric-Type Relay

It consists of an electromagnetic system consisting of two electromagnets installed
on a disk, as shown in Figure 2.4, acting on a moving conductor, and Figure 2.5
shows an induction-type relay with plug settings.

2.6.1.2.2 Induction-Cup Relay

The process is like an induction disk; here, in a bell-shaped cup that rotates and car-
ries the moving contacts, two uxes at right angles cause eddy currents. Figure 2.6
displays a four-pole relay.
To load
circuit
via CT

Main
windings

Disc
carrying Moving contact
contacts To trip
circuit
Fixed contact

Closed
secondary
windings

FIGURE 2.4 Induction-type overload relay.

Protective Relays 37

Input
Plug
Tapping
bridge

Upper
magnetic
Disc
carrying
contacts

Lower
magnetic

FIGURE 2.5 Induction-type relay with plug settings.

Current

Magnetic
core

Voltage

Voltage
Cup-
carrying
contacts

Current

FIGURE 2.6 Four-pole induction-cup relay.

2.6.1.2.3 Shaded Pole Relay

The force is directly related to time to a constant time the square of ux or the current
square. In DC, this force is constant; if the force exceeds the restraining force, the
relay operates. In AC, the force is given by
38 Power System Protection and Relaying

Fe = kI 2 = k ( I m sin ω t )
2

1
=
2
(
k I m2 − I m2 cos2ω t )
This shows that the electromagnetic force consists of two components: constant inde-
pendent of time and pulsation at double the frequency.
Hence the relay armature vibrates at a double frequency; this causes the relay to
hum and produce noise and damage to the relay contacts (unreliable operation). This
can be overcome by dividing the ux into two components acting simultaneously but
differing in the time phase so that the resultant Fe is always positive, and if this force
is always greater than the restraint force, then the armature will not vibrate.
The electromagnetic section is short-circuited by utilizing a copper ring or coil.
This creates a ux in the area in uenced by the short-circuited section (the so-called
shaded section), which lags the ux in the non-shaded section, see Figure 2.7.
Note that the main coils have taps; the number of turns is adjustable.
In the electromagnetic induction theory, the relay part has a non-magnetic rotor
(an aluminum or copper disk or cylinder) where coils produce magnetic uxes that
cause circulating currents. The interaction between the uxes and the circulating
currents creates torque. This is the theory of operation for induction motors.
The magnetic eld and the magnetic ux in the iron core are both sinusoidal
if the current is sinusoidal, and the iron core is believed to have a linear behavior.
Remember that the ux is split into two components: One ows through the normal
and shaded poles, and the other ow is equal in magnitude but different in angle.
These two uxes are identical.

2.6.1.3 Magnetic Attraction Relays

Magnetic attraction relays can be supplied by AC or DC and operate by moving a
piece of metal when attracted by the magnetic eld produced by a coil. There are two
main types of relays in this class.

Permanent
magnet Spring
Ф1 Ф2

Disk Main
coil Nr Taps
turns
Axis

FIGURE 2.7 Shaded pole relay.

Protective Relays 39

i. Attracted armature type (clapper type).

ii. Plunger type.

2.6.1.3.1 The Attracted Armature Relays

As shown in Figure 2.8, it consists of a bar or plate of metal that pivots when it is
attracted to the coil.
As the current approaches a certain predetermined value, the armature is drawn
to the electromagnet (iop – operating current). The armature force will cause the cir-
cuit breaker’s connection mechanism to work as a relay and close the contacts of a
separate tripping circuit. The armature is drawn against gravity or a spring. The trip’s
current can be varied to t the circuit conditions by changing the armature’s distance
from the electromagnet or the spring’s voltage.
The armature carries the moving part of the contacts, which, when the armature
is attracted to the coil, is closed or opened according to the design.

2.6.1.3.2 Plunger-Type Relay

The other type is the piston or solenoid relay, illustrated in Figure 2.9, in which the α
bar or piston is attracted axially within the solenoid eld. In this case, the piston also
carries the operating contacts. This is called a plunger-type relay.
The force of attraction can be equal to K1I2 = K2, where Ø1 depends, among other
things, on the number of turns on the working solenoid, the air distance, the effective
area, and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The restraining force is K2, typically
created by a spring. The resulting force is zero when the relay is balanced, and thus,

K1 I 2 = K 2

so

K2
I= constant (2.15)
K1

This equation can be proved as follows:

Attracted armature relay analysis

Electromagnet
part
To trip
circuit

Trip
Armature contact

FIGURE 2.8 Attracted armature-type relay.

40 Power System Protection and Relaying

In general, the mechanical force produced by an electric magnet is proportional

to ϕ 2, i.e.,

F (t ) ∝ ϕ 2 (2.16)

mmf N i
ϕ= = (2.17)
R R

where

lg
R= ∝ lg = reluctance (2.18)
µo ⋅ A
so

Ni
ϕ∝ (2.19)
lg

or

N 2 i2
ϕ2 ∝ (2.20)
lg2

Hence

F (t ) = kϕ ⋅ ϕ 2 (2.21)

where
kϕ is the constant

Coil
Fixed
contact

Moving Piston
contact

Spring

FIGURE 2.9 Solenoid-type (plunger) relay.

Protective Relays 41

N 2 i2 N2
F (t ) = kϕ ⋅ 2
= k1i 2 , k1 = kϕ ⋅ 2 (2.22)
lg lg

The net force is

Fn (t ) = F (t ) − k2 = k1i 2 − k 2 (2.23)

where K 2 is the restraining force produced by the spring

When the relay is balanced, Fn ( t ) = 0 .

0 = k1i 2 − k2

K1 I 2 = K 2 ,

So that,

K2
I= constant (2.24)
K1

I = RMS value of i
The restraining tension of the spring or the solenoid circuit’s resistance may be
varied to control the value at which the relay begins to work, thus changing the
restricting power. Effectively, attraction relays have no time delay and are commonly
used when instantaneous operations are needed.

Example 2.1

An electromagnetic relay of attracted armature type has constants k1 = 0.6 and

k2 = 10. Find whether the relay will operate or not when:

i. A current of 3 A ows through the relay winding.

ii. A current of 5.5 A ows through the relay winding.
iii. Find the minimum current required to operate the relay.

Solution

i. For 3 A current:

Fn (t ) = k1i 2 − k 2 = 0.6 × 32 − 10 = 4.6 N

The restraining force is greater than the operating force.

So, the relay will not operate.
ii. For 5.5 A current:

Fn (t ) = k1i 2 − k2 = 0.6 × 5.52 − 10 = 8.15 N

42 Power System Protection and Relaying

The restraining force is less than the operating force.

So, the relay will operate.
iii. The minimum current required to operate the relay is when the relay
becomes a balanced condition
or

10
I= = 4.08 A
0.6

2.7 COMPARATOR RELAYS

Comparator relays measure functions of applied quantities and compare two or more
inputs.
Type of measurements: magnitude, product measurements, ratio measurement.

FA = k1 I A (2.25)

FB = k2 I B (2.26)

Under balanced state (Figure 2.10)

I A k2
= = constant (2.27)
I B k1

Force has been overcome, which requires a current representing the calibration level
of the relay. Since the fault current level changes with generating conditions, obtain-
ing selectivity based on current magnitude is seldom possible. Most applications
require adding a timer function so that the relay nearest the fault location, having the
most current, will trip rst.
There are dif culties in obtaining selectivity in the relay of a single quantity
measuring element. Most high-speed relays measure a derived quantity, a combi-
nation of several simple quantities, such as impedance, admittance, the current

I
k 1V– k 2I k 1V+ k2I

FIGURE 2.10 Comparator relay.

Protective Relays 43

ratio, and the like, in which two simple quantities are compared in magnitude and
phase relation.
The relay usually makes the comparison by turning the electrical quantities into
force, with MMF or EMF being proportional to the two quantities compared.
The phase relation and amplitude are a function of the system conditions; the
relay compares these two fundamental aspects. The principal part of the relay is the
comparator, which can be a phase or amplitude comparator.

2.7.1 GENERALIZED AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR

The two sides of a comparator are fed with mixed signals originating from current
and voltage sources that will match when the magnitudes of these signals are equal

k1 I + k2V = k3 I + k4V (2.28)

V
Divide by I and substitute Z = = R + jX
I

k1 + k 2 ( R + jX ) = k 3 + k4 ( R + jX )

Simplifying and calculating the absolute value

(k 2
2 ) ( ) ( )
− k42 R 2 + k 22 − k42 X 2 + 2 ( k1 k 2 − k3 k 4 ) R + k12 − k32 = 0 (2.29)

Comparing this with the general equation

x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2hy + c = 0

where

x = R, y = X

k1 k 2 − k3 k 4
g=
k 22 − k42

h=0

k12 − k32
c=
k22 − k42

So, the characteristic is a circle on the R–X plane.

44 Power System Protection and Relaying

2.8 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

The advantage and limitations of static relays are:

• Advantage:
i. The low burden on CT and VT.
ii. Low mechanical inertia and bouncing.
iii. High-speed operation and long life.
iv. Low maintenance.
v. Quick reset action.
vi. Unconventional characteristics are possible.
vii. Low energy is required.
viii. Easy ampli cation.
ix. High sensitivity.
• Limitation:
i. Temperature-sensitive.
ii. Low short-term overload capacity.
iii. Aging effect on the relay characteristics.
iv. Vulnerability to voltage spike (use of lters and shielding to overcome
this limitation).

2.9 SOLID-STATE RELAYS

The study of solid-state relays started in the late 1950s, with the rst commercial prod-
ucts starting in the 1940s. In the 1960s, complete production took place. The term
solid-state relay refers to an electronic device composed of electronic components that
provides an electromechanical relay with a similar purpose but does not have any mov-
ing parts, improving long-term reliability. In early 1960, the invention of static relays
began. It is generally referred to as a relay incorporating solid-state components such as
IC transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, and so forth; in this type of relay, the func-
tion of comparison and measurement is performed as static circuits (no moving parts).
The architecture uses analog electronic equipment instead of coils and magnets
to build the relay. Early models used isolated devices such as transistors and diodes
combined with resistors, capacitors, inductors, and the like. However, advancements
in electronics have made it possible for later versions to use linear and digital ICs for
signal processing and logic circuitry implementation.

2.9.1 SOLID-STATE RELAY PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Solid-state relays (static relays) are extremely fast in their operation. They have no
moving parts and have a very quick response time, and they are very reliable.
Figure 2.11 shows the elements used in a single-phase time lag overcurrent relay.
A protective relay is an analog–binary signal converter with measuring func-
tions. The variables such as current, voltage, phase angle, frequency, and derived
values obtained by differentiation, integration, or other mathematical operations
always appear as analog signals at the input of the measuring unit. The output will
be attained as a binary signal.
Protective Relays 45

R1
R
Ii
Tr 2 C1
R2 D1
Tr1
D2
CT Rectifier
R3 D3
Vin C R5
R4

FIGURE 2.11 Solid-state relays (static relays) circuit diagram.

The AC input from the current transformer CT is recti ed and converted to DC

voltage Vin through shunt resistance.
A delay time circuit (RC) produces the required time delay.
If Vin < VR, the base emitter of transistor TR1 is reversed, forcing the transistor to
be in the cut-off state.
When Vin > VR, transistor TR1 will be in the ON state, turn on TR2, and activate
the output relay. R1 and R2 set VR.

Example 2.2

An RC circuit used to produce time delay for a solid-state relay is shown in

Figure 2.12. For a step input voltage Vi (t) = 6 U(t), the output voltage Vo(t) = 3 V
and C = 10 μF. Determine the time delay (tdelay) for the following cases (Figures
2.13 and 2.14):

i. R = 10 kΩ;
ii. R = 1 MΩ.
iii. Sketch the output Vo(t) versus time for cases (i) and (ii).

Solution

i. When R = 100 kΩ

τ = R ⋅ C = 100 × 103 × 10 × 10 −6 = 1 seconds.

+ +

Vi C Vo

_ _

FIGURE 2.12 Circuit diagram of Example 2.2.

46 Power System Protection and Relaying

+ +

Vi C Vo Solid-state relay

_ _

FIGURE 2.13 The RC circuit connects to the relay.

(
Vo = Vc 1 − e − t /τ )
 −
tdelay

3 = 6 × 1 − e 1 
 

tdelay = 0.693seconds.

ii. When R = 1 MΩ

τ = R ⋅ C = 1 × 10 6 × 10 × 10 −6 = 10 seconds.

(
Vo = Vc 1 − e − t /τ )
 −
tdelay

3 = 6 ×  1 − e 10 
 

tdelay = 6.93 seconds.

At R1=100k
At R2=1M
Vo (Volt)

FIGURE 2.14 The output voltage across the RC circuit.

Protective Relays 47

2.10 COMPUTERIZED RELAY

2.10.1 DIGITAL RELAYS
A microcomputer-operated relay is a digital protective relay. Research began in 1960.
Basic developments: Early 1970. Figure 2.15 shows a block diagram of a digital relay.
The data acquisition device gathers information from the transducers and transforms it
into the microcomputer’s correct form. CT and PT information and other devices are
ampli ed and sampled at many kHz levels. With the A/D converter, the sampled signals
are digitized and fed to registers in the microprocessor framework. The microprocessor
may use a counting technique or the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) to compare the
data with overcurrent, over/under voltage, and the like, preset limits, and then send com-
mands to the circuit breakers through the D/A converter to alarm or trip signals.

2.10.2 DIGITAL RELAYS OPERATION

The relay applies A/D (analog/digital) conversion procedures to voltages and currents.
The relay analyzes the A/D converter output using the Fourier transform principle
to extract the magnitude of the incoming quantity (RMS value). The Fourier trans-
form is frequently used to extract the signal’s relative phase angle to some reference.
Based on current and/or voltage magnitude (and angle in some applications), the
digital relay may analyze whether the relay can activate or hold back from triggering.
Figure 2.16 provides examples of digital relays.

2.10.3 SIGNAL PATH FOR MICROPROCESSOR RELAYS

The signal path for voltage and current input signals is shown in Figure 2.17.
The signals are ltered with an analog lter after the currents and voltages are
reduced to acceptable levels by the instrument transformers. The signal is then

CT
ADC DAC Alarm
Input

VT
Input ADC
Data
Microcomputer communication
system

Other DAC Trip

ADC signal
Input

Microcomputer – control
relay

FIGURE 2.15 Block diagram of a digital relay.

48 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 2.16 Digital relays (numerical relays for protection, monitoring, and control).

digitized and re- ltered with a digital lter. Numerical operating quantities are then
calculated from the processed waveforms.

2.10.4 DIGITAL RELAY CONSTRUCTION

Digital relays have an advantage in recording events. This allows the consumer to
see the timing of key logic decisions, relay I/O (input/output) adjustments, and see

CT
Analog Analog to Digital
Magnitude
low digital cosine
and
pass conversion filter and
impedance
filter (A/D) phasor

VT

FIGURE 2.17 The signal path for voltage and current input signals to the microprocessor relays.
Protective Relays 49

at least the incoming AC waveform’s basic frequency portion in an oscillographic

fashion that would be included in the event recording.
The relay has a comprehensive array of settings beyond what can be entered via front
panel knobs and dials. These settings are passed to the relay via a PC (personal com-
puter) interface. This same PC interface is used to obtain event reports from the relay.
The digital lter smoothens the signal by eliminating DC and frequency compo-
nents different from the fundamental (when required).
The more recent digital relay models would have advanced metering and communi-
cation protocol ports, enabling the relay in a SCADA system to become a focal point.
Figure 2.18 shows a block diagram for digital relay architecture. Figure 2.19 shows
a digital relay algorithm.

2.10.5 ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL RELAYS

i. High reliability.
ii. Use for protection and control purposes.
iii. Measurement and fault recording.
iv. Capability for communication.
v. Compatibility with integrated digital systems.
vi. Integration and self-testing.
vii. The relays supervise the protection system.
viii. High sensitivity and selectivity.
ix. Modern protection principles.
x. Modern relay operating characteristics.
xi. Low maintenance cost.
xii. Reduced burden on CTs and VTs.
xiii. Adaptive protection.
xiv. Low cost.

RAM ROM/PROM EEPROM

. Analog Analog to Discrete . Tripping

. input digital output
. output
subsystem converter subsystem

Microprocessor
Operation
signalling

. Discrete
input
.
subsystem . Communication
. ports

FIGURE 2.18 Digital relay architecture.

50 Power System Protection and Relaying

Read Last
sample n

Digital
filtering

Phasor
calculation

Protection
Modify
method

Relay logic
No trip

Trip order

FIGURE 2.19 Digital relay algorithm.

2.11 NUMERICAL RELAYS

The difference between digital and numerical relays is based on points of suf cient
technical detail and is seldom seen in areas other than defense. Because of advances
in technology, they can be called normal developments of optical relays. They usu-
ally use a specialized digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational hardware
and related software equipment.

2.11.1 NUMERICAL MEASUREMENT TREATMENT

The measurement value is converted numerically into digital logic and then com-
pared with another digital logic sequence stored in a memory.

2.11.2 ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL TECHNOLOGY

i. Comprehensive information supply.
ii. Clear representation of the fault sequence.

2.12 ELECTROMAGNETIC VS. COMPUTERIZED

Table 2.2 illustrates a comparison between electromagnetic relay and computer
relay.
Protective Relays 51

TABLE 2.2
Comparison between Electromagnetic Relay and Computer Relay
Computer Relay
Characteristics Electromagnetic Relay Digital Relay Numerical Relay
Function Mechanical operation Static Static
Mechanical vibration High vibration No vibration No vibration
Burden effect High Low Low
Time type Clock Count Count
Reset time High Low Low
Accuracy Depend on temperature Stable Stable
Programming No Yes Yes
Auxiliary supply Necessary Necessary Necessary
SCADA connection No Yes Yes
Response time Slow Fast Very fast
Size Large Small Compact
Operation reliability High High High
Indication of the fault By ag By light By light
Monitoring No Self Self
Setting range Limited Wide Wide
Internal resistance Small High High
Maintenance Frequent Low Very low
Events recording No Yes Yes

PROBLEMS
2.1. What are the advantage and limitations of static relays? Sketch the different
scheme connections for stator protection of a delta-connected generator.
2.2. What does the fault sequence of event and disturbance recording indicate?
2.3. Draw the signal path for voltage and current input signals to the micropro-
cessor relays.
2.4. An RC circuit used to produce time delay for a solid-state relay is shown in
Figure 2.20. For a step input voltage Vi(t) = 10 U(t), the output voltage Vo(t) = 6 V
and C = 12 μF. Determine the time delay (tdelay) for the following cases:

+ +

Vi C Vo

_ _

FIGURE 2.20 Circuit diagram of Problem 2.4.

52 Power System Protection and Relaying

i. R = 100 kΩ;
ii. R = 1 MΩ.
iii. Sketch the output Vo(t) versus time for cases (i) and (ii).
2.5. An RC circuit used to produce time delay for a solid-state relay is shown
in Figure 2.21. For a step input voltage Vi(t) = 8 U(t), the output volt-
age Vo(t) = 4 V and C = 6 μF. Determine the time delay (tdelay) for the
following cases:
i. R = 1 kΩ;
ii. R = 10 kΩ.
iii. Sketch the output Vo(t) versus time for cases (i) and (ii).

+ +

Vi C Vo

_ _

FIGURE 2.21 Circuit diagram of Problem 2.5.

2.6. Compare wattmeter type, induction type, and shaded pole relay.
2.7. What is the class of measuring relays?
2.8. What are the data required for the relay setting?
 3 Protection Systems with
SCADA Technology

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The term “SCADA” means supervisory control and data acquisition, which is a
software that allows the supervision and control of industrial processes, including
manufacturing, production, power generation, fabrication, and re ning.
Through SCADA programs, a simple personal computer (PC) can become
a workstation to watch and control processes to communicate with the eld.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and remote telemetry units (RTUs), also
known as intelligent devices, are essential components utilized in diverse industries
for process automation, machinery control, and system monitoring. Allowing for the
graphic representation of a plant, the supervision of its processes, modi cation of
certain parameters, elaboration of reports, emission of alarms, and other functions.
The processes can be controlled remotely or locally to make changes to the param-
eters of the process on-site (local way) or adjustments in a control room (remote way).

3.2 BACKGROUND
SCADA is a control system architecture that uses computers, networked data trans-
mission, and graphical user interfaces for high-level process supervisory management.
It utilizes additional auxiliary devices such as PLCs and discrete PID controllers
to connect to equipment or processing plants.
Each of these levels will be covered in depth in this chapter, along with how they
work, how SCADA has developed over the last 30 years, and how security needs and
regulatory compliance affect SCADA system operation.
The SCADA system was created as an all-encompassing way to provide standard
automation protocols access to various local control modules from various vendors.
Large SCADA systems now work quite similarly to distributed control systems in
reality. However, they use a variety of plant interfaces. They can manage large-scale
operations that may span several locations and long distances.
Our vital infrastructure is under the supervision and control of SCADA systems.
The United States has 15 essential infrastructures. Included in this list are the fol-
lowing: (i) energy; (ii) waste and water systems; (iii) telecommunications; (iv) trans-
portation; (v) chemical; (vi) dams; (vii) emergency services; (viii) nancial services;
(ix) commercial facilities; (x) government facilities; (xi) critical manufacturing; (xii)
defense; (xiii) food and agriculture; (xiv) healthcare and public health; and (xv) infor-
mation technology (IT).
These vital infrastructures rely on one another. For instance, the energy sector
would be signi cantly impacted by an assault on the telecom industry.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-3 53
54 Power System Protection and Relaying

SCADA systems provide utilities in the electric power sector with useful informa-
tion and capabilities to distribute electricity dependably and securely. A utility’s most
important and expensive distribution, transmission, and generating assets must be
operated effectively, which depends on an ef cient SCADA system.
Modern SCADA systems have incorporated new communication and network
technologies to make the power grid smart and interactive. They are widely used
to monitor and manage real-time electric power networks, especially those dealing
with generation, transmission, and distribution. In the United States, electric power
systems have been using SCADA systems for more than 50 years.

3.2.1 BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS

Implementing SCADA systems for electricity distribution has the following
advantages:

i. Increases security and dependability through automation.

Automation protects workers by allowing problem areas to be identi ed
and addressed automatically.
ii. It also eliminates the need for manual data collection.
iii. Alarms and ongoing system monitoring enable operators to quickly identify
and resolve issues.
iv. Operators can use powerful trending capabilities to detect future issues,
improve routine equipment maintenance, and identify areas for improvement.
v. Information about the system that is current, accurate, and consistent.
vi. Quicker fault separation, system restoration, and reporting.
vii. Comprehensive reporting and statistical data are archiving.
viii. Centralized database and system parameter history.

The following are the main drawbacks of SCADA systems:

Utilizes proprietary programming and communications and is incompatible with
goods from other suppliers.

i. Outdated software with well-known security aws

ii. Any operator with access can completely shut the system off.

3.2.2 APPLICATIONS
SCADA is utilized to produce petrochemicals, food, oil and gas, water, waste, and
manufactured goods. In electrical power systems, it is commonly employed. The
most important and expensive utility distribution, transmission, and generating
assets must operate effectively; this is where SCADA solutions come into play. Power
system components, including power plants, transmission facilities, and substations,
are monitored and controlled remotely via SCADA systems. Power-producing facili-
ties experience automation before transmission and distribution.
Network connectivity analysis, state estimation, load ow application, voltage VAR
control, load shed application, fault management, system restoration, loss minimization
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 55

through feeder recon guration, load balancing through feeder recon guration, opera-
tion monitoring, and distribution load forecasting are the main applications of SCADA
in power systems. This text will carefully examine two of these applications.
The monitoring and management of multiple remote stations pose signi cant
challenges in electric power distribution systems. In addition to maintaining the
proper voltages, currents, and power factors, they provide capabilities like real-time
visibility into the processes. They employ RTU to automatically monitor, safeguard,
and regulate a variety of equipment in distribution systems.
Substation control: Substations are essential for sustaining the ow of electricity
and managing load. The SCADA system continually assesses the condition of dif-
ferent substation components and then sends them the appropriate control signals.
It carries out tasks including bus voltage regulation, bus load balancing, circulating
current regulation, and overload regulation.

3.2.3 CHALLENGES
Due to multiple vulnerabilities in the communications network, securing SCADA
systems in a power utility context is dif cult. To save money and advance technol-
ogy, bigger SCADA systems are linked to other networks such as the Internet. Due to
its interconnectedness, SCADA systems in the power grid are susceptible to various
communication security challenges, including new types of threats and cyberattacks,
including man-in-the-middle, denial-of-service, social engineering, and insider
assaults. The attackers’ objective is to undermine network security elements, includ-
ing availability, authentication, con dentiality, or integrity.
The communication link between the SCADA server and RTU is the most prob-
able target for an attack. Security devices for encryption and decryption of informa-
tion exchange should be implemented at two locations to combat this hack.
Additionally, access permission is needed between the master systems and RTUs.
In addition to password authorization, smart cards, rewalls, and intrusion detection
systems are additional security measures. Vendors should include built-in security
safeguards in their systems to address security issues.
SCADA system installation is costly and time-consuming in addition to providing
security. Costs go up when SCADA software is updated and staff members training
to utilize the new program. A system may have components from many vendors that
communicate via various proprietary protocols.

3.3 SCADA SYSTEM AND ITS LEVELS

Looking at the overall structure of a SCADA system, there are four distinct levels
within SCADA, these being (Figure 3.1):

i. Field instrumentation,
ii. PLCs and/or RTUs,
iii. Communications networks, and
iv. SCADA Host software.
56 Power System Protection and Relaying

Laptops
Servers

Field instrumentation PLC/RTUs Communications SCADA host

telemetry

FIGURE 3.1 SCADA system levels.

3.4 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE SCADA SYSTEMS

3.4.1 REMOTE SUPERVISION
This is one of the main functions of the SCADA system; the user can know the
status of the different processes in the plant and make decisions depending on this
information.

3.4.2 REMOTE CONTROL OF THE PROCESS

This function automatically enables or disables remote equipment (e.g., pumps, valves,
compressors, transformers, and switches.) depending on the operator’s decision. In the
same way, it is possible to adjust parameters in the control loops and eld devices.

3.4.3 GRAPHICS TRENDS PRESENTATION

It’s referring the possibility of visualizing the process diagrams with information in
real time.

3.4.4 ALARM PRESENTATIONS

This function alerts the operator to abnormal conditions or events requiring intervention.

3.4.5 STORAGE OF HISTORICAL INFORMATION

It also allows registration and stores operational information and alarms.
Other functions do not associate directly with the operations in a control room,
but equally important, they are diagnostic of hardware and software, automated sys-
tems of preventive maintenance and corrective, integration with other operational
systems, calibration of devices, and others.

3.4.5.1 Field Instrumentation

According to the old saying, “You can’t manage what you can’t measure,” instrumen-
tation is essential to a secure and effective control system. Historically, an operator
would start/stop local pumps and manually open/close valves. Pumps and their related
operating settings would also have been manually regulated. These instruments would
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 57

have gradually, over time, been supplied with feedback sensors, such as limit switches,
allowing communication for these wired devices into a local PLC or RTU, delivering
data relay to the SCADA Host program.
The capacity to design, install, and maintain equipment today demands greater
technical knowledge than in the past, but this is offset by the lower cost of automating
operations and workers’ better technical skill levels. Most eld equipment, including
valves, is now equipped with actuators so that a PLC or RTU can control the device
instead of manually operating it. With this feature, the control system can respond
more rapidly to unexpected occurrences and shut down or optimize production.
To guarantee that an electrical device has no unfavorable impacts on its surround-
ings or other electrical devices, instrumentation must also adhere to any EMC (elec-
tromagnetic compatibility) regulations that may be in place.

3.4.5.2 PLCs and RTUs

Formerly two very separate devices, PLCs and RTUs, are now quite similar.
Technology has converged in this area as producers of these gadgets increased their
capacities to satisfy consumer demand.
An RTU was a “dumb” telemetry unit for connecting eld devices 30 years ago.
The RTU had well-developed communication interfaces or telemetry but would only
“relay” the data from the instruments to the SCADA Host without any processing
or control. Equipment for remote telemetry (RTUs) are portable computers that are
placed in strategic areas across the world. RTUs are neighborhood hubs for receiving
sensor data and transmitting control instructions. The RTU’s control programming
was introduced in the 1990s, making it more PLC-like. On the other hand, PLCs
have always been able to execute control programs, but they lack communication
interfaces and data logging functionality, which have been somewhat added during
the previous ten years.
Offering a speci c application that could include several instruments and devices
with an RTU/PLC and incorporate technology sets to provide an “off-the-shelf”
approach to common process requirements, such as gas well production that includes
elements of monitoring, ow measurement, and control that would extend as an asset
into the SCADA Host, is a further development of devices in the eld.
PLCs and RTUs must meet the same standards as instruments in terms of envi-
ronmental and regulatory compliance since they work in the same setting. PLCs,
however, have not always been as ecologically friendly as RTUs. This is mostly
because PLCs were created to function in previously somewhat controlled environ-
ments, such as factory oors.

3.4.5.3 Remote Communications Networks

The SCADA Host, situated in the eld of ce or central control center, receives data
from distant RTU/PLCs out in the eld or along the pipeline via the remote commu-
nication network. Communication is the SCADA system’s “glue” or “linking com-
ponent,” and it is crucial to the system’s functioning since assets are dispersed over a
wide geographic region. A SCADA system’s ability to effectively handle communi-
cation with distant assets is essential to its success.
58 Power System Protection and Relaying

In the past 10–15 years, many customers have converted to radio or satellite com-
munications to save expenses and eliminate troublesome cabling dif culties. Twenty
years ago, the communication network would have been leased lines or dial-up
modems, which were highly costly to construct and operate. Cellular communica-
tions and upgraded radio equipment that offer faster transmission rates and better
diagnostics are among the newer communication kinds that have become accessible.
For contemporary, dispersed SCADA systems, the fact that these communication
mediums are still prone to malfunction is a signi cant problem.
The protocols changed at the same time as the communication medium. PLCs and
RTUs exchange data via protocols, which are electronic languages, either with other
PLCs and RTUs or SCADA Host systems. Protocols have often been exclusive and
the work of a particular company. As a further step, several manufacturers tended to
stick with a single standard, MODBUS, but added proprietary components to satisfy
certain functionality needs.
In recent years, true non-proprietary protocols such as DNP have emerged (dis-
tributed network protocol). These protocols were developed independently of any one
manufacturer and have become more of an industry standard thanks to the partici-
pation of several people and businesses in their creation. These procedures haven’t
advanced suf ciently yet, to be widely applicable to the application procedure and
regulatory requirements (Figure 3.2).

3.4.5.4 SCADA Host Software

Historically, the method for viewing graphical displays, alerts, and trends has been
SCADA Host software. Only when control components for distant instruments
were established was control from the SCADA Host itself possible. These systems
belonged to operators, technicians, and engineers and were shut off from the outside
world. Monitoring, maintaining, and engineering processes and SCADA compo-
nents were within their purview. This is no longer the situation because of improve-
ments in IT. The data that the SCADA Host software creates now has to be accessible
in real time to a wide range of different stakeholders. With the help of data obtained
from the SCADA system, accounting, maintenance management, and material pur-
chase needs are performed, at least in part. There is a push for the SCADA Host to
be an enterprise entity that provides data to various users and processes. This has
prompted the adoption of standards and interfaces to support methods by SCADA

Laptops
Servers

PLC/RTUs Communications FED/FEP SCADA host

telemetry

FIGURE 3.2 RTU/PLCs system connection.

Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 59

Host software development. Additionally, it implies that IT, which has historically
been kept apart from SCADA systems, is now actively engaged in maintaining net-
works, database interfaces, and user access to data.
Many of the rst SCADA Host products weren’t equipped with the telemetry com-
munication characteristics needed by SCADA systems for geographically dispersed
assets since they were created particularly for the industrial setting, where a SCADA
system was housed in a single building or complex (Figure 3.3).
These rst-generation SCADA Hosts sometimes require a hybrid PLC or RTU,
often a front-end driver (FED) or front-end processor, to manage connections with
remote devices (FEP). This had several problems since it cluttered communications
and the need for specialist programming that couldn’t be done on the SCADA Host
platform. Several FED or FEP devices were utilized to alleviate part of this, but due
to their specialized nature, their development and upkeep came with extra costs.
Since contemporary SCADA software already provides telemetry features, these
hybrid PLCs are no longer required for communications. They now use software pro-
grams called “drivers” integrated into the SCADA Host. Software drivers comprise
the many protocols to connect to remote devices such as RTUs and PLCs.
As technology developed, software platforms for SCADA Host bene ted from a
wide range of new functionalities. These included developing integrated databases
that could handle hundreds of changes per second for extremely large systems and
were speci cally designed with SCADA Host software requirements in mind.

Third-party
database Remote client
ACCESS

Client

Include: Communication
SCADA host platform drivers, real-time database,
alarm and event journal,
historic archive, and
configuration database

Data from field

FIGURE 3.3 SCADA Host platform.

60 Power System Protection and Relaying

The SCADA Host program cannot offer data access to external databases without
these criteria. Remote client access to the SCADA Host is another technology that
has allowed users to operate and keep an eye on SCADA systems, whether on the go
or in other locations.
The SCADA Host systems are under pressure to be operationally safe from the oil and
gas industry. The 49 CFR 195.446 Control Room Administration guidelines analyze the
SCADA Host software’s operations, maintenance, and management. The degree of inte-
gration, use of open standards, and architecture of the SCADA system are also covered.

3.5 SCADA ARCHITECTURE DEVELOPMENT

The four generations of SCADA systems are as follows.

• The rst generation is “monolithic.”

Large minicomputers were used in the early stages of SCADA system
computing. When SCADA was created, there were no common network
services. SCADA systems have no interface to other systems, making them
stand-alone systems. At that time, the communication protocols were all
proprietary. To establish redundancy for the rst-generation SCADA sys-
tem, a backup mainframe system linked to each RTU site was deployed
if the primary mainframe system failed. On minicomputers such as the
Digital Equipment Corporation’s PDP-11 series, certain rst-generation
SCADA systems were created as “turnkey” operations.
• Distributed: second generation
Multiple stations linked by a LAN processed commands and delivered
information for SCADA. Near real-time information sharing took place.
The cost was lower than rst-generation SCADA since each station was in
charge of a speci c job. The protocols used on the networks were still not
standardized. Few individuals outside of the engineers have access to these
proprietary protocols, making it dif cult to assess the security of a SCADA
system. The SCADA installation’s security was often disregarded.
• Networked is a third-generation term.
Any sophisticated SCADA may be broken down into its smallest com-
ponents and linked through communication protocols, much like a distrib-
uted architecture. The system may be dispersed over many process control
networks (PCNs), geographically isolated LAN networks in a networked
architecture. A network architecture might consist of many distributed archi-
tecture SCADAs operating concurrently, each with a single supervisor and
historian. This enables a more economical option in very large-scale systems.
• Internet of things, fourth generation
Since cloud computing has been commercially available, SCADA sys-
tems have embraced the Internet of things (IoT) technologies more and more
to lower infrastructure costs and make integration and maintenance easier.
Because of the horizontal scale provided by cloud environments, SCADA
systems may now execute more complicated control algorithms than are
realistically possible to perform on conventional PLCs. Furthermore,
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 61

compared to the heterogeneous mix of proprietary network protocols typi-

cal of many decentralized SCADA implementations, the use of open net-
work protocols such TLS (transport layer security), which is inherent in the
IoT technology, provides a security boundary that is easier to understand
and manage. One such use of this technology is a creative method for col-
lecting rainwater via the use of real-time controls (RTC)

This data decentralization necessitates a different SCADA strategy than conven-

tional PLC-based systems. The optimal approach for using a SCADA system locally
is linking the graphics on the user interface to the information kept in certain PLC
memory locations. The traditional 1-to-1 mapping, however, becomes troublesome
when the data originates from a diverse mixture of sensors, controllers, and data-
bases (which may be local or at several linked sites). Data modeling, an idea originat-
ing from object-oriented programming, provides a remedy for this.
The SCADA program creates a virtual representation of each device in a data
model. These virtual representations (also known as “models”) may include additional
information (web-based data, database records, media les, etc.) that may be required
by other SCADA/IoT implementation components in addition to the address mapping
of the device they represent. As traditional SCADA becomes more “house-bound”
due to the IoTs’ increased complexity, and as communication protocols change to
favor platform-independent, service-oriented architecture (such as OPC UA) [16],
more SCADA software developers will probably incorporate data modeling.

3.6 SECURITY
In recent years, security for SCADA systems has become a signi cant and con-
tentious issue. In the past, SCADA systems were solitary objects that belonged to
operators, engineers, and technicians. As a result, platforms for SCADA Hosts
were not always designed with secure connectivity to public networks. As a result,
many SCADA Host systems were vulnerable to assault since they could not defend
themselves.
Security has been a problem with distant assets communicating back to a SCADA
Host for many years due to various recorded assaults on SCADA systems. However,
an open standard has only recently made possible a safe encrypted and authenticated
data transmission between distant assets and a SCADA Host platform.
Security solutions for SCADA Host and remote asset communications have very
distinct needs. Security must be regarded holistically and in terms of the SCADA
system. One wouldn’t need to use the SCADA system to interrupt production, for
instance, if one decided to do so. A trespasser might readily threaten a gas well head
site or a monitoring station on a gas pipeline if they are located in a rural area. Other
options that may or might not be included in the SCADA system would have to be
considered if the asset is very signi cant, such as security camera monitoring.
The majority of unauthorized accesses to a SCADA system occur via the SCADA
Host or PCs that connect to the system for maintenance or diagnostics, not from or
at the distant assets themselves. For example, the recent Stuxnet virus assault was
carried out by inserting a thumb drive into a computer that was used to access a
SCADA system.
62 Power System Protection and Relaying

Many standards exist that outline how to protect a SCADA system, not only in
terms of the technology used but also in practices and processes. This is crucial since
the security solution for SCADA is a combination of behaviors and processes with
technology solutions rather than a single technological panacea. These practices and
procedures would include training materials, access to SCADA Hosts, and steps to
take if SCADA security has been hacked. IT departments should be involved in
building up processes and procedures and adopting technologies in contemporary
SCADA systems since they are essential to developing and maintaining SCADA
security for an organization.

3.7 FUTURE IMPLEMENTATIONS

A distributed control system, or DCS, performs real-time process control, while a
SCADA system often refers to a system that coordinates but does not. The real-time
control processes in SCADA systems incorporating DCS components.
The fourth generation of SCADA is entirely based on the IoT, which greatly low-
ers infrastructure costs and improves ease of maintenance and integration. IoT is the
next big thing in the world. Consequently, SCADA systems can now provide real-
time status reports, making them as good as their successor DCS.
SCADA systems have taken advantage of various technological advancements
to advance their competence, from the introduction of actuators and transducers
(which made monitoring of processes easier, more accurate, and less expensive)
at the instrumentation level to the introduction of open standards (to improve
the interchange of data between a SCADA system and other processes within an
organization).
To provide operational bene ts from the SCADA Host down to the instrumenta-
tion, not only in terms of controlling and retrieving data but also in terms of engi-
neering, implementing, operating, and maintaining these assets, modern SCADA
systems are driven to

• Provide instrumentation and RTUs/PLCs for the asset or process solutions

that can be easily managed.
• Create and implement open standards utilizing best practices established by
open organizations rather than a single manufacturing body to facilitate the
integration of assets inside a SCADA system. As a result, the cost of owning
SCADA will go down.
• Create safe environments for SCADA systems, their assets, and processes
by implementing several practices and procedures in addition to technologi-
cal solutions.

3.8 HARDWARE DEVICES

This section describes how to use the accompanying SCADA software and set a
protective relay’s address.
A setup contains several relays and must be assigned different addresses to ensure
correct communication with the software.
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 63

Using Lucas-Nülle SCADA software for

• Starting the application.

• User interface.
• Settings/parameter changes.
• Generating trend graphs.
• Measuring signal length.

Table 3.1 lists all the devices used in the power system/SCADA networks. The essen-
tial elements of protection technology are described brie y in Table 3.2.
Before using the SCADA system for the rst time, you must make a one-time
hardware connection for mutual communication. In some cases, the various devices
are connected via different interfaces to the PC. Refer to the subsequent overview
to nd out how individual devices should be linked to the PC. The con guration for
each type of connection is described in the corresponding discussion of this section.
Table 3.3 shows a multi-function relay. Table 3.4 shows an analog/digital multimeter.
The currents and voltages used with this instrument are to be transformed by a
factor of 1:1000. In other words, 1 V in the model corresponds to 1 kV in real energy

TABLE 3.1
Lucas-Nülle GmbH Power System/SCADA Networks Devices
Device Designation
Adjustable three-phase power supply (0–400 V/2
A, 72 p.u.)

Three-phase power quality meters with display

and long-term memory

(Continued)
64 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Power System/SCADA Networks Devices
Device Designation
Circuit breaker (power-switch module)

Current transformer

Voltage transformer

(Continued)
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 65

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Power System/SCADA Networks Devices
Device Designation
Transmission line model

Resistive load

Overcurrent time protection relay

Time overcurrent relay with directional feature

(Continued)
66 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Power System/SCADA Networks Devices
Device Designation
Overvoltage and undervoltage time relays

Directional power relay

(Continued)
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 67

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Power System/SCADA Networks Devices
Device Designation
Earth-fault protection relay

Relay test unit

Distance protection relay

(Continued)
68 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Power System/SCADA Networks Devices
Device Designation
Multimeter

transmission systems, 1 A, therefore, being equivalent to 1 kA. Regarding power,

1 W (or 1 VA) represents 1 MW (or 1 MVA).
The single lines employed here reproduce a 300-km (1864 miles) long, 380-kV
overhead transmission line with the constants R’, X’, and C’. Due to the line-to-line
voltage of 110 V or 220 V used in these experiments (corresponding to 110/220 kV on
real lines), an overhead line with the same constants still proves realistic.

TABLE 3.2
Lucas-Nülle GmbH Protection Technology Elements
Multi-function relay, power controller, power factor
controller, synchronization unit

Multi-function relay, power controller, cos(φ) controller,

synchronization unit

Transformer/generator differential protection relay

(Continued)
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 69

TABLE 3.2 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Protection Technology Elements
Generator HMI

Pumped-storage power station control unit

Power quality meter with graphic display and long-term

storage

(Continued)
70 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 3.2 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Protection Technology Elements
Three-phase meter

TABLE 3.3
Lucas-Nülle GmbH Multi-Function Relay
Multi-function relay, power controller,
cos(φ) controller, synchronization unit

High-speed distance protection relay

(Continued)
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 71

TABLE 3.3 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Multi-Function Relay
Double busbar, three-phase, incoming/
outgoing feeder

Double busbar, three-phase, coupler panel

Directional time overcurrent relay

(Continued)
72 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 3.3 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Multi-Function Relay
Power/directional power relay

Time overcurrent relay

Ground fault voltage relay

(Continued)
Protection Systems with SCADA Technology 73

TABLE 3.3 (Continued)

Lucas-Nülle GmbH Multi-Function Relay
Time overvoltage/undervoltage relay

Transformer/generator differential
protection relay
74 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 3.4
Lucas-Nülle GmbH Analog/Digital Multimeter
Analog/digital multimeter, power/power
factor meter, software

Multi-function relay, power controller,

cos(φ) controller, synchronization unit
 4 Faults Analysis
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Short circuits occur in the power system when equipment insulation fails due to sys-
tem overvoltage caused by lightning or switching surges, insulation contamination
(salt spray or pollution), or other mechanical causes. The resulting short circuit or
“FAULT” current is determined by the synchronous machines’ internal voltages and
the system impedances between the machine voltage and the fault.
A large volume of network data must also be controlled and accurately handled.
To assist the engineer in this, power-system planning, digital computers, and highly
developed computer programs are used. Such programs include short circuits and
transient programs.
The current chapter deals with fault analysis, introduction to the faults in power
systems, transient phenomena, and three-phase short-circuit, unloaded synchronous
machine. Short-circuit theory consists of balanced and unbalanced fault calculations
in general and conventional methods for small systems. These fault types involve
(single line-to-ground faults, line-to-line faults, and double line-to-ground faults).
The last three unsymmetrical fault studies will require the knowledge and use of
tools of symmetrical components.

4.2 FAULT CONCEPT

The great technical advances in the design and production of commercial and scien-
ti c general-purpose digital computers since the early 1950s have placed a powerful
tool at the engineering profession’s disposal. This advancement has made economi-
cally feasible digital computers’ utilization for routine calculations encountered in
everyday engineering work.
It has also provided the capability for performing more advanced engineering and
scienti c computations that were previously impossible because of their complex or
time-consuming nature. These trends have increased the interest in digital comput-
ers immensely and have necessitated a better understanding of the engineering and
mathematical bases for problem-solving. The development of computer technology
has provided the following advantages to power system engineering:

• More ef cient and economical means of performing routine engineering

calculations are required to plan, design, and operate a power system.
• Better utilization of engineering talent by relieving the engineer from
tedious hand calculations.
• The ability to perform more effective engineering studies.
• The capability of performing studies was impossible because of the volume
of calculations involved.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-4 75
76 Power System Protection and Relaying

Applying a computer to the solution of engineering problems involves several dis-

tinct steps (problem de nition, mathematical formulation, selection of a solution
technique, program design, programming, and program veri cation). The relative
importance of each of these steps varies from problem to problem.
As electric utilities have grown and the number of interconnections has increased,
planning for future expansion has become increasingly complex. The increasing cost
of additions and modi cations has made it imperative that utilities consider a range
of design options and perform detailed studies of the effects on the system of each
option based on several assumptions: normal and abnormal operating conditions,
peak and off-peak loading, and present and future years of operation.
An essential part of a power supply network’s design is calculating the currents,
which ow in the components when faults of various types occur. In a fault sur-
vey, the fault is applied at various points in the network, and the resulting currents
are obtained by digital computation. The magnitudes of the fault currents give the
engineer the current settings for the protection to be used and the circuit breakers’
ratings. In some circumstances, the effect of open circuits may need investigation.
When calculating short-circuit currents in high-voltage installations, it is often
suf cient to work with reactances because they are generally much greater in magni-
tude than the effective resistances. The ratios of the rated system voltages are taken
as the transformer ratios. Instead of the operating voltages of the faulty network, one
works with the rated system voltage. It is assumed that the various network com-
ponents’ rated voltages are the same as the rated system voltage at their respective
locations. The calculation is done with the aid of the %MVA system. The ohmic
resistances of low-voltage cables are usually higher than their reactances.
With widely different ratios of the real and imaginary parts, these impedances
are almost always present in a series arrangement. Complex calculation with imped-
ance Z = R + jX of the equipment is necessary; therefore, a complete short-circuit
is always assumed when calculating the short-circuit currents. Other in uences,
particularly arc resistances, contact resistances, conductor temperatures, the induc-
tances of current transformers, and the like, can reduce short-circuit currents. Since
they are not available for calculation, they are allowed by a factor (C). The instal-
lation’s apparatus and components must be designed for maximum dynamic and
thermal short-circuit stress. On the other hand, short-circuit protection devices must
respond to a lower short-circuit current. To reconcile these requirements, the term
“maximum short-circuit current” and “minimum short-circuit current” have been
introduced.
The maximum short-circuit currents with three-, two-, or single-phase faults are
obtained with the short-circuit path’s impedances at a conductor temperature of
(20°C) and the factor (C = 1.0).
An electrical network under short-circuit conditions can be considered a network
supplied by several sources (generators) with a single load connected to the node
subjected to the short circuit. There are several reasons to have as accurate data as
possible about short-circuiting currents and voltages in a system:
Each circuit breaker’s interrupting capacity in every switching locality must be
based upon the most severe short-circuit case.
Faults Analysis 77

The protective relaying system, intended to sense the fault and initiate selective
switching, bases its operation upon the fault current’s magnitude and directions.
The magnitude of bus voltages during short circuits determines the transient gen-
erator power outputs and the “transient stability.”
Fault studies form an important part of power-system analysis. The problem con-
sists of determining bus voltages and line currents during various faults. The three-
phase balanced fault information is used to select and set phase relays, while the
line-to-ground fault is used for ground relays. Fault studies are also used to obtain
the rating of the protective switchgear.
For fault studies, generator behavior can be divided into three periods:

1. The subtransient period lasts only for the rst few cycles.
2. The transient period covers a relatively long time.
3. The steady-state period.

Before about 1950, matrices were used only as research tools. They systematized the
arrangement of materials and generally forced the research worker to be organized.
Matrices reduced the computational effort; however, the absence of high-speed com-
puters limited investigations to small sets of equations involving only very small
matrices. The rst generation of small-scale computers extended the use of matrices
in solving network problems of limited size.

4.3 TYPES OF FAULTS

Faults in the three-phase system may be classi ed under the following headings:

i. Symmetrical three-phase faults.

ii. Single line-to-ground fault.
iii. Line-to-line faults.
iv. Double line-to-ground faults.

Note that three fault types involve line-to-ground (Earth fault). Most of these result
from insulator ashovers for weather conditions and insulation quality. The balanced
three-phase fault is the rarest in occurrence, accounting for above 5% of the total
faults, and it is the least complex of all types of short-circuit studies as far as the
calculations are concerned.
The types of faults commonly occurring in practice are illustrated in Figure 4.1,
and the most common of these is the short circuit of a single conductor to earth.
Often the path to earth contains resistance in the form of an arc, as shown in
Figure 4.1f.
Although the single line-to-ground fault is the most common, calculations are
frequently performed with the three-line, balanced short circuit (Figure 4.1d and e).
This is the most severe fault and the most interesting calculation.
As well as fault current, fault MVA is frequently considered; this is obtained from
{ }
the expression 3 VL I F × 10 −6 where VL is the nominal line voltage of the faulted
78 Power System Protection and Relaying

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

(E) (F)

Rf

FIGURE 4.1 Common types of faults. (a) Single line-to-ground fault. (b) Line-to-line
faults. (c) Double line-to-ground faults. (d) Three phase to ground fault. (e) Three phase fault.
(f) Fault through resistor.

part before the fault. The MVA is often referred to as the fault level. The calculation
of fault currents can be divided into the following two main types:

1. Faults short-circuiting all three phases when the network remains balanced
electrically. Normal single-phase equivalent circuits may be used as in ordi-
nary load- ow calculations for these calculations.
2. Faults other than three-phase short circuits when the network is electrically
unbalanced.
The main objects of fault analysis may be enumerated as follows:
i. To determine the maximum and minimum three-phase short-circuit
currents.
ii. To determine the unsymmetrical fault current for single and double line-
to-ground, line-to-line, and open-circuit faults.
iii. To investigate the operation of protective relays.
iv. To determine rated rupturing capacity of breakers.
v. To determine fault-current distribution and busbar–voltage levels during
faults.

4.4 SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS

To make the correct choice in switchgear, it is necessary to perform short-circuit cal-
culations. Such calculation enables the fault MVA due to a symmetrical three-phase
Faults Analysis 79

fault to be determined at a point of interest. These calculations demand the reduction

of the network to that of a single source feeding a single impedance.
The generator reactances are normally taken as their subtransient values to con-
sider the worst conditions. The calculation may be performed by expressing imped-
ance in ohms or per-unit values. When a transformer is involved, all impedance must
be referred to as a selected voltage base. This could be either the primary or second-
ary of the transformer or any other selected voltage base.

4.4.1 SIMPLIFIED MODELS OF SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINES FOR TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
For the salient pole, because of the nonuniformity of the air gap, the generator
was modeled with direct axis reactance (X d ) and the quadrature axis reactance X q.
However, the circuit reactance is much greater under short-circuit conditions than the
resistance. Thus, the stator current lags nearly π/2 radians behind the driving volt-
age, and the armature reaction m.m.f. is centered almost on the direct axis. Therefore,
during a short circuit, the machine’s effective reactance may be assumed only along
the direct axis (i.e., only X d ).
The three-phase short circuit of the current decays from a very high initial value
to a steady-state value. This is because of the machine reactance change due to the
effect of the armature reaction.
A useful gure can be obtained by considering the eld and damper windings as
the transformer’s secondary, whose primary is the armature winding, to determine the
machine’s equivalent circuits during normal steady-state and disturbance conditions.
There is no transformer action between the synchronous machine’s stator and
rotor windings during normal steady-state conditions. The resultant eld produced
by the stator and rotor both revolve with the same synchronous speed. This is similar
to a transformer with open-circuited secondaries. For this condition, its primary may
be described by the synchronous reactance X d .
During the disturbance, the rotor speed is no longer the same as that of the revolv-
ing eld produced by stator windings resulting in transformer action. Thus, eld and
damper circuits resemble much more nearly as short-circuited secondaries.
The equivalent circuit for this condition, referred to as the stator side, is shown in
Figure 4.2.
Xl

Xf X kd
X ad

FIGURE 4.2 The equivalent circuit for the subtransient period.

80 Power System Protection and Relaying

Ignoring winding resistance, the equivalent reactance of Figure 4.2, known as the
direct axis subtransient reactance, is:
−1
 1 1 1 
X d′′ = X l +  + +  (4.1)
 ad
X X f X kd 

where X l – Leakage reactance of armature.

X ad – Reactance of armature reaction in the d-axis.
X f – Reactance of eld circuit.
X kd – Reactance of damper circuit.

If the damper winding resistance Rk is inserted in Figure 4.2, and Thevenin’s induc-
tance seen at the terminals of Rk is obtained, the circuit time constant, known as the
direct axis short-circuit subtransient time constant, becomes:
−1
 1 1 1 
X kd +  + +
 X l X f X ad 
τ d′′ = (4.2)
Rk

For two-pole, turbo-alternator (X d′′ = 0.07 − 0.12p.u.) and for the water-wheel alter-
nator (X d′′ = 0.1 − 0.35 p.u.).
where X d′′ is only used in calculations if the effect of the initial current is impor-
tant, as, for example, when determining the circuit breaker short-circuit rating.
τ d′′ is very small, around 0.035 seconds, because the damper circuit has relatively
high resistance. Thus, this component of the current decays quickly. It is then per-
missible to ignore the reactance of the damper circuit X kd , and the equivalent circuit
reduces to Figure 4.3.
Ignoring winding resistance, the equivalent reactance of Figure 4.3, known as the
direct axis short-circuit transient reactance, is:
−1
 1 1 
X d′ = X l +  + (4.3)
 X ad X f 

Xl

Xad Xf

FIGURE 4.3 The equivalent circuit for the transient period.

Faults Analysis 81

If the eld winding resistance R f is inserted in Figure 4.3, and Thevenin’s inductance
seen at the terminals of R f is obtained, the circuit time constant, known as the direct
axis short-circuit transient time constant, becomes:
−1
 1 1 
Xf +  +
 X l X ad 
τ d′ = (4.4)
Rf

where X d′ may lie between 0.1 and 0.25 p.u, and τ d′ is usually in the order of (1–2)
seconds.
The eld time constant, which characterizes the decay of transient with the arma-
ture open-circuited, is called the direct axis open-circuit transient time constant.
This is given by

Xf
τ do
′ = (4.5)
Rf

where τ d′ o it is around 5 seconds. τ d′ is related to τ d′ o by:

X d′
τ d′ = τ do
′ (4.6)
Xd

Finally, when the disturbance is over, there will be no hunting of the rotor. Hence,
there will not be any transformer action between the stator and the rotor, and the
circuit reduces to Figure 4.4.
The equivalent reactance becomes the direct axis synchronous reactance:
X d = X l + X ad is the same X d which is obtained in a steady-state condition.
Similar equivalent circuits are obtained for reactances along the quadrature
axis. These reactances are X q′′, X q′ , and X q . These reactances may be considered for
cases when the circuit resistance results in a power factor appreciably above zero.
The armature reaction is not necessarily totally on the direct axis, except that the
machine’s equivalent circuits are represented only by the direct axis’s reactances.
The manufacturers provide synchronous machine reactances and time constants.
A short-circuit test can obtain these values.

Xl

Xad

FIGURE 4.4 The equivalent circuit for the steady-state period.

82 Power System Protection and Relaying

4.4.2 TRANSIENT PHENOMENA

To understand the synchronous machine transient phenomena, we rst study a simple
R-L circuit’s transient behavior, as shown in Figure 4.5.
The closing of the switch at t = 0 represents, to a rst approximation, a three-
phase short circuit at the terminals of an unloaded synchronous machine. The current
is assumed to be zero before the switch closes.

v(t ) = Vm sin (ω t + α ) (4.7)

The angle α is the phase of the voltage wave at which the switch is closed
At t = 0 +, the instantaneous voltage equation for the circuit:

di(t )
Ri(t ) + L = Vm sin (ω t + α ) (4.8)
dt

The solution for the current may be shown to be:

i (t ) = I m sin (ω t + α − θ ) − I m e − t / τ sin (α − θ ) (4.9)

where

Vm L
Im = ; τ = ; θ = tan −1 ω L /R;
Z R

Z = R 2 + (ω L )2 = R 2 + X 2

The fault current {i ( t )} in Equation 4.9, called the asymmetrical fault current, con-
sists of two components:

1. The rst term is the ac fault current (also called symmetrical or steady-state
fault current), which is a sinusoid and given by:

iac (t ) = I m sin (ω t + α − θ ) (4.10)

R L t=0

i(t)
V(t)=
Vm sin(ωt+α)

FIGURE 4.5 A simple series circuit with constant R and L.

Faults Analysis 83

2. The second term is dc offset current, which decays exponentially with a

L
time constant τ = And it is often referred to as a dc component since it is
R
unidirectional and is given by:

idc (t ) = − I m e − t / τ sin (α − θ ) (4.11)

At (t = 0), iac (t ) and idc (t ) are equal and opposite to satisfy the condition for zero initial
currents.
The magnitude of the dc component, which depends on α (i.e., depends on the
instant of application of the voltage to the circuit), varies from 0 when α = θ to I max
when α = (θ ± π/2 ) radians.
Note that a short circuit may occur at any instant during a cycle of the ac source;
that is, α can have any value. Since we are primarily interested in the largest fault
current, we choose α = (θ − π/2 ).
Then i ( t ) becomes:

i(t ) = I m sin (ω t − π /2 ) + I m e − t / τ (4.12)

If ω L  R, then θ ≅ π/2, so that circuit closer at voltage maximum

(α = π /2, 3π /2, 5π /2,) would give no dc component, and closer at voltage zero
(α = 0, π, 2π,) would cause the maximum dc component. See Figure 4.6.

i1
–i2
i=i1-i2

(a)

i1
–i2
i=i1-i2

(b)

FIGURE 4.6 Current waveform. (a) With no dc offset. (b) With maximum dc offset.
84 Power System Protection and Relaying

a
b
c

FIGURE 4.7 Steady-state current and transient current terms combine to form the resultant
current.

A detailed study of Equation 4.9 will show the conditions which make for the
maximum possible i ( t ). The maximum of dc offset current is usually assumed to
be the result of those conditions that make sin (α − θ ) = 1 or sin (α − θ ) = −1. See
Figure 4.7, which shows that i ( t ), iac (t ) , and idc ( t ) when L > R, θ = 85°, sin (α − θ ) = −1,
α = 355° , at t = 0, e ≈ 0.

4.4.3 THREE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT UNLOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Figure 4.8 shows the waveform of the ac fault current in one phase of an unloaded
synchronous machine. The dc component of the current is different in each phase.
The justi cation for the different amounts of dc components is that the short circuit
occurs at different points on each phase’s voltage wave. Since, in a practical situation,
we can never predict how much offset we will have; therefore, the dc components
are removed (subtracted) from the current waveforms. As shown, the amplitude of the
sinusoidal waveform decreases from a high initial value to a lower steady-state value.
A practical explanation for this phenomenon is that the magnetic ux caused by the
short-circuit armature currents (or by the resultant armature m.m.f.) is initially forced
to ow through high reluctance paths that do not link the eld winding or damper
circuits of the machine. This results from the theorem of constant ux linkages, which
states that the ux linking a closed winding cannot change instantaneously. The arma-
ture inductance, which is inversely proportional to reluctance, is initially low.
The armature inductance increases as the ux moves toward the lower reluctance
path.
The ac fault current in a synchronous machine is similar to that owing when
a sinusoidal voltage is suddenly applied to a series R-L circuit. However, there is
one important difference: In the case of the R-L circuit, our reactance (X = ω L) is
a constant quantity, whereas, in the case of the generator, the reactance is not a con-
stant one but is a function of time. Therefore, the ac fault current in a synchronous
machine can be modeled by the series R-L circuit if a time-varying inductance L ( t )
or reactance X (t ) = ω L (t ) is employed.
If we prefer to use r.m.s values, it is reasonable to divide the maximum values of
the above gure by 2 , as shown in Figure 4.9.
Faults Analysis 85

If

| I‡|
Sub-transient
current

| I›| Transient
current Steady state
current

|I|

time

‡
Td

‹
Td

FIGURE 4.8 Fault current in one phase shows the subtransient, transient, and steady-state
currents.

|I‡|

|I›|
i(t)

|I|

time
‡
Td
‹
Td

FIGURE 4.9 The subtransient, transient, and steady-state fault currents.

86 Power System Protection and Relaying

Referring to Figure 4.9, the amplitude of the varying ac fault current (r.m.s) as a
function of time is given by:

 E E  − t / τ d′′  E E  − t / τ d′ E
I ac (t ) =  − e + − e + (4.13)
 X d′′ X d′   X d′ X d  Xd

The instantaneous ac fault current can be written as:

 1 t
1  − τ d′′  1
t
1  − τ d′ 1 
iac (t ) = 2 E  −  e +  −  e +  × sin (ω t + α − θ ) (4.14)
 X d′′ X d′   X d′ X d  X d 

where E is the r.m.s line-to-neutral pre-fault terminal voltage of the unloaded syn-
chronous machine, an armature resistance is neglected in Equation 4.14. Note that at
t = 0, when the fault occurs, the r.m.s value of iac ( t ) in Equation 4.14 is:

E
I ac (0) = = I d′′ (4.15)
X d′′

which is called the r.m.s subtransient fault current, I d′′ . The duration of I d′′ is deter-
mined by the time constant τ d′′ .
At a later time, when t is large compared to τ d′′ but small compared to the τ d′ , the
rst exponential term in Equation 4.14 has decayed almost to zero, but the second
exponential has not decayed signi cantly. The r.m.s ac fault current then equals the
r.m.s transient fault current, given by:

E
I d′ = (4.16)
X d′

When t is much larger than τ d′ , the r.m.s ac fault current approaches its steady-state
value, given by:

E
I ac (∞) = = Id (4.17)
Xd

In addition to the ac fault current, each phase has a different dc offset. As in the R-L
circuit, the dc offset depends on the instantaneous value of the voltage applied (i.e.,
angle α ).
The time constant associated with the decay of the dc component of the stator cur-
rent is known as the armature short-circuit time constant (τ a). Most of the decay of
the dc component occurs during the subtransient period. For this reason, the average
value of the direct axis and quadrature axis subtransient reactance is used for nding
τ a. It is given by:

X d′′ + X q′′
τa = (4.18)
2ω Ra
Faults Analysis 87

And it is approximately given by:

X d′′ + X q′′
τa = (4.19)
2 Ra

Typical value of τ a is around 0.05–0.17 seconds.

In comparison, in Equation 4.11, the r.m.s of the dc component for phase (a) is
given by:

E −t /τ a
I dc ( t ) = 2 e sin (α − θ ) (4.20)
X d′′

I dc ( t ) = 2 I d′′ e − t / τ a sin (α − θ ) (4.21)

I dc(max) (t ) = I dc (t ) = 2 I d′′0 e − t / τ a (4.22)

I dc(max) (0) = 2 I d′′ (4.23)

The waveform of asymmetrical fault current is a superposition of dc and ac

components

 1 t
1  − τ d′′  1
t
1  − τ d′ 1 
iasy (t ) = 2 E  −  e +  −  e + 
 X d′′ X d′   X d′ X d  X d 
t
E −τ a
× sin (ω t + α − θ ) − 2 e sin (α − θ ) (4.24)
X d′′

In Equation 4.24, the degree of asymmetry depends upon the point of the voltage
cycle at which the fault occurs, and if ω L  R, then θ ≅ π/2.
The r.m.s value of iasy ( t ) is of interest. Since iasy ( t ) in Equation (4.31) is not strictly
periodic. Its r.m.s value is not strictly de ned. However, treating the exponential
term (dc component) as a constant, we stretch the r.m.s concept to calculate the r.m.s
asymmetrical fault current with maximum dc offset, as follows:

I asy( rms ) (t ) = [ I ac (t ) ]2 + [ I dc (t ) ]2 (4.25)

where I ac ( t ) is the magnitude of Equation 4.13 and I dc ( t ) is the magnitude of

Equation 4.22.
Therefore, the maximum r.m.s current at the beginning of the short circuit
I asy (rms) ( 0 ) is:

2 2
 E   E 
( I d′′)2 + ( )
2
I asy(max) (0) =   + 2 = 2 I d′′
 X d′′   X d′′ 

I asy(max) (0) = 3I d′′ (4.26)

88 Power System Protection and Relaying

In practice, the momentary duty of a circuit breaker (CB) is given in terms of the
asymmetrical short-circuit current, that is, mean:

I momentary of CB (t ) = I asy( rms ) (t ) (4.27)

The factor is normally taken as 1.6 instead of 3 in assessing the momentary current
for the CB above 5 kV. This factor was reduced for voltage under 5 kV.
The momentary duty is not to be confused with the interrupting capacity of
the CB.
To calculate the interrupting capacity of the CB, the subtransient currents are
used. The calculation depends on the CB’s speed, the ratio of X to R in the circuit, the
distance between the fault and the generating station, and so forth. If X/R is small,
the dc component will decay quickly; therefore, a smaller multiplying factor must be
used. Of course, the faster the breaker, the higher the multiplying factor.
Typical values of multiplying factor for CBs of different speeds are as provided
subsequently.

Circuit Breaker Speed Multiplying Factor

One cycle 1.6
Two cycles 1.4
Three cycles 1.2
Five cycles 1.1
Eight cycles 1.0

Example 4.1

A bolted short circuit occurs in the series R-L circuit, with V = 18 kV, X = 10 Ω,
R = 0.5 Ω, and dc offset. The CB opens three cycles after fault inception. Determine:

1. The r.m.s ac fault current.

2. The r.m.s momentary current at τ = 0.75 cycle passes through the breaker
before it opens.
3. The r.m.s asymmetrical fault current that the breaker interrupts.

Solution

Vm V
1. I ac(max) = , and I ac( rms) = rms
Z Z

20 × 10 3 18 × 10 3
∴ I ac( rms) = = = 1.797 kA
(8)2 + (0.8)2 10.0124
Faults Analysis 89

2. I momentary = I asy( rms) ( t ) = [ Iac (t )]2 + [ I dc (t )]2

2 2
V   V 
=  rms  +  2 rms e − t / τ 
 Z   Z 

Vrms
= 1 + 2e −2t / τ = I ac( rms) 1 + 2e −2t / τ
Z
L X X 10 20
τ= = = = =
R ω R 2πfR 2πf (0.5) 2πf
τ
t=
f

where τ is time in cycles

0.75
∴ t=
f

t 0.75/f
= = 0.75π
τ 1/ ( π ⋅ f )

Therefore,

I momentary = 1.797 × 1 + 2e −2 × 0.75 × π = 1.813 kA

3 − I asy( rms) (3 cycle) = 2.488 1 + 2e −2π (3) ≈ 2.488 kA

Example 4.2

A 600 MVA 18 kV, 60 Hz synchronous generator with reactances X d′′ = 0.25,

X d′ = 0.34, X d = 1.2 p. u. and time constants τ d′′ = 0.025, τ d′ = 2.1, τ a = 0.23 seconds is
connected to a CB. The generator operates at 6% above-rated voltage and no load
when a bolted three-phase short circuit occurs on the breaker’s load side. The
breaker interrupts the fault three cycles after fault inception. Determine:

1. The subtransient fault current in per-unit and kA r.m.s.

2. Maximum dc offset as a function of time.
3. r.m.s asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker interrupts, assuming
maximum dc offset.

Solution

1. The no-load voltage before the fault occurs E = 1.06 p.u. The subtransient
fault current that occurs in each of the three phases is:

E 1.06
I d′′ = = = 4.24 p.u.
X d′′ 0.25
90 Power System Protection and Relaying

The generator base current is:

Srated 600
I base = = = 19.245 kA
3 Vrated ( 3 )(18)
∴ I d′′ in p.u. = ( 4.24 )(19.245 ) = 81.6 kA

2. The I dc(max) ( t ) offset that occurs in any one phase is:

t
−
I dc(max) ( t ) = 2 (81.6) e 0.23 = 115.4 e − t / 0.23 kA

3. To calculate I asy( rms) (t ) must determine I ac ( t ) and I dc ( t )

τ 3 cycle
t= = = 0.05seconds.
f 60

 1 1  − 0.025  1
0.05
1  −
0.05
1 
I ac ( 0.05) = 1.06  −  e + −  e 2.1 + 
  0.25 0.34  0.34 1.2 1.2 

= 3.217 p.u.

= (3.217)(19.245) = 61.91kA

0.05
−
I dc ( 0.05) = 2 I d′′ e −0.05 / τ a = 2 (81.6 ) e 0.23 = 92.852 kA

I asy( rms ) ( 0.05) =  I ac ( 0.05) +  I dc ( 0.05)

2 2

= (61.91) 2 + (92.852)2

= 111.6 kA

4.4.4 EFFECT OF LOAD CURRENT

If the fault occurs when the generator delivers a pre-fault load current, two methods
might be used to solve three-phase symmetrical fault currents.

1. Use of internal voltages behind reactances:

When there is a pre-fault load current, three ctitious internal voltages
E ′′, E ′, and E may be considered to be effective during the subtransient,
transient, and steady-state periods, respectively, as shown in Figure 4.10.

E ′′ = V + jX d′′I L (4.28)

E ′ = V + jX d′ I L (4.29)

E = V + jX d I L (4.30)
Faults Analysis 91

” ’
X d ,X d ,X d

E”,E’,E G Load

(a)

j X d IL
E
E”
E’ ‘
j X d IL
”
j X d IL
V
(b)

FIGURE 4.10 One-phase diagram showing the subtransient, transient, and steady-state cur-
rents. (a) Circuit diagram. (b) Phasor diagram.

2. Using Thevenin’s theorem and superposition with load current:

The fault current is found in the absence of the load by obtaining
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the point of fault. The total short-circuit cur-
rent is then given by superimposing the fault current with the load current.

4.5 UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ANALYSIS

As stated earlier, most system faults occur in practice and are unbalanced or
unsymmetrical.
An unbalanced power system may be de ned as one in which the current or volt-
ages are unbalanced. It will be evident that such an imbalance may be brought about
if either the alternator voltage is unsymmetrical or the system’s circuit is so.
Most of the faults on power systems are unsymmetrical faults, consisting of
unsymmetrical short circuits, unsymmetrical faults through impedances, or open
conductors.
Unsymmetrical faults occur as single line-to-ground faults, line-to-line faults, or
double line-to-ground faults. The path of the fault current from line to line or line to
the ground may or may not contain impedance. One or two open conductors result
in unsymmetrical faults, either through the breaking of one or two conductors or
through the action of fuses and other devices that may not open the three phases
simultaneously.
Since any unsymmetrical fault causes unbalanced currents to ow in the system, it
is shown below the general network’s sequence components and Thevenin’s equiva-
lent circuits.
92 Power System Protection and Relaying

Va2
Vc1 Va1

Vao
Vb2
Vbo
Vco
V b1 Vc2

Positive-sequence Negative-sequence Zero-sequence

components components components

FIGURE 4.11 Three sets of balanced phasors are the symmetrical components of three
unbalanced phasors.

4.6 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

An unbalanced system of N phasors can be resolved into an N system of balanced
phasors, each of which has phasors of equal amplitude with equal angles between
each phasor. The systems of balanced phasors are called symmetrical components.
The vector sum of the symmetrical components equals the original system of unbal-
anced phasors. The symmetrical components of a three-phase system, illustrated in
Figure 4.11, are as follows.

4.6.1 POSITIVE-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

These are three phasors of equal magnitude, offset from each other by 120° and
rotating in the same direction as the original phasors, usually signi ed counterclock-
wise in a phasor diagram.

4.6.2 NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

Three phasors of equal magnitude, offset from each other 120° in phase, and rotat-
ing in the opposite direction to the original phasor, make up the negative-sequence
components. Normally the rotation of the phasors is considered to be in the same
direction as the original phasors, but two of the phase vectors, b and c, and reversed,
as shown in Figure 4.11; thus, the negative-sequence components phase rotation is a
c b instead of a b c.

4.6.3 ZERO-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

These are three phasors of equal magnitude, with an in-phase offset between them.
They are in phase. The zero-sequence components are often non-rotating, like a dc
voltage. However, zero-sequence impedance is complex, so the zero-sequence volt-
age is treated as a single-phase source for calculating zero-sequence impedance in
relaying problems.
Faults Analysis 93

The de ning equations for the symmetrical components, where Va, Vb, and Vc are
the original unbalanced phasors, are:

Va = Va1 + Va 2 + Va 0
Vb = Vb1 + Vb 2 + Vb 0 (4.31)

Vc = Vc1 + Vc 2 + Vc 0

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 4.12.

The operator is used to indicate a 120° phase shift. The three phasors’ relative
angular position for a three-phase voltage can be expressed as the product of the pha-
sor’s amplitude and the operator (a), referring to Figure 4.11.

Vb 2 = a Va 2 , a = 1 ∠120° = –0.5 + j 0.866

Vb1 = a 2Va1 , a 2 = 1 ∠240° = – 0.5 − j 0.866

Vc 2 = a 2 Va 2 , 1 + a + a 2 = 0

Vc1 = a Va1 , Vc 0 = Vb 0 = Va 0

Therefore, it can use previous relations to nal Va, Vb, and Vc;

Va = Va1 + Va 2 + Va 0

Vb = a 2 Va1 + a Va 2 + Va 0 (4.32)

Vc = a Va1 + a 2 Va 2 + Va 0

V ao

Va V a2

V c2 V c1

V co V a1
Vc

Vb

V b1
V bo

V b2

FIGURE 4.12 Three unbalanced phasor diagrams.

94 Power System Protection and Relaying

It rewrites Equation 4.32 as

 Va   1 1 1   Va 0 
    
 Vb = 1 a2 a   Va1  (4.33)
 Vc   1 a a2   Va 2 
    
And these transformations can do it for currents, too, as

 Ia   1 1 1   I a0 
    
 Ib = 1 a2 a   I a1  (4.34)
 Ic   1 a a2   I a2 
    

4.7 EFFECT OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS ON IMPEDANCE

To nd the effect of the symmetrical component on impedance, we assumed that the
start relation is:

Vabc = [ Z abc ] ⋅ I abc (4.35)

where [Z abc] is a matrix of dimension (3 × 3) that gives self- and mutual impedance in
phases and between them.

[ A] ⋅ [V012 ] = [ Z abc ][ A][ I 012 ] (4.36)

[V012 ] = [ A]−1 [ Z abc ][ A][ I 012 ] (4.37)

[ Z 012 ] = [ A]−1 [ Zabc ] [ A] (4.38)

[V012 ] = [ Z012 ] ⋅ [ I 012 ] (4.39)

The important Equation 4.38 found that [Z abc] is not diagonal but somewhat sym-
metrical, while [Z 012] is diagonal; these make the analysis very easy.

4.8 PHASE SHIFT ∆/Y CONNECTION ∆/Y

Type of connection (ΔΔ, YY) for primary and secondary causes no phase shift
between them. While for (ΔY, YΔ), there is a phase shift between the transformer’s
primary and secondary.
To understand this problem, let us consider transformer has (Y-Δ) connection,
as shown in Figure 4.13, considering (Δ-connection) is low-voltage side, then from
studying the phasor diagram, as shown in Figure 4.14, we can see that,

VAB = VHV ∠30° (4.40)

Vab = VLV ∠0° (4.41)

Faults Analysis 95

FIGURE 4.13 The transformer has a (Y-∆) connection.

FIGURE 4.14 The phasor diagram.

All of the high-voltage magnitudes lead to low voltages by (30°), and from many
tries, it can say that “for each star delta, delta star named the phasors as make positive
sequence magnitudes in high voltage side lead more than positive sequence mag-
nitudes in low voltage side by (30°) and vice versa according to negative sequence
magnitudes.”

4.9 SEQUENCE NETWORK OF UNLOADED GENERATOR

When a fault occurs at the generator’s terminals, currents Ia, Ib, and Ic ow in the
lines; if the fault involves ground, the current owing into the neutral of the generator
is designated (In).
One or two of the line currents may be zero, but the currents can be resolved into
symmetrical components regardless of how unbalanced they may be.
Drawing the sequence network is simple. The generated voltages are of positive
sequence only since the generator is designed to supply balanced three-phase volt-
ages. The positive-sequence network is composed of an emf in series with a positive-
sequence impedance of the generator. The negative and zero-sequence networks
contain no emf but include the generator’s impedance to negative and zero-sequence
currents.
96 Power System Protection and Relaying

a Ia

In +
Ea
Zn
-

Eb

Ec

b Ib
c
Ic

FIGURE 4.15 Circuit diagram of an unloaded generator grounded.

A circuit diagram of an unloaded generator grounded through a reactance is

shown in Figure 4.15. The emf of each phase is Ea, Eb, and Ec.

4.9.1 POSITIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

The generated emf in the positive-sequence network is the no-load terminal voltage
to neutral, as shown in Figure 4.16. This is equal to the voltage behind transient and
subtransient reactances and the voltage behind synchronous reactance since the gen-
erator is not loaded. The positive-sequence network’s reactance is the subtransient,
transient, or synchronous reactance depending on whether subtransient, transient, or
steady-state conditions are being studied. From Figure 4.16b

Va1 = Ea – I a1 Z1 (4.42)

Ea is the positive sequence no-load voltage to neutral.

Z1 is the positive-sequence impedance of the generator.

4.9.2 NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

The reference bus for positive and negative-sequence networks is the neutral of the
generator. As far as positive and negative-sequence components are concerned, the
generator’s neutral is at ground potential since only zero-sequence currents ow in
the neutral and ground impedance. Figure 4.17 shows the path for phase currents of
the negative sequence in the generator and the corresponding sequence networks.
From Figure 4.17b.

Va 2 = – I a 2 Z 2 (4.43)

where Z2 is the negative-sequence impedance of the generator.

Faults Analysis 97

a Ia1

Z1

+
Ea
-

Eb

Z1 Ec Z1

b Ib 1
c
Ic1

(a) Positive-sequence current path

a Ia 1

Z1

V a1
+
Ea
-

(b) Positive-sequence network

FIGURE 4.16 The path for phase current of positive sequence in the generator (a) and the
corresponding sequence networks (b).

4.9.3 ZERO SEQUENCE

The current owing in the impedance Z n between neutral and ground is (3I0). By
referring to Figure 4.18a, we see that the voltage drop of zero sequences from point a
to ground is (−3Ia0 Z n − Ia0 Zg0), where Zg0 is the zero-sequence impedance per phase
of the generator.
The zero-sequence network, a single-phase circuit assumed to carry only the
zero-sequence current of phase, must, therefore, have an impedance of (3Z n + Zg0),
as shown in Figure 4.18b, The total zero-sequence impedance through which Iao
ows is:

Z 0 = 3 Z n + Z g0 (4.44)
98 Power System Protection and Relaying

a Ia 2

Z2

Z2 Z2

b Ib 2
c
Ic2

(a) Negative-sequence current path

a Ia 2

V a2
Z2

(b) Negative-sequence network

FIGURE 4.17 The path for phase current of the negative sequence in the generator (a) and
the corresponding sequence networks (b).

The equations for the components of voltage drop from point (a) of phase (a) to the
reference but (or ground) are, as may be deduced from Figure 4.18b,

Va 0 = – I a 0 Z 0 (4.45)

where Z 0 is the zero-sequence impedance de ned by Equation (4.44).

4.10 ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS USING THE

METHOD OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT
The fault occurs at any point in the power-system network represented by the inter-
connection between sequence components at the fault position. Therefore, the
important thing that must be determined accurately is the way of connecting these
networks, and they must follow these steps for analysis:
Faults Analysis 99

a Ia0

Z0

In

3 Zn

Z0 Z0

b I b0
c

Ic0

(a) Zero-sequence current path

a Ia0

Z2

V a0

3 Zn

(b) Zero-sequence network

FIGURE 4.18 The path for phase current of zero sequence in the generator (a) and the cor-
responding sequence networks (b).

1. Make a detailed diagram for the circuit and determine all phases connected
to the fault position, as shown in Figure 4.19.
2. Write down all circumstances of fault dealing with phase current and phase
voltage.
3. Transform magnitudes of phase current and phase voltage (a-b-c) that are
determined in item (2) above to sequence components (0 1 2) by using [A] or
[A]−1.
4. Determine the connection of sequence network terminals (N, F) using the
information of sequence currents determined in item (2).
5. Determine the connection of recent sequence components terminals of the
network and all impedances concerning the fault using items (3, 4).

 Va 0   0   Z0 0 0   I a0 
      
 Va1  =  Ea − 0 Z1 0   I a1  (4.46)
 Va 2

  0
   0 0 Z2   Ia2 
  
100 Power System Protection and Relaying

The fault point f

a

Za Zb Zc
+ + +
Va Vb Vc
_ _ _
Ia Ib Ic

FIGURE 4.19 Circuit diagram at fault point (F).

4.10.1 SINGLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT

Consider a single line-to-ground fault from phase a to ground at the general three-
phase bus shown in Figure 4.20. For generality, we include a fault impedance Zf in
case of a bolted fault, Zf = 0, whereas, for an arcing fault, Zf is the arc impedance. In
the case of a transmission line insulator ashover, Zf includes the total fault imped-
ance between the line and ground, including the arc and transmission tower’s imped-
ances and the tower footing if there are no neutral wires.
Fault condition in the phase domain

Ib = Ic = 0 (4.47)

Single line-to-ground

Vag = Z f I a (4.48)

As

Va = Z f I a (4.49)
Faults Analysis 101

The fault point f

a

Zf
+ + +
Va Vb Vc
Ib =0 Ic =0
_ _ _
Ia=If

FIGURE 4.20 General three-phase bus.

Therefore,

Va = 3 Z f I a1 (4.50)

Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2 = 3 Z f I a1 (4.51)

Then from Figure 4.21, the sequence components of the fault current are:

Vf
I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2 = (4.52)
Z 0 + Z1 + Z 2 + ( 3 Z f )

4.10.2 LINE-TO-LINE FAULT

Consider a line-to-line fault from phase b to c, shown in Figure 4.22.
Fault conditions in the phase domain

Ia = 0 (4.53)

line-to-line fault current

Ic = – I b (4.54)

Vbg – Vcg = Z f I b (4.55)

102 Power System Protection and Relaying

a Ia 1

Z1

V a1
+
Ea1
-

Ia 2

Z2

V a2

Ia0

Z0

V a0

3 Zn

FIGURE 2.21 Interconnected sequence networks for SLG fault.

Faults Analysis 103

The fault point f

a

Ib Ic

+ + +
Va Vb Vc Zf
_ _ _
Ia=0

FIGURE 4.22 General three-phase bus.

From using the transformation equation:

I a 012 = A –1I abc (4.56)

and

I a 0 = 0, I a 2 = − I a1 (4.57)

Z f I a1 = Va1 – Va 2 (4.58)

Fault conditions in sequence domain

Ia = 0 (4.59)

line-to-line fault

I a1 = − I a 2 (4.60)

Va1 – Va 2 = Z f I a1 (4.61)
104 Power System Protection and Relaying

Zf
Ia1

Z1 Z2

V a1 V a2
+
Ea1
Ia2
-

FIGURE 4.23 Interconnected sequence networks.

From Figure 4.23, the fault currents are:

Vf
I a1 = (4.62)
( Z1 + Z2 + Z f )
Ia0 = 0 (4.63)

4.10.3 DOUBLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT

A double line-to-ground fault from phase b to phase c through impedance Zf to the
ground is shown in Figure 4.24. From this gure we observe that:
Fault conditions in the phase domain

Ia = 0 (4.64)

Double line-to-ground fault

Vcg = Vbg (4.65)

Vbg = Z f ( I b + I c ) (4.66)

Fault conditions in sequence domain

I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = 0 (4.67)

Double line-to-ground fault

Va 0 – Va1 = ( 3 Z f ) I a 0 (4.68)

Va1 = Va 2 (4.69)

I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = 0 (4.70)
Faults Analysis 105

The fault point f

a

Ib Ic

Zf Zf
+ + +
Va Vb Vc
_ _ _
Zg
Ia=0

FIGURE 4.24 General three-phase bus.

Vb = Va 0 + a 2Va1 + aVa 2 (4.71)

Vc = Va 0 + aVa1 + a 2Va 2 (4.72)

The domain is satis ed from fault conditions in sequence by connecting the zero,
positive, and negative-sequence networks in parallel at the fault terminal; addition-
ally, (3Zf) is included in the zero-sequence network series. This connection is shown
in Figure 4.25 from this gure; the positive-sequence fault current is

Vf
I a1 = (4.73)
 Z2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f ) 
Z1 +  
 Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f 

Using the current division in Figure 4.25, the negative and zero-sequence fault
currents are

 Z0 + 3Z f 
I a 2 = ( − I a1 )   (4.74)
 Z 0 + 3Z f + Z 2 

 Z2 
I a 0 = ( − I a1 )   (4.75)
 Z 0 + 3Z f + Z 2 
106 Power System Protection and Relaying

3 Zn
Ia1

Z1 Z2 Z0

V a1 V a2 V a0
+
Ea1
Ia2 Ia0
-

FIGURE 4.25 Interconnected sequence networks.

4.11 FAULT CLASSIFICATION

The fault can be classi ed into two types according to the time:

1. Permanent fault is de ned as producing complete damage in the network’s

insulations and equipment, and it must change with other new ones.
2. Instant fault: The fault may still be for a very short period of compression
to a permanent fault period. The damage produced the same damage in
the equipment; this type of fault may occur due to the conductors’ contact
because of heavy wind. Then it causes an electric spark.

This type of fault is classi ed into two subtypes:

• Recursion fault: It occurs due to the contact between the conductors and
comes back to normal operation and may contact conductors, and hence,
these cases may occur due to heavy wind.
• Not recursion fault: It occurs due to contact between the conductors, then to
return to normal operation and remove the contact.

Thus, the rst part of this presentation will deal with the balanced and unbalanced
fault calculation in general and conventional methods for small systems. The second
part will deal with a large system using a digital approach.

4.12 ASSUMPTIONS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS

In the system data presentation, it is assumed that the system is balanced, and only
one phase in the three-phase system is considered. The impedances represent the
per-phase impedance of transmission lines and transformers. It is considered that the
impedance to the ow of positive, negative, or zero-sequence currents is the same in
each phase except at points of the system unbalanced, and these unbalances require
special treatment.
The rest of the network comprises balanced impedances such that the per-phase
representation is possible. The generators have different impedance to the ow of
Faults Analysis 107

positive, negative, and zero-sequence currents; however, a general simplifying

assumption is made as follows:

1. All load currents are negligible.

2. All generated voltages are equal in phase and magnitude to the positive-
sequence pre-fault voltage.
3. The positive and negative-sequence networks are identical.
4. The networks are balanced except at fault points.
5. All shunt admittance (line charging susceptance, etc.) is negligible.

4.13 FAULT VOLTAGE-AMPS

Voltage – ampere is always called fault level, which it will produce by multiplying
the fault current by reference voltage (Vr). In the case of a ground fault, the voltage
is represented as phase voltage, while in the case of a phase fault, the voltage is line
voltage. Now we discuss how we can compute voltage – ampere directly from the
equivalent circuit of the fault; if we use per-unit system, let (Zt) represent the equiva-
lent circuit of the fault, then

Zt = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f (Ground fault) (4.76)

Z t = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 (Phase fault) (4.77)

Let (Vr) be the reference phase voltage for the faulted part of the system,

3Vr2
VA 3 ph(base) = 3Vr ⋅ I r = (4.78)
Zr

( Fault VA ) = 3VZE (For ground fault )

r

t
an
(4.79)

Then, in the per-unit system,

Ean

( Fault VA ) p.u. =  3V 2  = VZrt = ((EZant))p.u.

3Vr Ean p.u.
(4.80)
r
 Z  Zt Zr
 r 

The same thing happened for phase fault:

3Vr 3 Ean
( Fault VA ) = Zt
(4.81)
108 Power System Protection and Relaying

Then in the per-unit system:

Ean
3Vr Ean V ( Ean ) p.u.
(Fault VA) p.u = = r = (4.82)
 3Vr2  Zt ( Zt ) p.u.
 Z  Zt Z
 r  r

then

( Fault VA ) p.u. = Z1 t
(4.83)

Example 4.3

Draw the positive, negative, and zero sequences for the power system shown in
Figure 4.26 (Figures 4.27–4.29)

Solution

2 4

3
1 10
5
6
11 7

9
8

FIGURE 4.26 The one-line diagram for Example 4.1.

1 2 10
4
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.08 0.15
0.06
3

0.45 0.6
0.15

5 0.7

0.43 6
11
0.25 0.1
0.35 0.48

7 8 9

FIGURE 4.27 Positive-sequence network for Example 4.1.

Faults Analysis 109

1 2 10
4
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.08 0.15
0.06
3

0.45 0.6
0.15

5 0.7

0.43 6
11
0.25 0.1
0.35 0.48

7 8 9

FIGURE 4.28 Negative-sequence network for Example 4.1.

1 2 10
∞ 4
0.06 0.06 0.8 0.08 0.19
3

0.15 0.06 0.9 1.0

0.3

1.1
5
0.8 6
11
0.08 ∞
0.7 0.9

0.34
7 8 9

FIGURE 4.29 Zero-sequence network for Example 4.1.

4.14 FAULT ANALYSIS BY THE SCADA SYSTEM

Because of the high currents occurring in the event of a failure, the line model is
operated at a rated voltage of 110 V during the experiments. At this rated voltage, too,
the model realistically reproduces the values R, L, and CB. The measurements are
carried out at a line length of 300 km. Two multimeters can simultaneously measure
all voltages and currents at both lines’ ends.
Increase the voltage of the feeding transformer at the start of the line in small
increments to the speci ed value, ensuring that the maximum permissible amper-
age (2.5 A) is not exceeded anywhere. All short-circuit tests should be carried out
110 Power System Protection and Relaying

Fault
Transmission
line

Generator Circuit
breaker

FIGURE 4.30 Power-system con guration.

expeditiously at the speci ed supply voltage. The current should be switched off as
soon as the desired readings have been obtained (Figure 4.30).

4.15 MEASUREMENT OF ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

The line’s zero-sequence impedance must be known to analyze the line’s response to
asymmetric short circuits. This is achieved using the test circuit shown in Figure 4.31.
The negative-sequence impedance need not be determined separately, equal to the
positive-sequence impedance in the case of static systems such as transmission lines.
The conduct measurements at a transmission line length of 300 km.
All three phases of the line are connected to a single alternating voltage, the earth
or earth wire serving as the return conductor. This is a neutral conductor N in the
case of the line model. The zero-sequence impedance is the ratio between the applied
voltage and measured current. Note that the zero current I 0 owing through each of
the conductors increases by a multiple of three ( 3I 0 ) in the return conductor.
Conduct the measurement at a voltage of VLN = 100 V.

I a = 1.1

FIGURE 4.31 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for determining zero-sequence impedance
emulator at PVAMU.
Faults Analysis 111

I n = I a /3 = 1.1/3 = 0.36

P = 34 W, Q = 314 VAR, S = 316 VA

Consequently, the value of the zero-sequence impedance

Z 0 = V0 I 0 = 100/0.36 = 272 Ω.

The power measurement can be used to determine the active component of Z 0 .

The active power consumed by the whole line was measured. Accordingly,
P0 = 13 W are distributed proportionally among the conductors and the return con-
ductor. The resistor R0 is determined from the equation

R0 = P0 I 02 = 13/0.362 = 100 Ω,

and the reactive component

X = Z 02 − R02 = 2722 − 100 2 = 252.95 Ω.

The result is to be compared with a calculated value:

For

Z TL = ( 7.2 + j 86.7) Ω, and

Z E = (15 + j 75.4 ) Ω are used

So Z 0 = Z m + 3 ⋅ Z E

and, then Z 0 = ( 52.2 + j 312.9) Ω.

4.16 SYMMETRIC (THREE-POLE) SHORT CIRCUIT

For comparison, a three-pole short circuit is analyzed rst. Set up the circuit as
shown in Figure 4.32; connect the three outer conductors and the neutral conductor
after the right-hand multimeter.
Raise the line-to-line voltage at the start of the line to 110 V, and then measure the
parameters listed subsequently at a line length of 300 km.

Voltage L1 − L2 ( at linestart ) = 0 V

Current L1 = 1.1 A

Active power P per phase (at linestart ) = 13W

Reactive power Q per phase ( at linestart ) = 100 VAR

112 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 4.32 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for measurements in the event of a three-pole
short-circuit emulator at PVAMU.

The power measurement reveals that the reactive power component predominates in
the event of a short circuit. This is easily understandable because any existent load
resistances are bridged during the short circuit, and a high-voltage line’s reactance is
always much higher than its active resistance.
When the connection to the neutral conductor is removed, and because a sym-
metric short circuit is involved, the measured values do not change. In the case of a
three-pole short circuit, the return conductor remains de-energized (except for minor
asymmetries attributable to the components).

4.17 ASYMMETRIC SHORT CIRCUITS

To determine currents and voltages in the case of unbalanced faults, the circuit only
needs to be modi ed slightly. The same fault types speci ed in the theoretical part
are simulated here.

4.17.1 SINGLE-POLE SHORT CIRCUIT (EARTH FAULT)

After the second multimeter shown in Figure 4.33, the outer conductor L1 connects
to the neutral conductor.
Raise the line-to-line voltage at the start of the line to 110 V and then measure the
parameters listed next.

• Voltage L1 − L2 (at line start) = 177 V

• Current L1 = 0.42 A
• Current L2 = 0.17 A
• Current L3 = 0.17 A
• The voltage of outer conductor L2 concerning earth = 142 V
• The voltage of outer conductor L3 concerning earth = 138 V
• Relationship for the short-circuit current: I sc single-pole = 3 ⋅ E ′′ ( Z m + Z g + Z0 )
Faults Analysis 113

FIGURE 4.33 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for measurements in the event of a single-pole
short-circuit emulator at PVAMU.

A value of 110 V/ 3 is to be used for the driving voltage E”. Moreover,

Z m = Z g = ( 7.2 + j 86.7) Ω and Z 0 = ( 52.2 + j 312.9) Ω .
Accordingly, Z m + Z g + Z 0 = ( 66.6 + j 486.3) Ω; value: 490.9 Ω.
The single-pole short-circuit current (value) is Isc single-pole = 0.39 A.
A detailed calculation of the intact line-to-earth voltages is dispensed here.
According to the equations in the previous section, these voltages have the following
values: V2 = 84 V and V3 = 87 V.

4.17.2 TWO-POLE SHORT CIRCUIT WITH EARTH FAULT

After the right-hand multimeter shown in Figure 4.34, the outer conductors L2 and
L3 connect to the neutral conductor. Use an additional ammeter to measure the sum
Isc two-pole of the two currents.

FIGURE 4.34 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for measurement in the event of a two-pole
short-circuit emulator at PVAMU.
114 Power System Protection and Relaying

Raise the line-to-line voltage at the start of the line to 110 V, then measure the
parameters listed subsequently.

• Voltage L1 − L2 (at line start) = 168 V

• Current L2 (at line end) = 0.93 A
• Current L3 (at line end) = 0.93 A
• In = 0.33 A
• Line-to-earth voltage of L1 = 145 V

Compare the measurement results with the calculated values (ascertained using the
method of symmetric components):
Relationship for the short-circuit current:

I sctwo-pole = j ⋅ 3 ⋅ E ′′ ⋅Z g ( Zm ⋅ Z g + Z m ⋅ Z0 + Z 0 ⋅ Z g ) .
The impedances Z m , Z g , and Z 0 calculated previously result in the following denomi-
nator for the fraction discussed earlier:

N = ( Z m ⋅ Z g + Z m ⋅ Z 0 + Z 0 ⋅ Z g ) = ( −60,977 + j 14,807) Ω2 .

Accordingly, the value of the two-pole short-circuit current is: I sc two-pole = 0.26 A.
A detailed calculation of the two partial currents and intact line-to-earth volt-
age is dispensed here. The previous equations result in the following values: I 2
I 2 = 0.69 A, I 3 = 0.66 A, V1 = 94 V.

4.17.3 TWO-POLE SHORT CIRCUIT WITHOUT EARTH FAULT

In this case, simply disconnect outer conductors L2 and L3 from the neutral conduc-
tor. Raise the line-to-line voltage at the start of the line to 110 V and measure the
parameters listed subsequently.

• Voltage L1 − L2 (at line start) = 167 V

• Current L2 = Current L3 (at line end) = Short-circuit current Isc = 0.91 A
• Line-to-earth voltage L1 = 109 V
• Line-to-earth voltages L2 and L3 = 52 V

Compare the measurement results with the calculated values (ascertained using the
method of symmetric components):

Relationship for the short-circuit current: I 2 = − I 3 = I sc = − j 3 E ′′ ( Zm + Z g ).

A value of 110 V/ 3 is to be used again for the driving voltage E”. Moreover,
Z m = Z g = ( 7.2 + j 86.7 ) Ω. The calculation results in the following amperages for
the two short-circuited outer conductors:

I 2 = I 3 = I sc = 0.63A
Faults Analysis 115

A detailed calculation of the three line-to-earth voltages is dispensed here. The

equations in the previous section result in the following values for these voltages:
V1 = 64 V, V2 = V3 = 32 V.

4.18 EARTH FAULTS AND THEIR COMPENSATION

Although in practice, high-voltage systems are not operated with an isolated neutral
point at nominal voltages = 110 kV. The line model also serves as a good demonstra-
tion of responses to earth faults with and without a quenching coil if such voltage
levels are simulated.

4.18.1 EARTH-FAULT COMPENSATION

Modify the circuit slightly by connecting the earth-fault quenching coil to the neutral
conductor between the power switch and line model.
Figure 4.35 will use a line-to-line voltage of 100 V at the end of the line before
the occurrence of an earth fault. Successively set all inductance values between 1.0
and 2.0 H on the coil, and measure the corresponding earth-fault currents. L2 and L3
voltages are 187 Vph.

4.18.2 EARTH FAULT WITH AN ISOLATED NEUTRAL POINT

Set up the circuit as shown subsequently, leaving the neutral conductor discon-
nected from the transformer. After the right-hand multimeter produces an earth fault
between the outer conductor L1 and N (Figure 4.36).
Raise the line-to-line voltage at the end of the line, and measure the parameters
listed next

• Voltage L1 − L2 (end of the line) = 219 V

• Current L1 (end of the line) = 0.37 A

FIGURE 4.35 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for measurements with an earth-fault quench-
ing coil fault emulator measurement at PVAMU.
116 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 4.36 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for measurements in the event of an earth-
fault emulator measurement at PVAMU.

• Line-to-earth voltages L2 and L3 = 220 V

• Value of the earth-fault current: I E = 3 ⋅ U N ⋅ ω CE. Using a 2.2 μF for the
line-to-earth capacitance results in I E = 0.16 A.

4.19 OVERCURRENT TIME PROTECTION

The overhead transmission line receives a three-phase power supply and is loaded
symmetrically at the receiving end. Located before the transmission line is a CB for
disconnecting the line from the power supply in the event of a fault. The time over-
current relay measures the current in each phase via a current transformer.
Figure 4.37 shows the circuit diagram and layout plan.
Using the LN SCADA software system, Set the load to its lowest level and set the
relay’s DIP switches as indicated in the table provided subsequently (active
setting = green background).

Function Trip Trip Trip Block I> Block I>> f t I> t I>
DIP switch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ON Inverse Strong i. Extreme i. Yes Yes 60 Hz × 10 seconds × 100 seconds
OFF DEFT DEFT DEFT No No 50 Hz × 1 seconds × 1 seconds

To determine the reset ratio in the case of a symmetric, three-pole short circuit:
Connect the power-switch module as shown in Figure 4.38 so that the right-hand
side is bridged and the left-hand side is connected to all three phases at the overhead
line’s end. For this connection, disconnect the relay output from power switch 1 to
prevent premature tripping.
Faults Analysis 117

Fault
Transmission
Line

Generator Circuit
Breaker
(a)

(b)

FIGURE 4.37 Lucas-Nülle GmbH test circuit for measurements in the event of an overcur-
rent time protection. (a) Power-system con guration. (b) Layout plan.

FIGURE 4.38 Lucas-Nülle GmbH three-pole short-circuit emulator at PVAMU.

118 Power System Protection and Relaying

• In the case of a two-pole short-circuit

Close power switch two, as shown in Figure 4.39, so that the right-hand
side is bridged and the left-hand side is connected to two phases at the over-
head line’s end.
• In the case of a single-pole short circuit
Connect the power switch (2), as shown in Figure 4.40, so that the right-
hand side is bridged and the left-hand side is connected to one phase and
the N-conductor.

FIGURE 4.39 Lucas-Nülle GmbH two-pole short-circuit emulator at PVAMU.

FIGURE 4.40 Lucas-Nülle GmbH single-pole short-circuit emulator at PVAMU.

Faults Analysis 119

PROBLEMS
4.1. A single-line diagram of a power system is given in Figure 4.41. Positive-
sequence, negative-sequence, and zero-sequence reactances in per unit are
also given. The synchronous generator operates at a rated MVA and is 5%
above the rated voltage. The neutrals of the generator and Δ-Y transformers
are solidly grounded. The motor neutral is grounded through a reactance
Xn = 0.03 per unit on the motor base. Pre-fault voltage is VF = 1.05∠0° per unit.
The pre-fault load current and Δ-Y transformer phase shifts are neglected.

1 2
Line

X1=X2=0.1
100 MVA 100 MVA X0=0.2 100 MVA 100 MVA
13.8 KV 13.8/138KV 138/13.8KV 13.8 KV
X1=X2=0.2 X=0.13 X=0.132 X1=0.195
X0=0.1 X2=0.2
X0=0.1

FIGURE 4.41 Power-system diagram for Problem 4.1.

a. Draw the system’s per-unit zero-sequence, positive-sequence, and

negative-sequence networks on a 100 MVA, 14.8-kV base.
b. Reduce the sequence networks found in part (a) to their Thevenin
equivalents, as viewed from bus 2. Draw Thevenin equivalent circuits.
c. Calculate the subtransient fault current per per-unit for a bolted single
line-to-ground short circuit from phase a to ground at bus 2.
4.2. A simple three-phase power system is shown in Figure 4.42. Assume that
the ratings of the various devices in this system are as follows:
• Generator G1: 100 MVA, 14.8 kV, X1 = X2 = 0.2 p.u., X0 = 0.25 p.u.,
• Generator G 2: 100 MVA, 20.0 kV, X1 = X2 = 0.25 p.u., X0 = 0.25 p.u.,
• Xn = 0.05 p.u.
• Transformer T1: 100 MVA, 14.8/138 kV, X = 0.10 p.u.
• Transformer T2: 100 MVA, 20.0/138 kV, X = 0.15 p.u.
• Each Line: X1 = X2 = 40 Ω, X0 = 100 Ω.

T.L 1 T.L 2

T1 1 2 3 T2
G1 G2

FIGURE 4.42 Power-system diagram for Problem 4.2.

120 Power System Protection and Relaying

Fill table for the fault at bus no. 1.

Fault
Types Three-Phase SingleLine-to- Line-to-Line Double Line-to-
Required Fault Ground Fault Fault Ground Fault
If
Ia
Ib
Ic
Va
Vb
Vc

4.3. A 50 MVA, 11 kV three-phase synchronous generator was subjected to

different types of faults. The fault currents are as follows:
• Three-phase fault current: 2000 A,
• The line-to-line fault current: is 2600 A, and
• Single line-to-ground fault current: 4200 A.
If the generator neutral is solidly grounded, calculate
i. Positive-sequence reactance of the generator.
ii. Negative-sequence reactance of the generator.
iii. Zero-sequence reactance of the generator. Neglect the resistance.
4.4. In a three-phase, four-wire power system, current in A, B, and C lines under
abnormal conditions of loading are:

I A = 100∠50° A, I B = 120∠ − 30° A, and IC = 70 ∠ − 10° A

A. Calculate A-line’s zero, positive, and negative phase sequences.

B. Calculate the return current in the neutral connection.
4.5. For the power system shown in Figure 4.43. All values are given in per unit
based on the same base. Assume the pre-fault voltage is 1.0 p.u. with zero
phase angle (Table 4.2).

FIGURE 4.43 Power-system diagram for Problem 4.5.

A. Find the ratio of If three-phase/If-SLG.

B. Find the ratio of If three-phase/If-DLG.

Item Connection X1 X2 X0
Generator Grounded star 0.1 0.1 0.05
Transformer Grounded star for both sides 0.2 0.2 0.2
Faults Analysis 121

4.6. In a three-phase power system, the voltage in phases A, B, and C lines

under abnormal conditions are:

VA = 100∠50° V, VB = 120∠ − 30° V, and VC = 70 ∠ − 10° V

A. Calculate the zero, positive, and negative voltage phase sequences in
line A.
B. Calculate the line voltage VAB , VBC , and VCA
4.7. For the power system shown in Figure 4.44. All values are given in per unit
based on the same base. Assume the pre-fault voltage is 1.0 p.u. with zero
phase angle.

X1=X2=0.1
X1=X2=0.2 X=0.1 1 X0=0.2 2 X=0.1 X1=X2=0.2
X0=0.1 X0=0.1

FIGURE 4.44 Power-system diagram for Problem 4.7.

Draw the zero, positive, and negative-sequence system and nd the fault
current for
A. The three-phase fault occurs on bus 2.
B. The line-to-line fault occurs on bus 2.
C. Double line-to-ground fault occurs on bus 2.
4.8. The synchronous generator in Figure 4.45 operates at rated MVA, 0.9 p.f and
lagging, and at 5% above-rated voltage when a three-phase short circuit occurs
at bus 2. Calculate the per unit and the actual values of (a) subtransient fault
current, (b) subtransient generator and motor currents, neglecting pre-fault cur-
rent, and (c) subtransient generator and motor currents, including pre-fault.

G M

FIGURE 4.45 Power-system diagram for Problem 4.8.

4.9. For the power system shown in Figure 4.34 (in Problem 4.8), a bolted dou-
ble line-to-ground fault occurred at bus 2. Use Sb = 150 MVA, V b = 138 kV
in the transmission line circuit, assume that X” = X2, X0 = 0.05 p.u. for
the generator and motor, X0 = 3X1 and X1 = X2 for the transmission line,
Transformers are the star to ground connected. Calculate in p.u.
i. The subtransient fault current in each phase.
ii. The neutral fault current.
iii. The motor contribution to the fault current.
122 Power System Protection and Relaying

4.10. A bolted short circuit occurs in the R-L circuit, with V = 22 kV, X = 12 Ω,
R =0.55 Ω, and dc offset. The circuit breaker opens 3.5 cycles after fault
inception. Determine:
i. The r.m.s ac fault current.
ii. The r.m.s momentary current at τ = 0.5 cycles passes through the
breaker before it opens.
iii. The r.m.s asymmetrical fault current that the breaker interrupts.
4.11. A 600 MVA 18 kV, 60 HZ synchronous generator with reactances
X d′′ = 0.15, X d′ = 0.35, X d = 1.25 p.u. and time constants τ d′′ = 0.015,
τ d′ = 1.8, τ a = 0.25 seconds is connected to a circuit breaker. The generator
operates at 6% above-rated voltage and no load when a bolted three-phase
short circuit occurs on the breaker’s load side. The breaker interrupts the
fault three cycles after fault inception. Determine:
i. The subtransient fault current in per-unit and KA r.m.s
ii. Maximum dc offset as a function of time
iii. r.m.s asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker interrupts, assum-
ing maximum dc offset.
 5 Fuses and Circuit
Breakers

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A fuse is a device linked in series with conductors attached to the current-carrying
load device. The oldest and most operational system for safety fuses was introduced
in 1890 when Thomas Edison invented electric fuses. There are many kinds of fuses,
and every type of fuse has a purpose. The various types of fuses, their design, func-
tion, and applications are discussed in this chapter.
The fuse is a level detector consisting of a sensor and an intermediate sensor. A
fuse element will respond to a high current ow when mounted in series with the
system being protected and/or triggered. The melting time of the fuses is inversely
proportional to the current owing through the fuse. During interrupting the cur-
rent ow, the fuse connection is broken. For delivering multiple shots, there can be
mechanical arrangements of fuse con guration.
Fuses may only be capable of interrupting currents up to the maximum short-
circuit ratio or limiting the size of the short-circuit current by interrupting the ow
until the maximum value is reached. This current-limiting action is a signi cant fea-
ture with applications in many industrial applications and low-voltage installations.
The description of fuses and circuit breakers, types, and speci cations are dis-
cussed in this chapter. The chapter includes an introduction to the construction and
working of a fuse, the characteristics of a fuse, and fuses applications. Also, the
chapter discusses high-voltage circuit breakers.

5.2 LOAD AND FUSE CURRENT

Under normal conditions, the load current is less than the fuse’s ampere rating, and
the fuse remains intact to connect the load to the source. The current through the link
will increase when an overload or short circuit occurs. Once the link has completely
dissolved, there is an open circuit in the fuse, and the circuit will remain open until
the fuse is replaced. Fuses are a “one-time” use device. Figure 5.1 shows describes
three kinds of fuses.
When the load current is lower than the fuse’s rated current under normal condi-
tions, the fuse remains intact to connect the load to the source. The current through
the connection will rise when an overload or short circuit occurs. Once the connec-
tion is fully dissolved, an open circuit is present in the fuse, and the circuit stays open
until replaced. Fuses in a system are for “one-time” use only.
The fuse link resistance is extremely low during normal service when the fuse
runs less than the constant current rate. The link’s temperature will eventually reach

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-5 123

124 Power System Protection and Relaying

Reduced area of link

(a)

Reduced area of link

Filter material
(b)
Trigger spring

Conductor
(c)

FIGURE 5.1 Short-circuit elements. (a) Non-current limiting, non-time-delay fuse; (b) cur-
rent-limiting non-time-delay fuse; and (c) current-limiting time-delay fuse.

a level that causes the bound portion of the link to melt if an overload current occurs
and lasts for more than a short time. The results of this overload lead to

i. A gap creation, and an electric arc formation.

ii. The gap width increases as the arc cause the connecting metal to burn.
iii. Eventually, arc resistance reaches a degree so high that the arc cannot con-
tinue and is extinguished.
iv. The electricity would be cut off entirely because of the failure of the fuse.

Usually, fuse requirements depend on the following four variables (Figure 5.2):

i. DC rating: Without melting and washing, the fuse can hold RMS current
inde nitely.
ii. Voltage rating: This RMS voltage de nes the fuse’s ability to suppress the
internal arc after the fuse connection’s melting. Its voltage level must be able
to survive a blown fuse. Most low-voltage fuses have a 250–600 V rating,
and the fuse rate of medium voltage varies from 2.4 to 34.5 kV.
iii. Rated interrupt current: The fuse can safely cut the biggest RMS asymmet-
ric current. For medium voltage, the normal interrupting rate is 65, 80, and
100 kA.
iv. Response time: A fuse’s melting and winding time depend on the overcur-
rent magnitude de ned by the curve of “current time.”
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 125

10,000

1000

100
Ti me (s ec)

10

80
1
100 125
160
0.1

0.01
100 1000 10,000

Current (A)

FIGURE 5.2 Current versus time–fuse characteristics.

Technically, the fuses form the protective relay background, especially for radial
feeders such as distribution lines or auxiliary systems of power stations. The two
main drawbacks of fuses are the following.

i. Delay: One-shot feature requires replacing a blown fuse before restoring

service. This means delay, the need for the correct backup fuses, and the
quali ed maintenance personnel who have to go in and replace fuses in the
eld. The multi-shot feature can be provided by installing several parallel
fuses and a mechanical trigger mechanism. The blowing of one of the fuses
automatically shifts its position.
ii. A single-phase to a ground fault would cause a single fuse to explode in a
three-phase circuit, de-energizing only one phase and allowing connected
equipment – such as motors – to remain connected to the remaining phases,
with subsequent increased heating and vibrations due to the unbalanced
voltage supply.

The protective relays were developed as logic components separate from the circuit
interrupt function to overcome these drawbacks. Relays require low-level inputs (volt-
ages, currents, or contacts). They derive their input from power transformers, such as
current or voltage and switching contacts. They are only fault detection devices and
require an associated interrupt device – a circuit breaker – to clear the fault. One of
the most important developments was the separation of the fault detection function
and the outage function, giving the relay designer the ability to design a protection
system that matched the power system’s needs.
126 Power System Protection and Relaying

5.3 FUSES, SECTIONALIZES, RECLOSERS

In the context of a distribution system’s safety speci cations, fuses, sectionalizes,
and reclosers should be addressed more correctly as they are the key protection
devices for that system.
Distribution is commonly de ned as the system’s level that energizes the nal
step-down transformer serving the industrial, commercial, or residential consumer,
that is, the distribution transformer.
Except for the special cases discussed subsequently, the distribution system is
almost entirely radial, containing only one source at one end. Operating voltage
ranges from 2.4 to 34.5 kV. While pole-mounted distribution transformers remain
prevalent, there is a growing trend and increased utilization of (URD) systems. URD
transformers are normally installed on a pad, mounted to the ground on a concrete
pad, generally at a distant corner of a residential area.
There is some concern about safety and the potential physical damage that would
occur if a violent kind of failure occurred. This has resulted in applying current-
limiting (CL) fuses, which signi cantly reduces the “permissible” power of a high
current fault compared to other fuse types. The CL fuse consists of one or more silver
wires or ribbon elements suspended in a sand- lled envelope.
When operating against a high current, the fusible element instantly melts along
its length. The resulting arc quickly loses its thermal energy to the surrounding sand.
The rapid thermal energy loss limits the current to a small value known as the “let”
current. The most used protection device in the distribution circuit is the fuse. Fuses
differ widely in properties from one manufacturer to another. The fuses’ characteris-
tic current time curves are given in the minimum melt and total clearance times, as
shown in Figure 5.3. Minimum melting is the time between the initiation of a current
large enough to cause the melting of the element responding to the current and the
moment when arcing occurs.

Inverse
overcurrent
Time

relay
Recloser

Fuse
Total
clearing
Min. melt

Current

FIGURE 5.3 Overcurrent device coordination.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers 127

Total time of clearance (TCT) is the total time elapsed from the onset of overcur-
rent to terminal circuit interruption, i.e.,

TCT = Minimum melting limit + bending time.

It is important not to mix fuse types such as ANSI “K” or “T.” Operational character-
istics differ enough that there may be a lack of cohesion. While implementing other
safety devices, such as overcurrent relays, the same precaution must be taken. In
general, while the fuses or relays may be identical, there are variations in output and
subtle differences in operating characteristics that will trigger coordination, current
level, and capture mode dif culties.
Fuses have various load-carrying capabilities with various fusion curves, which
must be considered. Most manufacturers’ application tables display three load cur-
rent values: continuous capture, hot load, and cold load capture. The continuous load
is the highest estimated current that will not affect the fuse for three hours or more.
The sum of that, a hot load, is without in ating; it can be carried continuously, inter-
rupted, and reactivated instantly. A 30-minute break follows the cold load and is
elevated due to loss of diversity when service is restored. Because during this time,
the fuse will also cool down, capturing the cold and hot loads that will approach
similar values.
International standards and requirements have been established for ease of
replacement and installation due to the large size of the distribution system’s equip-
ment. Unique distribution systems-related equipment such as potheads (transition
conductors and insulators) monitor the expense and alternative inventory rather than
the speci c application. Besides the fuse itself, the interrupters are sectional devices
and reclosers. It is dif cult to interrupt the partition by error.
It “counts” the times it “sees” a fault current and turns on after a predetermined
number while the circuit de-energizes. The recloser cannot interrupt the fault and
re-shutdown automatically in a programmed sequence.
Figure 5.4 shows the three locations of a fault

i. The branch fuse must be removed in location A, leaving the service unob-
structed to the mainline and other branches.
ii. The splitter should remove the fault in location B, but since the splitter can-
not cut the fault, the passenger makes the actual clearing. However, the
divider “sees” the fault current and records a single number. The divider

Circuit
breaker Recloser Sectionalizer

C B
Fuse Fuse Fuse
R

FIGURE 5.4 Radial power system.

128 Power System Protection and Relaying

B1 B2 F2 B3
F1

FIGURE 5.5 Feeder to feeder switching.

will experience the second count of the fault current if the fault remains.
The recloser will get stuck again, allowing section opening and error clear-
ing; the recloser will successfully reset and restore service until broken.
iii. For fault in location C, the recloser jogs and re-closes as programmed. The
divider does not see the error and does not calculate.

The relays in a distribution station must recognize these potential short-circuit cur-
rent differences in the same way as in a grid system.
Switching from feeder to feeder provides a backup source if a substation trans-
former is out of service or part of the distribution system must be deactivated.
In Figure 5.5, switch S is normally open, and each terminal transformer feeds its
load. In the event of a permanent failure at F1, the sectional parts or re-locking devices
on the transformer side will automatically open. The line must then be de-energized
by opening the circuit breaker, closing switch S, and transferring the remaining load
to the other transformer. For the transformer fault at F2, the breakers of stations (B1)
and (B2) are opened, and the entire load can be fed from the other station.
Switching from one substation to another changes the magnitude and path of
the fault current, and when applying and tuning line defense systems, this must be
considered. Similarly, in the distribution system, the cogenerator’s use adds another
source of electricity, both separate and far from the utility substation, which in u-
ences the fault current’s size and direction. Usually, this move is performed manually
by assigning workers to various locations. If the transition could be performed auto-
matically, a substantial saving of time and resources would be possible.

5.4 ELCB, MCB, AND MCCB

5.4.1 EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER (ELCB)
This breaker is used to detect earth leakage faults. Once phase and neutral are con-
nected to the ELCB, a current will ow through a phase, and the same current will
have to return to neutral so that the resulting current is zero.
Once there is an earth fault on the load side, the phase current will pass directly
through the earth and will not return to neutral through the ELCB. This means that it
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 129

FIGURE 5.6 Voltage and current waveforms at generator-transmission line terminals.

will protect the other circuits from defective loads once the sideways current travels
and will not return to the same point due to this difference in the current ELCB. If
the neutral current is not earthed, the fault current will be high, the full fault current
will return through the ELCB, and there will be no difference in current.

5.4.2 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCB)

It is thermal, operated, and used for short-circuit protection in small current rating
circuits. Normally it is used where the normal current is <100 A.

5.4.3 MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCCB)

It is thermal operated for overloading current and magnetic operations for instant
trip in a short-circuit condition. Under-voltage and under-frequency may be inherent.
Normally it is used where the normal current is more than 100 A (Figure 5.6).

5.5 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF A FUSE

A fuse consists of a low-resistance wire of metal covered by a material that is not
combustible. On the other hand, electrical appliances can be affected without a fuse
and circuit breaker because they cannot handle the overcurrent according to their
rated limits and connect and mount in series with a circuit and a system that requires
a short circuit or overcurrent protection.
The working theory of the fuse is based on the “heating effect of current,” that
is, when a short circuit happens, a rise in current or a mismatched load is connected
because of the heat from the heavy current owing through it, where the thin wire
130 Power System Protection and Relaying

melts within the fuse. The fuse thus separates the source of power from the con-
nected device. The fuse wire is just a part with very low resistance in normal circuit
operation and does not affect the device’s normal operation connected to the power
supply.
The choice of a suitable fuse and its estimated size for electrical appliances
depends on various factors and environments. The basic formula for choosing fuse
size

Fuse rating = 1.25 × ( power/voltage )

Example 5.1

Find the right fuse size for a 10 A two-pin socket with a rating of 500 W socket
supply a 110 V.

(500 W /120 V ) × 1.25 = 5.2 A

The power rating can be controlled through the two-pin socket and the main sup-
ply voltage in single-phase 120 V AC in the United States.
But you should go for the max, i.e., 6 A fuse rating instead of 5.2 A, for safe and
reliable operation of the circuit.

5.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FUSE

Different types of fuses can be categorized according to the characteristics as follows:

i. Current rating and current-carrying capacity of fuse

ii. Voltage rating of fuse
iii. Breaking capacity of a fuse
iv. I2t value of fuse
v. Response characteristic
vi. Rated voltage of the fuse
vii. Packaging size

The above categories are brie y described as follows.

5.6.1 FUSE CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY

The current-carrying capacity is the amount a fuse can easily conduct without inter-
rupting the circuit.

5.6.2 BREAKING CAPACITY

The maximum current value that can safely be interrupted by the fuse is called
breaking capacity and should be higher than the prospective short-circuit current.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 131

5.6.3 RATED VOLTAGE OF FUSE

The fuse can comfortably accommodate a maximum voltage rating, anticipating the
current power of the current. For example, if a fuse is built for 32 V and cannot be
used with 120 V, different insulation is needed in the different fuses operating at
different voltage levels. Each fuse has a maximum allowable voltage rating. Voltage
rating rules, HV (high voltage), LV (low voltage), and miniature fuses can be fused.

5.6.4 I2T VALUE OF FUSE

The I2t terms related to fuses are normally used in short-circuit conditions. The quan-
tity of energy dissipated is cleared when the fuse element clears the electrical fault.
The operation time of the fuse at high current levels is inversely proportional to
the square of the current during the pre-arcing stage and proportional to the voltage
during the arcing stage.
For any conductor, its temperature rise depends on the I2t factor. The empirical
formula can calculate this factor:
For copper conductors

273 + θ m
I 2t = 11.5 × 10 4 A2 log10
273 + θ o

For aluminum conductors

273 + θ m
I 2t = 5.2 × 10 4 A2 log10
273 + θ o

I = Short-circuit current (A)

t = Duration of the short circuit (seconds)
A = Net cross-sectional area of the conductor (mm2)
θo = Initial temperature of the conductor (°C)
θm =Final temperature of the conductor

If the pre-arcing I2t is not exceeded, there will be no fuse performance deterioration.
This is taken into account when discrimination is required between fuses. If the total
I2t of the smaller fuse is less than the pre-arcing I2t of the larger fuse, then the smaller
fuse would operate without causing any deterioration of the larger fuse.

Example 5.2

It is proposed to use a No.30 AWG copper wire as a fuse element. If its initial
temperature is 50°C, calculate the following:

a. The I2t needed to melt the wire (copper melt at 1083°C).

b. The time needed to melt the wire if the short-circuit currency is 30 A.
132 Power System Protection and Relaying

Solution

30 AWG = 0.0507 mm 2

273 + θ m
a. I 2t = 11.5 × 10 4 A2 log10
273 + θ o
273 + 1083
= 11.5 × 10 4 ×0.05072 × log10
273 + 50
= 184 A2 seconds.

b. For a current of 30 A:

30 2 t = 184

t = 0.2 seconds

Example 5.3

It is proposed to use a No.30 AWG copper wire as a fuse element. If its initial
temperature is 60°C, calculate the following:

i. Tha I2t needed to melt the wire (aluminum melt at 1000°C).

ii. The time needed to melt the wire if the short-circuit currency is 25 A.

Solution

From fuse tables of wires 30 AWG = 0.0507 mm2.

i. For aluminum conductors

273 + θ m
I 2t = 5.2 × 10 4 A2 log10
273 + θ o
273 + 1000
= 5.2 × 10 4 ×0.0507 2 × log10
273 + 60
= 77.844 A2 seconds.

ii. For a current of 25 A:

252 t = 77.844

t = 0.125seconds
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 133

5.6.5 RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC OF A FUSE

The speed at which a fuse blows depends on how much current passes through the
wire.
The more current passes through the wire, the quicker the reaction time.
The response characteristic indicates the response time to an occurrence that is
overcurrent.
Ultra-fast fuses or rapid fuses are called fuses that react rapidly to an overcurrent
state.
Most semiconductor devices are fused because semiconductor devices are too
easily destroyed by excessive current.
Another fuse is called a slow-burning fuse, and switching fuses do not respond to
an overcurrent event immediately but rather detonate several seconds after the over-
current occurs. These fuses have found their application in motor control electronic
systems because they take in much more current in starting.

5.7 CLASSIFICATION OF FUSES

Fuses can be categorized according to the usage of various applications:

i. Just fuse for one time,

ii. Restored feature,
iii. Limiting and present, and
iv. Non-CL fuses.

Once fuses are used, the consumer needs to manually replace these fuses; switch
fuses are inexpensive and commonly used in most electronics and electrical systems.
If an overcurrent, overload, or unmatched load link event occurs.
On the other hand, after the service, the resettable fuse resets automatically when
the device faults.
The present limiting fuse generates a high resistance for a short time. In contrast,
in high current ow, the non-CL fuse produces an arc to disrupt the corresponding
circuit’s current.

5.8 TYPES OF FUSES

Different fuses are available in the market and can be categorized based on different
aspects. Fuses are used in AC as well as DC circuits.
Fuses can be divided into two main groups according to the type of supply voltage:

i. AC fuses
ii. DC fuses

There is a slight difference between AC and DC fuses used in the power systems,
which have been reviewed as follows.
134 Power System Protection and Relaying

5.8.1 DC FUSES
In the case of a DC system, when the metallic wire melts due to the heat generated
from the excess current, the electric arc is produced, and it is very dif cult to extin-
guish this arc due to the constant value of the DC. The DC fuse is slightly larger than
the AC fuse to reduce the arc by increasing the distance between the electrodes to
reduce this arc.

5.8.2 AC FUSES
In the case of an AC system, the voltage at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz changes the
capacitance from 0 to 50 or 60 times every second so that the arc can be easily
mutated compared to DC. Therefore, AC fuses are a bit small compared to DC fuses.
The fuses can be classi ed based on one-time or multiple operations.
Depending on the fuse current rating, the fuses can be one of the following types
for LV applications:

1. Semi-enclosed fuse (rewireable),

2. Cartridge fuse, and
3. High rupturing capacity (HRC) or high breaking capacity (HBC) fuses.

Figure 5.7 shows the types and classi cation of LV and HV fuses.

Fuses

DC AC
fuses fuses

High-voltage fuses Low-voltage fuses

Cartridge Cartridge Link

fuses LV fuses fuses
Blade-type
Liquid Drop-out D-type fuses
HRC fuses fuses fuses

Expulsion Switch Bolted-

HRC fuses fuses type fuses
Striker
fuses
Rewireable
fuses

FIGURE 5.7 Types & classi cation of low-voltage and high-voltage fuses.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 135

5.9 CARTRIDGE FUSES

Cartridge fuses protect electrical appliances and are commonly used where HV and
currents are needed in industrial, commercial, and home distribution panels such as
pumps, motor air-conditioners, refrigerators, and the like. Up to 600 A and 600 V
AC are available.
Two types of cartridge fuses exist:

i. A general-purpose fuse with no pause in time.

ii. Heavy-duty, time-delay cartridge.

Both types range from 250 to 600 V AC and can be rated on the knife’s end cap or
blade. Cartridge fuses are connected to a base and can be split into more cartridge
attachment fuses and cartridge fuses of type D.

5.10 D–TYPE CARTRIDGE FUSE

An adapter ring, foundation, cap, and cartridge are included in the D-types fuse.
The fuse base is connected to the fuse cap within the fuse cap, where the cartridge is
mounted. When the tip of the cartridge hits the fuse connection conductor, the circuit
is completed (Figure 5.8).

FIGURE 5.8 Cartridge fuses.

136 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.9 HRC fuse.

5.11 HRC (HIGH RUPTURING CAPACITY) FUSE

OR LINK-TYPE CARTRIDGE FUSE
We have discussed fuse design, operation, and their applications in detail regarding
High Rupturing Potential (HRC). It also includes various HRC fuses, such as DIN-
type, NH-type, blade-type, HRC liquid-type, and HV-type expulsion fuse, and their
bene ts and drawbacks (Figure 5.9).

5.12 HV FUSES
In the power system, the high-voltage (HV) fuses are used to secure the power trans-
former, distribution transformers, instrument transformer, and the like, where circuit
breakers may not protect the system. HV fuses are classi ed for more than 1500 V
and up to 13 kV.
The HV fuse part is usually copper, silver, or tin. In the case of expulsion-style
HV fuses, the fuse connection chamber can be lled with boric acid.
HV fuses are of three main types:

i. Open (drop out) type.

ii. Enclosed type.
iii. Spring type.

Figure 5.10 shows the open (drop out) type, commonly used for voltages up to 33 kV.

5.13 AUTOMOTIVE, BLADE TYPE, AND FUSES

OF BOLTED TYPE
This type of fuse (also known as a spade or plug-in fuse) comes with a plastic body
and two metal caps to t into the socket. Mostly, they are used for wiring and short-
circuit safety in cars. Fuse limiters and glass tube (also known as Bosch fuse) are
commonly used in the automotive industry. Expect this. As between 12 and 42 V, the
rating of car fuses is poor (Figure 5.11).
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 137

FIGURE 5.10 The open (drop out) type (https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/

Power-fuses-in-high-voltage).

FIGURE 5.11 Blade-type fuses: Used in automobiles.

5.14 SMD FUSES (SURFACE MOUNT FUSE),

CHIP, RADIAL, AND LEAD FUSES
SMD fuses (surface mount system and the name derived from SMT = Surface Mount
Technology) are chip fuse types (often known as an electronic fuse) used in DC
power applications such as hard drive, DVD players, cameras, cell phones, and so
forth, where space plays an important role because SMD fuses are very limited in
size and often dif cult to replace.
138 Power System Protection and Relaying

Some additional types of SMD fuses and lead fuses are described as follows:

i. Very fast-acting chip fuses.

ii. Slow-blow chip fuses.
iii. High current-rated chip fuses.
iv. Radial fuse.
v. Fast-acting chip fuses.
vi. Telecom fuses.
vii. Pulse-tolerant chip fuses.
viii. Lead fuse.
ix. Through-hole styles fuse.
x. Axial fuse.

5.15 FUSE CHARACTERISTICS

5.15.1 FUSE TYPE
The fuses, according to their category of applications, are split into two letters. The
gG and aM fuses are primarily used in LV installations.
The gG cartridges are for general use and protect the circuits from short and low
overloads. The GG cartridges are labeled in black.
The AM cartridges are used on the circuits of motors and protect from high over-
loads and short circuits. They are designed to withstand such temporary loads (start-
ing the engine).
Therefore, these cartridges must be combined with a thermal safety system to
avoid low overloads. The aM cartridges will be labeled in green.
The rst letter reveals the principal operation:

• A (connected): An additional protective system must be associated with the

fuse, as faults under the speci ed amount cannot break. It ensures the safety
of the short circuit.
• g (general): All defects are broken by the lowest current (even if they are)
and the breaking capacity. It provides short-circuit and overload protection.

The second letter indicates the category of equipment to be protected:

Letter Description
G Conductors and cables protection
M Motor circuits protection
R Semiconductors protection
S Semiconductors protection
Tr Transformers protection
N Conductors protection (North American standards)
D Time-delay fuse for protecting motor circuits (North American standards)
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 139

5.15.2 RATED CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES

The rated current will inde nitely cross a fuse without fusing or causing excessive
temperature increase. The rated voltage is the voltage at which it is possible to use
this fuse.

5.15.3 CONVENTIONAL NON-FUSING AND FUSING CURRENTS

There is a difference between the two classic currents in a fuse: non-fusing and
fusing.

• Conventional non-fusing current (Inf): the value of by-pass current that a

fuse cartridge can withstand for a conventional period without melting.
• Conventional fuse current (If): a value of by-pass current causes the fuse
cartridge to fuse before the conventional time has elapsed (Table 5.1).

5.15.4 OPERATING ZONE

The standards de ne the fuse’s operating zone to determine its operating time
according to the current crossing. To calculate the various protective devices’ dis-
crimination, it is important to know the fuse’s operating characteristics in the series.

5.15.5 BREAKING CAPACITY

The breaking capacity should equal the possible short-circuit current when installing
the fuse. The higher the braking power, the better the fuse can protect the installation
against short circuits of high intensity. The HBC fuses restrict short circuits that can
reach over 100 kA.

TABLE 5.1
Non-Fusing and Fusing Currents
Ratings (Inf) Non-Fusing (If) Fusing (t) Conventional
Current (A) Current Current Time (hours)
In ≤ 4 1.5 In 2.1 In 1
4 < In ≤ 10 1.5 In 1.9 In 1
10 < In ≤ 25 1.4 In 1.75 In 1
25 < In ≤ 63 1.3 In 1.6 In 1
63 < In ≤ 100 1.3 In 1.6 In 2
100 < In ≤ 160 1.2 In 1.6 In 2
160 < In ≤ 400 1.2 In 1.6 In 3
400 < In 1.2 In 1.6 In 4
140 Power System Protection and Relaying

5.15.6 SELECTIVITY
A current generally crosses several protected devices in series. These devices are
distributed according to the various circuits to be protected. The protective device
must select the appropriate area to interrupt if a fault occurs.

5.16 REWIREABLE FUSES

The most popular kit-kat fuse (re-plug fuse) is mostly used in home electrical wiring
for small low-voltage (LV) systems and industrial applications.
A reconnected fuse contains two main parts. The internal fuse element is a holder
made of tin-plated copper, aluminum, lead, and the like. The porcelain base has IN
and OUT terminals that used to be in series with the circuit for protection.
The main advantage of a rewireable fuse is that it can be easily reconnected if it
explodes due to a short circuit or overcurrent that causes the fuse elements to melt by
placing another wire from the fuse elements of the same previous rating.
The fuse is so designed that the carrier can be safely withdrawn without the dan-
ger of touching live parts, and the fuse element is so enclosed that molten metal is
safely contained and arcing effectively extinguished.
The simple wire fuse (Figure 5.12) is connected between two terminals in a por-
celain carrier and is usually threaded through an asbestos tube.

5.17 THERMAL FUSES

Thermal fuses are the only fuses used only once and cannot be used again as they
are temperature-sensitive fuses. The fuse element is made of a temperature-sensitive
alloy. They are known as thermal breakers (TCO) or thermal bonds.
The fuse element maintains a mechanical spring connection normally closed in
a thermal fuse. When high currents due to overcurrent or short-circuit ow through
the fuse elements, the fuse elements melt, freeing the spring mechanism, preventing
arc and re, and protecting the connected circuit.

5.18 RESETTABLE FUSES

Resettable fuses can be used multiple times without replacing them. This fuse opens
the circuit when an over event occurs, and after a speci ed time, they connect the
Fuse wire Copper
in asbestos conductor
-linked
tube

Terminal

Porcelain
carrier

FIGURE 5.12 Rewireable fuses.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers 141

FIGURE 5.13 Resettable fuses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resettable_fuse).

circuit again. A polymeric positive temperature coef cient device (PPTC, commonly
known as a resettable fuse, multi-switch, or multi-fuse) is a passive electronic com-
ponent that protects against short-current faults in electronic circuits (Figure 5.13).
The application of resettable fuses is overcome where manual fuse replacement is
dif cult or nearly impossible; this type is used in speci c applications such as fuses
in the nuclear system or the space system.

5.19 USES AND APPLICATIONS OF FUSES

Different types of electrical and electronic fuses can be used in all types of electrical
and electronic systems and applications, including:

i. Cell phones.
ii. Game systems.
iii. DVD players.
iv. LCD monitors.
v. Scanners.
vi. Hard disk drives.
vii. Digital cameras.
viii. Motors and transformers.
ix. Home distribution boards.
x. Laptops.
xi. Air-conditioners.
xii. General electrical appliances and devices.
xiii. Printers.
xiv. Battery packs.
xv. Portable electronics.
xvi. Power converters.
142 Power System Protection and Relaying

Example 5.4

A distribution system operating at 415 V is shown in Figure 5.14. Select the fuse’s
suitable rating for each load and incoming circuit using the fuse time–current char-
acteristic in Figure 5.15.

Lighting load:

20 kW
I lighting = = 27.8 A
3 × 415 V

Select 32 A fuse
Heating load:

30 kW
I heating = = 41.7 A
3 × 415 V
Select 50 A fuse
Motor load:

Pout 30 kW
Pin = = = 32.6 kW
η 0.92

415 V

20 kW
lighting
load
F1

Incoming
source 30 kW
heating
load
F4 F2

30 kW
motor load
η=92%
P.f =0.83
F3

FIGURE 5.14 Circuit diagram for Example 5.4.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers 143

FIGURE 5.15 Fuse time–current characteristics.

The motor full load current is

32.6 kW
I motor = = 54.7 A
3 × 415 V × 0.83

The starting current for ten seconds is seven-time than the full load current,
therefore

I = 7 × 54.7 = 383 A

From the time–current curve shown in Figure 5.16, an 80 A fuse would withstand
383 A for only six seconds.
Therefore, a 125 A fuse, which would withstand 383 A for longer than ten
seconds, would be necessary.
To provide discrimination, the fuse at the incoming circuit must meet the
following requirements:
It must carry the normal load current:

I = 27.8 + 41.7 + 54.7 = 124.2 A

It must carry the load + the starting current of the motor

I = 27.8 + 41.7 + 383 = 452.5 A for 10 seconds

From the time–current curve, a 125 A fuse would withstand 452.5 A for more than
ten seconds.
144 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.16 Fuse time–current characteristic of Example 5.4.

Example 5.5

A 400 V distribution system is shown in Figure 5.17. Select the fuse’s suitable rat-
ing for each load and incoming circuit using the fuse time–current characteristic
in Figure 5.15.

Solution

Fuse selection for each circuit

Lighting load:
30 kW
I lighting = = 43.3 A
3 × 400 V
Select 50 A fuse
Heating load:
30 kW
I heating = = 43.3 A
3 × 400 V

Select 50 A fuse
Motor load:

Pout 20 kW
Pin = = = 22.2 kW
η 90%

The motor full load current is

22.2 kW
I motor = = 40 A
3 × 400 V × 0.8
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 145

400 V

30 kW
lighting
load
F5

Incoming
source 30 kW
heating
load
F4 F2

20 kW
motor load
η=90%
P.f =0.8
F3

FIGURE 5.17 Circuit diagram of Example 5.5.

The starting current for ten seconds is seven-time than the full load current,
therefore

I = 7 × 40 = 280 A

From the time–current curve shown in Figure 5.18, an 80 A fuse would withstand
280 A for 20 seconds. More than ten seconds.
To provide discrimination, the fuse at the incoming circuit must meet the fol-
lowing requirements:
It must carry the normal load current:

I = 34.3 + 34.3 + 40 = 108.6 A

It must carry the load + the starting current of the motor

I = 34.3 + 34.3 + 280 = 348.6 A for 10 seconds.

From the time–current curve, a 125 A fuse would withstand 348.6 A for more than
ten seconds.
146 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.18 Fuse time–current characteristic of Example 5.5.

Example 5.6

A 450 V distribution system is shown in Figure 5.19. Select the fuse’s suitable rat-
ing for each load and incoming circuit using the fuse time–current characteristic
in Figure 5.15.

Solution

The fuse selection for each circuit:

Heating load:

50 kW
I heating = = 64.15 A
3 × 450 V
Select 50 A fuse
Lighting load:

30 kW
I lighting = = 38.5 A
3 × 450 V

Select 32 A fuse
Motor load:

Pout 30 kW
Pin = = = 32.6 kW
η 0.92

The motor full load current is

32.6 kW
I motor = = 49.2 A
3 × 450 V × 0.85
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 147

450 V

50 kW
heating
load
F1

Incoming
source 30 kW
lighting
load
F4 F2

30 kW
motor load
η=92%
P.f =0.85
F3

FIGURE 5.19 Circuit diagram of Example 5.6.

The starting current for ten seconds is seven-time than the full load current,
therefore

I = 7 × 49.2 = 344.44 A

From the time–current curve shown in Figure 5.20, an 80 A fuse would withstand
344.44 A for only eight seconds.
Therefore, a 125 A fuse, which would withstand 344.44 A for longer than ten
seconds, would be necessary.
To provide discrimination, the fuse at the incoming circuit must meet the fol-
lowing requirements:
It must carry the normal load current:

I = 64.15 +38.5 + 49.2 = 151.85 A

It must carry the load + the starting current of the motor

I = 64.15 +38.5 + 344.44 = 447.1 A for 10seconds

From the time–current curve, a 125 A fuse would withstand 447.1 A for more than
ten seconds.
148 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.20 Fuse time–current characteristic of Example 5.6.

5.20 HV CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The most important types of HV circuit breakers are the following:

i. Oil circuit breakers (OCB).

ii. SF6 circuit breakers.
iii. Vacuum circuit break.
iv. Air-blast circuit breaker.

The triggering action that causes a circuit breaker to open is usually produced
through an overload relay that can detect abnormal line conditions. For example, the
relay coil in Figure 5.21 is connected to the secondary of a current transformer. The
primary carries the line current of the phase that must be protected. If the line cur-
rent exceeds a preset limit, the secondary current will cause relay contacts to close.
As soon as they close, the tripping coil is energized by an auxiliary DC source. This
causes the three mainline contacts to open, thus interrupting the circuit.

5.20.1 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The oil circuit breaker’s operation: When the current-carrying contacts in the oil are
separated, an arc is established between the separated contacts. When the separa-
tion of contacts has just started, the distance between the current contacts is small.
As a result, the voltage gradient between contacts becomes high. This HV gradi-
ent between the contacts ionized the oil and consequently initiated arcing between
the contacts. This arc will produce a large amount of heat in the surrounding oil,
vaporize the oil, and decompose the oil in to mostly hydrogen and a small amount
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 149

Power
system
A

B
CT
C

Tripping
coil
C1 C2

Relay

FIGURE 5.21 HV circuit breakers.

of methane, ethylene, and acetylene. The hydrogen gas cannot remain in molecular
form and is broken into its atomic form, releasing a lot of heat. The arc temperature
may reach up to 5000 K. Due to this high temperature, the gas is liberated and sur-
rounds the arc rapidly, forming an excessively fast-growing gas bubble around the
arc. It is found that the mixture of gases occupies a volume about 1000 times that
of the oil decomposed. We can assume how fast the gas bubble around the arc will
grow. Suppose this growing gas bubble around the arc is compressed by any means.
In that case, the rate of the deionization process of ionized gaseous media in between
the contacts will accelerate rapidly increasing the dielectric strength between the
contacts.
Consequently, the arc will be quenched at zero crossings of the current cycle. This
is the basic operation of the oil circuit breaker. The cooling effect of hydrogen gas
surrounding the arc path also helps the quick arc quenching in the oil circuit breaker.
There are mainly two types of OCB available, discussed subsequently.

5.20.1.1 Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB)

The bulk oil circuit breaker, or BOCB, is a circuit breaker where oil is used as the
arc-quenching media and insulating media between current-carrying contacts and
earthed parts of the breaker. The oil used here is the same as the transformer insulat-
ing oil.
BOCBs are steel tanks lled with insulating oil. In one version (Figure 5.22),
three porcelain bushings channel the three-phase line currents to a set of xed con-
tacts. Three movable contacts, actuated simultaneously by an insulated rod, opened
and closed the circuit. When the circuit breaker is closed, the line current for each
phase penetrates the tank by way of one porcelain bushing, ows through the rst
xed contact, the movable contact, the second xed contact, and then on out a second
bushing.
150 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.22 Bulk oil circuit breaker or BOCB (https://in.pinterest.com/eeetblog/).

If an overload occurs, the tripping coil releases a powerful spring that pulls on
the insulated rod, causing the contacts to open. As soon as the contacts separate, a
violent arc is created, which volatilizes the surrounding oil. The pressure of the hot
gases creates turbulence around the contacts. This causes cool oil to swirl around the
arc, thus extinguishing it.

5.20.1.2 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB)

As the volume of the oil in the BOCB is huge, the chances of re hazards in the bulk
oil system are more. To avoid unwanted re hazards in the system, one important
development in the design of an oil circuit breaker has been introduced where the use
of oil in the circuit breaker is much less than that of the BOCB. It has been decided
that the oil in the circuit breaker should be used only as arc-quenching media, not as
an insulating media. Then the concept of minimum oil circuit breaker comes.
These circuit breakers contain a minimum quantity of oil. The three phases are
separated into three chambers, as shown in Figure 5.23. Unlike a BOCB, the insulat-
ing oil is available only in the interrupting chamber.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 151

FIGURE 5.23 Minimum oil circuit breaker (MOCB) (https://www.deepakkumaryadav.

in/2020/03/minimum-oil-circuit-breaker.html).

5.20.2 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

These enclosed circuit breakers, insulated with SF6 gas, are used whenever space is
available. Several characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:

i. The simplicity of the interrupting chamber, which does not need an auxil-
iary braking chamber.
ii. Autonomy provided by the puffer technique.
iii. The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63 kA, with a
reduced number of interrupting chambers.
iv. Short break time of 2–2.5 cycles.
v. High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of operation without
reconditioning.
vi. Possible compact solutions when used for GIS or hybrid switchgear.
vii. Integrated closing resistors or synchronized operations to reduce switching
overvoltages.
viii. Reliability and availability.
ix. Low noise levels.

Reducing the number of interrupting chambers per pole has simpli ed circuit break-
ers considerably and the number of parts and seals required. As a direct consequence,
the reliability of circuit breakers improved. Figure 5.24 shows an SF6 circuit breaker.
152 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.24 SF6 circuit breakers (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

2/21/Circuit_Breaker_115_kV.jpg).

5.20.2.1 Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of SF6 circuit breakers are:

1. SF6 breakers are costly due to the high cost of SF6.

2. Since SF6 gas must be reconditioned after every breaker operation, addi-
tional equipment is required.

5.20.2.2 Applications
A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units capable of dealing with
currents up to 60 kA and voltages in the range of 50–80 kV. Several units are con-
nected in series according to the system voltage. SF6 circuit breakers have been
developed for voltages 115–230 kV, power ratings 10–20 MVA, and interrupting time
of fewer than three cycles.

5.20.3 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

These circuit breakers operate on a different principle from other breakers because
there is no gas to ionize when the contacts open. They are hermetically sealed; con-
sequently, they are silent and never become polluted (Figure 5.25). Their interrupting
capacity is limited to about 30 kV. For higher voltages, several circuit breakers are
connected in series.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 153

FIGURE 5.25 VCB circuit breaker (http://www.marineeto.we.bs/2020/06/10/vcb-facts-

you-must-know/).

5.20.3.1 VCB Circuit Breaker Components

i. Upper connection
ii. Vacuum interrupter
iii. Lower connection
iv. Roller contact (swivel contact for 630 A)
v. Contact pressure spring
vi. Insulated coupling rod
vii. Opening spring
viii. Shift lever
ix. Mechanism housing with spring operating mechanism
x. Driveshaft
xi. Pole tube
xii. Release mechanism

5.20.4 AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS

These circuit breakers interrupt the circuit by blowing compressed air at supersonic
speed across the opening contacts. Compressed air is stored in reservoirs at a pres-
sure of about 3 MPa (435 psi) and replenished by a compressor in the substation.
154 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.26 A typical three-phase contact module of an air-blast circuit breaker (http://
zhwjpe.com/air-blast-circuit-breakers/).

The most powerful circuit breakers can typically open short-circuit currents of 40 kA
at a line voltage of 750 kV in three to six cycles on a 50 Hz line. The air-blast noise
is so loud that noise-suppression methods must be used when the circuit breakers
are installed near residential areas. Figure 5.26 shows a typical single-phase contact
module of an air-blast circuit breaker.

5.20.4.1 Types of Air-Blast Circuit Breakers

Figure 5.27 shows a typical three-phase air-blast circuit breaker. Each phase is com-
posed of three contact modules connected in series.
Air-blast circuit breakers are manufactured with the help of three technologies:

1. Axial blast type: The air blast is directed along the arc path, as shown in
Figure 5.27a.
2. Cross-blast type: The air blast is directed at right angles to the arc path, as
shown in Figure 5.27b.
3. Radial blast type: The air blast is directed radially, as shown in Figure
5.27c.

The advantages of air-blast circuit breaker are

i. Cheapness, chemically stable, and inertness of air.

ii. Short and consistent arcing time.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 155

Fixed Fixed
contact contact
Air blast Air blast
direction direction
Moving Moving
contact contact

(a) (b)

Air Blast
direction

Fixed Moving
contact contact

(c)

FIGURE 5.27 A typical three-phase air-blast circuit breaker. Each phase is composed of
three contact modules connected in series. (a) Axial blast type, (b) cross-blast type, and (c)
radial blast type.

iii. No re hazard.
iv. High-speed operation.
v. Less maintenance and easy operation.

5.21 DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT TIME PROTECTION

This section deals with directional overcurrent protection by studying its theoreti-
cal principles in practical experiments. Determination of inherent system times
provides insight into the chronological sequences involved in protection technol-
ogy. Subsequently, advanced applications of overcurrent protection are revealed by
recording a dependent overcurrent characteristic and testing recognition of energy
ow direction.
Directional, maximum-overcurrent time protection follows a continuous time
function t(I) in dependence on the fault current (Figure 5.28). Every overcurrent
value is associated with a xed delay time. The relay stores several characteristics,
which can be set via the delay time tI> serving as a multiplier in the case of direc-
tional, maximum-overcurrent time protection’s trip characteristic. Apart from differ-
ent time ranges, it is possible to choose between three characteristics (normal, strong,
and extremely inverse). Areas of application mainly comprise overload protection for
motors and transformers. Figure 5.29 shows directional overcurrent characteristics.
156 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.28 Lucas-Nülle GmbH normal inverse trip characteristic of directional, maxi-
mum-overcurrent time protection.

Record the characteristics TA(I) for the three different sensitivity stages of t> in a
diagram given in Figure 5.29.

Current I (A) 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
tI> = 1 17.7 10.1 7.5 6.2 5.5 4.9 4.6 4.2
tI> = 0.5 8.9 5.1 3.8 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.3 2.1
tI> = 0.1 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4

t(I) = Tripping time = tI> × (0.14/((I/Is)0.02 − 1))

tI> = Time multiplier = 1/0.5/0.1
I = Fault current = 0.4–1.3 A
Is = Pick-up value = 0.3 A
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 157

FIGURE 5.29 Directional overcurrent characteristic by Lucas-Nülle GmbH at PVAMU.

5.22 TESTING DIRECTION RECOGNITION

Reverse the direction of energy ow by interchanging the plug connections on the
protective relay, as shown in Figure 5.30.
The protective relay is described in Table 5.2.
The line-to-line voltage is set to 220 V and the resistive load is set at maximum
value. A current of 0.24 A should then ow. When the protective relay is energized,
TRIP is displayed, and the LED of the energized phase ashes. The direction LEDs
(green and red arrows) indicate the direction of energy ow. The green LED
ashes to indicate the forward direction; the red LED ashes to indicate the reverse
direction
The transmission line is connected by closing power switch 1 (ON button). A cur-
rent of 0.24 A should ow again. Produce a short circuit between phases L1 and L 2 by
actuating power switch 2 (ON button).
158 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.30 Lucas-Nülle GmbH con guration for the reverse direction emulator at
PVAMU.

TABLE 5.2
Lucas-Nülle GmbH, the Protective Relay Setting Circuit
Emulator at PVAMU
Parameter Value
Pick-up value I> 0.3 A
Trip characteristic DEFT
Trip delay tI> forward 1 seconds
Trip delay tI> reverse 10 seconds
Characteristic angle 49
Frequency 60
Serial interface’s address 1

PROBLEMS
5.1. It is proposed to use a No.30 AWG copper wire as a fuse element. If its ini-
tial temperature is 60°C, calculate the following:
a. The I2t needed to melt the wire (copper melt at 1000°C).
b. The time needed to melt the wire if the short-circuit current is 40 A.
5.2. It is proposed to use a No.30 AWG aluminum wire as a fuse element. If its
initial temperature is 55°C, calculate the following:
a. The I2t needed to melt the wire (copper melt at 900°C).
b. The time needed to melt the wire if the short-circuit current is 45 A.
Fuses and Circuit Breakers 159

5.3. It is proposed to use a No.30 AWG copper wire as a fuse element. If its ini-
tial temperature is 50°C, calculate the following:
a. The I2t needed to melt the wire (copper melt at 1083°C).
b. The time needed to melt the wire if the short-circuit current is 30 A.
5.4. A distribution system operating at 415 V is shown in Figure 5.31. Select
the fuse’s suitable rating for each load and incoming circuit using the fuse
time–current characteristic in Figure 5.32.

420 V

40kW
lighting
load
F1

Incoming
source 30 kW
heating
load
F4 F2

30 kW
motor load
η=92%
P.f =0.83
F3

FIGURE 5.31 Circuit diagram of Problem 5.4.

160 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 5.32 Time–fuse current characteristics of Problem 5.5.

 6 Overcurrent Relay
6.1 INTRODUCTION
When a fault occurs in the power system, the fault current is almost always greater than
the pre-fault current in the power system elements. Overcurrent relays protect power
system elements such as transmission lines, transformers, generators, motors, and the
like. Electromechanical overcurrent relays are generally of the induction disk type.
An overcurrent relay is a sensor relay that operates when the current exceeds
a preset value. The overcurrent relay in the transmission network also works as a
backup relay. It is the basic protection in the distribution network, which mainly
protects the feeders.
This chapter presents the overcurrent relay, PSM, time grading, and relay coor-
dination method; the chapter also discusses requirements for proper relay coordina-
tion and hardware and software for overcurrent relays. Overvoltage and undervoltage
protection using Lucas-Nülle GmbH power system/SCADA network devices are
explained.

6.2 OVERCURRENT RELAY

Depending upon the time of operation, the relay is classi ed (Figure 6.1) as follows:

i. Constant time relay.

ii. Instantaneous relay (as attracted armature, moving iron type, permanent
magnet, moving coil type, and static relay).
iii. Inverse relay (electromagnetic induction type, the permanent magnet mov-
ing coil type, and static relay) can be of
a. Inverse time-–current relay.
b. Inverse de nite minimum time (IDMT) overcurrent relay.
c. Very inverse relay.
d. Extremely inverse relay.
iv. Directional overcurrent relay

(i)
Operating ti me (sec)

(ii)

(iii-a)
(iii-c)
(iii-b)
(iii-d)
Multiple plug setting

FIGURE 6.1 Operating time multiplier plug setting characteristics.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-6 161

162 Power System Protection and Relaying

Ti me (s ec)

I
Current (A)

FIGURE 6.2 Instantaneous overcurrent relay characteristics.

6.2.1 INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAY

The relay operates at a speci ed time when the current exceeds the pick-up value.
The relay’s operation depends only on the current magnitude since the operating time
is constant. In this type, there is no time delay. The principle of coordination of the
instantaneous overcurrent relay is that the fault current varies with the fault’s loca-
tion due to the difference in impedance between the fault and the source. If the relay
operating current increases gradually relative to other relays when moving toward
the source while the relay located further from the source is running to a lower cur-
rent value (Figure 6.2).

6.2.2 DEFINITE TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY

The working principle of a speci c time overcurrent relay is that the current should
exceed the preset value, and the fault must be continuous at least at a time equal to the
time setting of the relay. Its operation is independent of the current magnitude above
the pick-up value (Figure 6.3).

6.2.2.1 Application

i. It also acts as a backup protection to the differential relay of the power

transformer with a time relay.
ii. For the protection of outgoing feeders and bus couplers.
iii. It acts as backup protection to distance relays in a transmission line with
time delay.
Overcurrent Relay 163

Ti me (sec)

Current (A)

FIGURE 6.3 De nite time overcurrent relay characteristics.

6.2.2.2 The Drawback of the Relay

In the event of a fault, the supply continuity cannot be maintained at the end of the
load.
Time lags are provided, which is not desirable in short circuits. It is dif cult to
coordinate and requires changes as the load is added.
Not suitable for long-distance transmission lines where fast fault clearance is
essential for stability.
The poor distinction as the relay has dif culty distinguishing fault currents at one
point or another when the defect resistance between these points is small.

6.2.3 INVERSE TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY

The inverse time overcurrent relay is when the relay operating time decreases as the
fault current increases. The operating time of the relay will be less as the fault current
increases, and vice versa. The relay will take unlimited time to operate if the fault
current is equal to the pick-up value (Figure 6.4).

6.2.4 IDMT RELAY

In this type of relay, the operating time is inversely proportional to the fault current.
The operating time of the relay can be reduced by adjusting the time dial setting.
The relay works when the current exceeds the pick-up value, and the operating time
depends on the current value. In the lower values of the fault current, the relay gives
the reverse time’s current characteristics. In the case of obtaining higher values of
the fault current, it gives speci c time characteristics. This type is used to protect
distribution lines (Figure 6.5).
164 Power System Protection and Relaying

Ti me (s ec)

Current (A)

FIGURE 6.4 Inverse time overcurrent relay characteristics.

Time (sec)

Definite
minimum
time

Minimum
Current (A)
operating
current

FIGURE 6.5 Inverse de nite minimum time relay characteristics.

6.2.5 VERY INVERSE RELAY

In this type of relay, the operating time range is inversely proportional to the fault
current over a wide range. It is effective for protecting against the earth’s faults, pro-
tecting feeders, and long transmission lines.
Overcurrent Relay 165

Current (A)

Inverse Relay

Very Inverse Relay

Time (sec)

FIGURE 6.6 Very inverse overcurrent relay characteristics.

6.2.5.1 Application of the Very Inverse Relay

i. It is used when the fault current is dependent on the fault location.

ii. It is used when the fault current is independent of normal changes in gener-
ating capacity.
iii. Suitable for the application if there is a reduction in fault current as the
power source’s fault distance increases (Figure 6.6).

6.2.6 EXTREMELY INVERSE RELAY

The operating time of this relay is inversely proportional to the square of the current. It
gives more inverse characteristics than that IDMT and a very inverse overcurrent relay
(Figure 6.7). Figure 6.8 shows a trigger and output signal discrimination time relay.

6.2.7 DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT

Directional overcurrent protection is achieved through a relay that utilizes a dual-
actuating quantity induction mechanism.
When fault current can follow in both directions through the relay location, it is
necessary to respond to the relay direction by adding directional control elements.
Directional control is a design feature that is highly desirable for this type of relay.
With this feature, an overcurrent unit is inoperative, no matter how large the current
may be unless the contacts of the directional unit are closed. This is accomplished
by connecting the directional-unit contacts in series with the shading-coil circuit or
with one of the two ux-producing circuits of the overcurrent unit. When this circuit
is open, no operating torque is developed in the overcurrent unit. The contacts of the
overcurrent unit alone are in the trip circuit.
166 Power System Protection and Relaying

Current
Terminals
Plug
Tapping
bridge

Upper
magnetic

Moving contact

To trip
circuit
Fixed contact

Lower
magnetic

FIGURE 6.7 Sample induction disk overcurrent relay.

FIGURE 6.8 Discrimination time relay circuit.

Directional relays are usually used in conjunction with other forms of relays,
usually over the current type; when used as an overcurrent relay, the combination
uses to select to respond to the fault current only in the protective zone’s direction
(Figures 6.9 and 6.10).
Overcurrent Relay 167

TC
OC
CB + _ relay

TC: Trip coil OC: Overcurrent CB: Circuit breaker

FIGURE 6.9 OC protection with 3 OC relays.

_ Aux. relay
TC
+
_
+
a Constant
time relay
b

OC
_
CB + relay

TC: Trip coil OC: Overcurrent CB: Circuit breaker

FIGURE 6.10 OC protection with time delay.

The torque developed by the directional unit is

T = VI cos (θ − τ ) − K (6.1)
168 Power System Protection and Relaying

where V: RMS voltage fed to the voltage coil.

I: RMS current in the current coil.
θ: the angle between V and I.
τ: maximum torque angle (design value).
K: restraining torque, including spring and damper.
In particular θ − τ = 0

T = K1VI − K (6.2)

Under threshold condition T = 0, K1VI = K .

6.3 PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER (PSM) AND

TIME MULTIPLIER SETTING (TMS)
The power system network must be protected for the reliable operation of the power
sources; relays and circuit breakers achieve this protection. The size and design of
protective system depends on the type of power distribution system and varies from
one system to another. However, the fault is isolated by the relay. The overcurrent
phase and coordination of the earth fault relay are necessary to achieve correct fault
identi cation and clearance sequence. Load ow analysis gives current, voltage,
and power ow for the transmission line, bus, transformer, circuit breakers, motors,
and other equipment types. The short-circuit study is necessary to nd the relay’s
plug setting multiplier (PSM). With this PSM, we can nd the time multiplier set-
ting (TMS) for the backup relay. Hence, load ow and short-circuit study should be
required in relay coordination.
Overcurrent protection is the predominant protection method used to protect dis-
tribution feeders. Standard curves for the current–time, pick-up, and time disk values
coordinate multiple protection relays on the radial feeders. The goal is to operate
as quickly as possible for faults in the primary region while delaying operations for
faults in the backup region.
The relays must at least reach the end of the next protected area. It is required to
ensure backup protection. Whenever possible, use relays with the same actuation
characteristic in series with each other and make sure that the relay farthest from the
source has current settings equal to or less than the relays behind it, that is, the base
current required to operate the relay in front is always equal to or less than the base
current required to operate the relay is behind it.
PSM provides the current posting setting, and time dial settings provide time
settings. Unless monitored under the voltage relay, the plug setting shall not be
less than the maximum normal load, including permissible continuous overload.
Otherwise, the relay will not allow the normal load to be delivered. An allowance
should be made when estimating the set of components because the relay pick-
up varies from 1.05 to 1.3 times that of the clay settings, depending on the
standards.
Overcurrent Relay 169

The feeder overcurrent relay‘s coordination curve should fall below the feeder
overload curve and the feeder short-circuit damage curves on the time–current char-
acteristics graph. An overcurrent relay (OCR) is a protection relay that operates when
the load current exceeds a preset value. The coordination curve of the feeder overcur-
rent relay should fall above the capacitance curve of the feeder. Overcurrent relays
generally contain multiples of the current setting of 50%–200% in steps of 25%,
which are referred to as plug setting (PS).
Two parameters determine each relay’s PS: maximum load current and minimum
fault current.
The protection relay coordination setting is made during the system design pro-
cess based on the fault current calculation. In coordinating overcurrent relays, the
goal is to de ne the time multiplier setting (TSM) and PSM for each relay. The total
operating time of the primary relays is appropriately reduced.
The overcurrent relay has a minimum operating current, known as the relay cur-
rent setting. The current setting should be chosen. The relay does not operate at the
maximum load current in the shielded circuit and operates at a current equal to or
greater than the expected minimum fault current. The relay’s current setting clos-
est to the source should always be higher than the previous setting of the relay. The
relays should have higher current settings than any current that could ow through
the relays under normal conditions: 110% of the rated current. Electronic relays and
microprocessors have current adjusting steps of 5%.
It is necessary to modify the timescale of the current–time characteristic to
implement the power system’s relay. The TMS should be chosen to relay the mini-
mum possible time at the end of the radial feeder. A time multiplier should be
selected in the preceding sections toward the source and given a selected interval
of the downstream relay at the maximum error conditions. The TMS should allow
for the cutter time and bypass the relay and the time errors allowed in the succes-
sive relays’ running time.

6.4 STANDARD FORMULA FOR OVERCURRENT RELAY

By using the general equation of the IEC (International Electro-Technical
Commission) standard (Figure 6.11 and Table 6.1):

C
Tp = × TMS (6.3)
(I / I )
p
α
−1

Tp = Operating time in seconds.

(I / I )
p
α
= Applied multiples of set current value.
C and α = constant of relay
Constants for IEC Standard Time Overcurrent Characteristics IEC Standard.
170 Power System Protection and Relaying

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

FIGURE 6.11 Multiples plug setting operating time characteristics. (a) IEC normal inverse,
(b) IEC very inverse, (c) IEC long inverse, (d) IEC extremely inverse, (e) IEC ultrainverse, (f)
IEEE moderately inverse, (g) IEEE very inverse, and (h) IEEE extremely inverse.

(Continued)
Overcurrent Relay 171

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

FIGURE 6.11 (Continued) Multiples plug setting operating time characteristics. (a) IEC
normal inverse, (b) IEC very inverse, (c) IEC long inverse, (d) IEC extremely inverse, (e) IEC
ultrainverse, (f) IEEE moderately inverse, (g) IEEE very inverse, and (h) IEEE extremely
inverse.
172 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 6.1
IEC Standard Table
Type of Characteristics C α
Normal inverse 0.14 0.02
Very inverse 13.5 1
Extremely inverse 80 2
Long-time inverse 120 1
Short time inverse 0.05 0.04
Inverse 9.4 0.7

Example 6.1

Determine the time of operation of a 5 A overcurrent relay having a plug setting

of 150% and a time multiplier of 0.7. The supplying CT is rated 600:5 A, and the
fault current is 3000 A.

Solution

5
I = 3000 × = 25 A
600

150
Is = × 5 = 7.5
100

I 25
PSM = = = 3.333
I s 7.5

0.14 × TMS 0.14 ×0.7

t= = = 4.02 seconds.
PSM 0.02 − 1 3.3330.02 − 1

Example 6.2

Determine the time of operation of a 1 A overcurrent relay having a plug setting

of 125% and a time multiplier of 0.6. The supplying CT is rated 400:1 A, and the
fault current is 4000 A.

Solution

The relay coil current for the fault

1
I= × 4000 = 10 A
400

The nominal relay coil current

125
Is = × 1A = 1.25 A
100
Overcurrent Relay 173

I
PSM =
Is
The PSM
10
PSM = =8
1.25

The time of operation

0.14 × TMS 0.14 × 0.6

t= = 0.02 = 1.98 seconds
PSM 0.02 − 1 8 −1

Example 6.3

Determine the operation time of a relay of rating 5 A and having a plug setting of
125% and a time multiplier of 0.5. The supplying CT is rated 600:5 A, and the fault
current is 4000 A.

If
PSM =
I CT secondary × PS × CT

4000
PSM = = 5.3
5 × 125% × 600 / 5

From the plug setting multiplier time log–log data given in Figure 6.12, for PSM = 5.3

t = 4.2 seconds

top = t × TMS = 4.2 × 0.5 = 2.1seconds.

Example 6.4

An IDMT overcurrent relay has a current setting of 150% and a TMS of 40%. The
time of operation of a relay rating is 5 A. The relay is connected in the circuit
through a CT ratio of 500/5. Calculate the time of operation of the relay if the cir-
cuit carries a fault current of 6000 A.

If
PSM =
I CT secondary × PS × CT
6000
PSM = =8
5 × 150% × 500 /5

From the plug setting multiplier time log–log data given in Figure 6.12, for PSM = 8

t = 3.3 seconds

top = t × TMS = 3.3 × 0.4 = 1.32 seconds.

174 Power System Protection and Relaying

Plug setting multiplier (PSM)

1 1.3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20

30 20 15 10 8 6 5 4 3.5 3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2

Time (second)

FIGURE 6.12 PSM–time characteristics.

Example 6.5

For the relay R in the system shown, determine the current tap setting (CTS). If the
maximum three-phase fault current is 2400 A and the TDS = 2.0 nds the operat-
ing time, the relay type is CO-8 (inverse type) (Figure 6.13).
Solution

The load current

S 4.5 × 10 6
IL = = = 196.82 A
3 V 3 × 13.2 × 10 3

The relay current

5
I R = 196.82 × = 3.28 A
300

Since the CTS of CO-8 relay available are 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, and 12

Hence we choose CTS = 4

Fault current = 2400 A

5
Relay side fault current = 2400 × = 40 A
300

40
Multiple selected CTS = = 10
4

13.2 kV
300/5

21
5 MVA

FIGURE 6.13 Connection of Example 6.5.

Overcurrent Relay 175

Operating t ime (sec )

2.5
2
1.5
1 TDS = 2
0.5
0
0 10 20
Multiples of plug setting

FIGURE 6.14 Operating time multiple of plug setting characteristics at TDS = 2.

From the OC curve (Figure 6.14)

top = 0.31seconds.

Example 6.6

If the rated current (pick-up current) of a relay is 3 A, and the time dial setting is 1.

a. How long does it take the relay to trip if the supply CT is rated at 400:5 A,
and the fault current is 480 A? The type of OC relay is CO-8 (Figure 6.15).
b. Solve using the standard curve equation and compare the results.

Solution

5
I s = 480 × =6A
400

Tap value of current = 3 A

Is 6
∴ Multiple tap value current = = =2
I tap 3

From the CO-8 characteristic curves (see Figure 6.16):

Operating time = 2.1seconds.

400/5 A
480 A

Is
CO
-8

FIGURE 6.15 Connection of Example 6.6.

176 Power System Protection and Relaying

12

Operating t im e (sec )
10
8
TDS = 4
6
TDS = 3
4
TDS = 2
2
TDS = 1
0
0 2 4 6
Multiples of plug setting

FIGURE 6.16 Operating time multiple of plug setting characteristics.

Example 6.7

The 60 MVA, 10/30 kV transformer shown in Figure 6.17 operates at 20% over-
load. The transformer’s CB is equipped with a 1000/5 CT ratio, the feeder’s CBs
have a 500/5 CT ratio, the feeder relays are set at 125%, and TMS = 0.4. Use the
time–PSM given in Table 6.2 and a discrimination margin of 0.5 seconds for a
three-phase fault current of 3000 A at point F, nd (Table 6.3)

i. The operating time of the feeder relay.

ii. The minimum setting of the transformer relay.
iii. The TMS of the transformer.

Solution

i.

3000 × 5/500
PSM = = 4.8
5 × 125%

F
CB

FIGURE 6.17 The power system con guration of Example 6.7.

TABLE 6.2
The Time–PSM Characteristics Table for TSM = 1.0
Time (seconds) 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.5 4.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 ∞
PSM 20.0 15.0 10.0 6.4 5.0 4.0 3.2 2.0 1.0
Overcurrent Relay 177

TABLE 6.3
System Data
Generator 10 kV 40 MVA X = 0.15 p.u.
Transformer 10/30 kV 60 MVA X = 0.2 p.u.
Feeder (each) 30 kV 50 MVA R = 0.05 p.u., X = 0.25 p.u.

t = 4.2 seconds from time–PSM characteristics

t op = TMS × t

= 0.4 × 4.2 = 1.92 seconds

60 × 10 3
ii. The overload current = 1.25 = 1443.37 A
3 × 30

5
1443.37 ×
PSM = 1000
5 × PS
1.443
=
PS

So, the result set of PS should be >1.443

Therefore, PS = 1.5 or 150%.

iii.

3000 × 5/1000
PSM = =2
5 × 150%

t = 10 seconds

The transformer operating time

top = 0.5 + 1.92 = 2.42 seconds

top 2.42
TMS = = = 0.242
t 10
178 Power System Protection and Relaying

6.5 RELAY COORDINATION

The protective relay coordination is done during system design based on the short-
circuit current level. It determines the sequence of relay operations for various faults
in the power system so that the faulted section is cleared minimally. For proper relay
coordination, it is necessary to determine an appropriate TSM and PSM for each
relay to minimize the relay’s operating time. Besides the TSM and PSM, the type
of network, either radial or interconnected, plays a vital role in the optimum relay
coordination.

6.5.1 PRIMARY AND BACKUP PROTECTION

The rst line of protection providing a quick and selective clearing of faults in the
system is called primary protection. The protection given to the system when the
main protection fails is called backup protection.
Failure of the main protection may be due to any of the following reasons

i. DC supply to the tripping circuit fails

ii. The current or voltage supply to the relay fails
iii. The tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker fails
iv. The circuit breaker fails to operate
v. The main protective relay fails

6.5.2 METHOD OF RELAY COORDINATION

There are three types of discrimination:

i. Discrimination by time,
ii. Discrimination by current, and
iii. Discrimination by both current and time.

The three methods used for correct relay coordination. Though the methods are dif-
ferent, they follow the same goal of isolating only the system’s faulty section and
leaving the rest of the system undisturbed.

6.5.2.1 Discrimination by Time

In this method, an appropriate time setting keeping the same fault current level is
given to each relay controlling the circuit breakers in the power system to ensure that
the relay nearest to the fault operates rst. The relay near the source will have the
maximum time compared to the relay from the source’s far end (Figure 6.18).
Overcurrent protection is provided at A, B, C, and D at the infeed end of each
power system section. If fault F occurs, relay C will have the least operating time
compared to other relays. If relay C can clear the fault, there is no need for other
relay operations, but if it fails to clear the fault in a given time, then relay B will act
as the backup relay.
Overcurrent Relay 179

A B C D

t2 t1

FIGURE 6.18 Discrimination by time.

Time

Distance
1 2 3 4
B3 B2 B1

FIGURE 6.19 Coordinate delay time (CDT) (or time step delay) (or discrimination margin).

The relay’s operating time from the source should be minimum and increase as
we go toward the source (Figure 6.19).
The increase is by a discrimination margin of 0.4 or 0.5 seconds, which lates for
the rst relay to operate time plus to overtravel the next relay plus safety time factor.

Overtravel time = 0.1 seconds

Safety factor = 0.1 − 0.2seconds

CB time = 0.2seconds

The main application is when the fault levels at various locations do not vary
greatly (time-delay step) (Figure 6.20).

6.5.2.2 Discrimination by Current

An alternative to time-graded system, or time grading, current grading can be applied
when the impedance between two substations is suf cient. The current-graded
system normally employs a high-speed, high-set overcurrent relay (instantaneous).
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the fault
position because of the difference in impedance values between the source and the
fault. Therefore, the relays controlling the various circuit breakers are set to operate
at suitably tapered current values such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its
breaker (Figures 6.21 and 6.22).
The drawback of this type is if a fault is very near to station B in section BC, relay
A may feel that it is in section AB (no discrimination at section end). To obtain dis-
crimination, only about 80% of the line length is protected by a relay at one station.
180 Power System Protection and Relaying

A B C D
B3 B2 B1

F
Time

t1
t2
t3
Distance
t1 > t2 > t3

FIGURE 6.20 Time-grading characteristics.

A B C D
B3 B2 B1

F1 F2 F3 F4

FIGURE 6.21 Discrimination by the current.

A B C D
B3 B2 B1

F1 F2 F3
3000 A 2500 A 2200 A

CT: 300:5 CT: 300:5 CT: 300:5

Pickup current

I1
I2
I3
Distance
I1 >I2 > I3

FIGURE 6.22 Current grading characteristics.

6.5.2.3 Discrimination by Both Time and Current

This type of grading is achieved with an inverse time overcurrent relay, and the most
widely used is the IDMT relay. If the IDMT relay is slow at low values of overcurrent,
extremely inverse is used, and if the fault current reduces substantially as the fault
section moved away from the source, very inversely is used.
Overcurrent Relay 181

For proper coordination on a radial system, the pick-up of a relay should be such
that it will operate for all faults in its zone and provide backup for faults in the
adjoined zones.
The backup setting should equal the fault current value when the fault is at the far
end. The next zone with minimum generation is connected to the system
With this characteristic, the operation time is inversely proportional to the current
level, and the actual characteristics are a function of both time and current settings.
For a large variation in fault current between the two ends of the feeder, faster oper-
ating times can be achieved by the relays nearest to the source, where the fault level
is the highest.
Overcurrent relay characteristics generally start with selecting the correct char-
acteristics for each relay, followed by choosing the relay current settings. Finally, the
grading margins and hence time settings of the relays are determined.
IDMT relays are used in this feeder protection for proper coordination among
various relays. A relay’s pick-up should be used to operate for all short circuits in
its line section and provide backup for short circuits in the immediately adjoining
section. On a radial system, the current setting of the relay farthest from the source
should be minimum and increase as it goes toward the source.

• Fault at P, Relay C operates at t1

Relay B will not operate (t2 > t1)
Relay A will not pick up.
Relay B will clear the fault if relay C fails in time t2.

• Fault at Q, Relay B operates at t3.

Relay A will not operate (t4 > t3)
If relay B fails, Relay A will clear the fault in time t4.

• Fault at R, Relay A operates to clear the fault at t5.

The generator at bus one can be an equivalent representation of one
or more transformers feeding bus one from a higher voltage supply point
(Figure 6.23).

A B C
R Q P

t4
Time

Time

Time

t2
t5
t3
t1
If 2 If 3 If If 1 If 2 If If 1 If

FIGURE 6.23 Time–current characteristics.

182 Power System Protection and Relaying

1 2 3 4

| If |

FIGURE 6.24 Fault current is inversely proportional to distance.

A B C

FIGURE 6.25 Radial system of Example 6.8.

Since the power source is only to the left of each line section, it is suf cient to provide
only one circuit breaker for each section at the source end (Figure 6.24).
Fault current is inversely proportional to distance, as shown in Figure 6.24.
The principle of backup protection with an overcurrent relay for any relay X back-
ing up the next downstream relay Y is that relay X must pick up:

i. For one-third of the minimum current seen by Y.

ii. For the maximum current seen by Y, no sooner than coordinate delay time
(CDT) after Y should have picked up for the current.

A line-to-line fault will produce a fault current equal to 3 /2 times the three fault
currents

3
I f (L-L) = I f (three -phase) (6.4)
2

Example 6.8

The power system shown in Figure 6.25 performs current–time grading calcula-
tion, using Table 6.4 for data of the system and Table 6.5 as the time–PSM charac-
teristics table for TSM = 1.0.
Overcurrent Relay 183

TABLE 6.4
Data of the System
Relay CT Ratio Fault Current (A)
c 200/5 4000
b 200/5 5000
a 400/5 6000

TABLE 6.5
The Time–PSM Characteristics Table for TSM = 1.0
Time (seconds) 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.5 4.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 ∞
PSM 20.0 15.0 10.0 6.4 5.0 4.0 3.2 2.0 1.0

Solution

START WITH RELAY C

(
The secondary current with maximum fault current at bus C is 4000 / 200 /5 = 100 A )
100
For 100% relay setting PSM = = 20
5
From the log–log characteristics, the operating time = 2.2 seconds, but these
characteristics are used for TMS = 1.0.
For rst coordination, use TMS = 0.1.
For this relay, the operating time will be

top = 0.1 × 2.2 = 0.22 seconds

To achieve discrimination between the relay at B and that at C when fault takes
place just before C or just after C (i.e., no change in fault current), let discrimination
time = 0.5 seconds.
The operating time of relay B when fault takes place near C will be
0.22 + 0.5 = 0.72 seconds.
The secondary current in the relay at B when fault takes place near C will be
4000/40 = 100 A.
Assume relay B current setting = 125%

100
∴ PSM = = 16
125% × 5

So, the operating time from the characteristics is 2.5 seconds, but relay B operating
time when graded w.r.t relay C is 0.72 seconds

0.72
TMS for relay B = = 0.29
2.5
184 Power System Protection and Relaying

When the fault is near relay B, the PSM with an operating current is 6.25 A is

5000
PSM = = 20
6.25 × 40

From the characteristics, the operating time = 2.2 seconds.

The actual operating time = 2.2 × 0.29 = 0.638 seconds.

Since the CT ratio at A is 400/5, which is high compared to the relay at B, the cur-
rent discrimination is inherent. Let the relay setting of relay A be 125%.
So, PSM of relay A when fault takes place near B

5000
PSM = = 10
5 × 125% × 80

From the characteristics, relay A operation time is three seconds.

But, the operating time of relay A, when graded with relay, should be
0.638 + 0.5 = 1.138 seconds

1.138
∴ TMS of relay A = = 0.379
3

6000
When a fault is near A, the PSM = = 12
5 × 125% × 80
From the characteristics, the corresponding time = 2.6 seconds.
The actual operating time of relay A

= 2.6 × 0.379 = 0.985seconds

6.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR PROPER RELAY COORDINATION

• Relay current setting

The relay current setting is the minimum current required for the relay
to operate. Determining the current setting should be so that the relay does
not operate for the maximum fault current level but does operate for a mini-
mum fault current level. Suppose the current setting is set for the maximum
fault current level in the power system. In that case, an overcurrent relay
can provide a small degree of protection against overload and fault, but the
main function of an overcurrent relay is to isolate primary system faults, not
overload protection.

• Relay time-grading margin

The time-grading margin is the minimum time interval between the pri-
mary and backup protective relays to achieve proper discrimination.
If the grading margin is not provided, then more than one relay will
operate for the same fault, leading to a failure to determine the fault location
and a blackout in the power system.
Overcurrent Relay 185

• Time multiplier setting

The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors
i. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for
closing relay contacts and
ii. How fast do the moving parts of the relay cover this distance?

The adjustment of the traveling distance of a relay is commonly known as a time set-
ting. This adjustment is commonly known as the TSM of the relay.
The following algorithm gives the theoretical calculation for overcurrent relay
setting:

Assuming PlugSetting ( PS) of relay1 = 100% and TMS = 0.025

1.3
PSof relay 2 > × PSof relay1 (6.5)
1.05

1.3
PSof relay 3 > × PSof relay 2 (6.6)
1.05

If
PSM = (6.7)
PS × CTratio

0.14
T= × TMS (6.8)
PSM 0.02 − 1

Example 6.9

The power system is shown in Figure 6.26. The MVA range of the source is between
120 and 250 MVA. Perform the current grading.

C
A B D
B3 j0.25 Ω B2 B1
j0.05 Ω

11 kV, 250 F1 F2 F3 F4
MVA rating
each j0.08 pu
5 MVA
11/4 kV

FIGURE 6.26 The power system con guration of Example 6.9.

186 Power System Protection and Relaying

Solution

For fault at F1
11, 000
I f1 = 2 3 = 8652.38 A
11
+ 0.25
250

Hence, the relay controlling the circuit breaker at A and set to operate at a fault
current of 8652.38 A would protect the whole transmission line A–B.
For faults at F1: It is not practical to distinguish between faults at F1 and F2 since
the distance between these points can be only a few meters.
For fault at F3

11,000
I f3 = 3 = 8100 A
112
+ 0.25 + 0.05
250
For fault at F4

11, 000
I f4 = 3 = 3625 A
112 0.08 112
+ 0.25 + 0.05 + ×
250 2 5

Hence a relay controlling the CB at B and set to operate at a current of 3625 A plus
a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F4 and would thus discriminate
with the relay at A.
Assume a safety margin of 30%; it is reasonable to choose a relay setting of
130% of 3625 or 4713 A.

Example 6.10

A portion of the 13 kV radial system is shown in Figure 6.27. Assume the reac-
tances of transformers and transmission lines are given in ohm and referred to the
generator side to calculate the minimum and maximum fault current as a fault at
each bus.

A
C D E
B

j5.25 Ω j5 Ω j8 Ω

13 kV, 250 j4 Ω
MVA rating each
j6 Ω
each

FIGURE 6.27 The power system con guration of Example 6.10.

Overcurrent Relay 187

Solution

Fault at bus E.
Maximum fault current (three-phase fault):

13, 000 / 3
I f three-phase = = − j327.38 A
 132 6 4 
j + + 5.25 + 5 + + 8
 250 3 2 

Minimum fault current (line-to-line fault):

3
I f L-L = I f three-phase
2

3
I f L-L = ( − j327.38) = − j 283.52 A
2

Fault at bus D.
Maximum fault current (three-phase fault):

13, 000 / 3
I f three-phase = = − j502 A
 132 6 4
j + + 5.25 + 5 + 
 250 3 2

Minimum fault current (line-to-line fault):

3
I f L-L = I f three-phase
2

3
I f L-L = ( − j502) = − j 435.5 A
2

Fault at bus C.
Maximum fault current (three-phase fault):

13, 000 / 3
I f three-phase = = − j580.66 A
 132 6 
j + + 5.25 + 5
 250 3 

Minimum fault current (line-to-line fault):

3
I f L-L = I f three-phase
2

3
I f L-L = ( − j580.66) = − j502.86 A
2
188 Power System Protection and Relaying

Fault at bus B.
Maximum fault current (three-phase fault):

13, 000 / 3
I f three-phase = = − j947 A
 132 6 
j + + 5.25
 250 3 

Minimum fault current (line-to-line fault):

3
I f L-L = I f three-phase
2

3
I f L-L = ( − j947 ) = − j820 A
2

Fault at bus A.
Maximum fault current (three-phase fault):

13, 000 3
I f three-phase = = − j 2804 A
 132 6
j +
 250 3 

Minimum fault current (line-to-line fault):

3
I f L-L = I f three-phase
2

3
I f L-L = ( − j2804 ) = − j 2429 A
2

6.7 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE FOR OVERCURRENT RELAYS

The general expression of the analytical relationship between time versus input
current depends on inverses and is given by

K
T=
In −1

where K = TMS.
I = input current to overcurrent relay in multiples of PSs.
n = constant deciding the inferences.
For different values of n, the characteristics are

K
T= ( n = 0 ) DTOC relay
I0
Overcurrent Relay 189

6.8 OVERVOLTAGE AND UNDERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

6.8.1 UNDERVOLTAGE TEST
All devices use a power plug connected to the supply voltage, as shown in Figure 6.28.
Initially both power switches are open (OFF buttons). The resistive load is set to its
maximum value. The voltage relay’s DIP switches were set as given in Table 6.6. The
voltage is measured between the outer conductors (delta voltage) and has a value of
230 V.

6.8.2 OVERVOLTAGE TEST

Figure 6.28 shows the Lucas-Nülle GmbH layout plan for the overvoltage test emula-
tor at PVAMU.
All devices connect using a power plug to the supply voltage. The resistive load to
its maximum value. The DIP switches should remain on the same settings as those in
the test of undervoltage protection. The overvoltage excitation should lie between
110% and 115% at a voltage of 110 V.

FIGURE 6.28 Lucas-Nülle GmbH layout plan for overvoltage test emulator at PVAMU.

TABLE 6.6
The Voltage Relay’s DIP Switches Using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH Test
Emulator at PVAMU
Function Un Un Un ps Supv. Hyst. Hyst. tU<tU>
DIP Switch 1 (V) 2 (V) 3 (V) 4 5 6 (%) 7 (%) 8
ON 110 230 400 Active Δ 6 10 ×1
OFF 100 100 100 Inactive Y 3 3 ×0.1
190 Power System Protection and Relaying

Once all these settings have been made, connect the transmission line and the load
by closing the power switches (ON buttons).
The operational state should be assumed (both red LEDs on the voltage relay are
OFF). If a relay is still energized (red LED on), turn the power switch off again and
check your settings.

6.8.3 HYSTERESIS TEST

To test various hysteresis levels, which can be set for a protective relay. The set hys-
teresis always applies jointly to the overvoltage and undervoltage.
The setup from the previous system remains unchanged here. Just disconnect the
feed line to the power switch so that it is not inadvertently tripped during the next
round of measurements (Figure 6.29).
The resistive load is set to its maximum value. The voltage relay’s DIP switches
were set as indicated in Table 6.7. The (delta) voltage is measured between the outer
conductors and equals 110 V.

FIGURE 6.29 Lucas-Nülle GmbH layout plan for hysteresis test emulator at PVAMU.

TABLE 6.7
The Voltage Relay’s DIP Switches Using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH Test
Emulator at PVAMU
Function Un Un Un ps Supv. Hyst. Hyst. tU<tU>
DIP Switch 1 (V) 2 (V) 3 (V) 4 5 6 (%) 7 (%) 8
ON 110 230 400 Active Δ 6 10 ×1
OFF 100 100 100 Inactive Y 3 3 ×0.1
Overcurrent Relay 191

TABLE 6.8
The Voltage Relay’s DIP Switches Using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH Test
Emulator at PVAMU
U < (%) U > (%) RPU (V) RRe (V) R = RRe/RPU
75 105 115 111 0.96
75 110 120 116 0.97
75 115 126 120 0.95
75 120 131 126 0.96

TABLE 6.9
Set the Hysteresis to 10% (DIP Switch 7) Using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH Test
Emulator at PVAMU
Function Un Un Un ps Supv. Hyst. Hyst. tU<tU>
DIP Switch 1 (V) 2 (V) 3 (V) 4 5 6 (%) 7 (%) 8
ON 110 230 400 Active Δ 6 10 ×1
OFF 100 100 100 Inactive Y 3 3 ×0.1

The adjustable three-phase power supply set the voltage to 110 V. The trip delay
is zero seconds in both cases, and the potentiometer to the rst overvoltage value is
indicated in Table 6.8. Slowly increase the voltage on the three-phase power supply
until the red LED “U>” comes on, and note the pick-up value under RPU. Gradually
decrease the voltage and record the release (or reset) value RRe in Table 6.8.

• Repeat these steps on the remaining settings.

• Calculate the corresponding reset ratios and determine their average.

Calculate the average hysteresis with the help of the reset ratios.

H = 4.3%

Set the hysteresis to 10% (DIP switch 7), as in Table 6.9.

Proceed as in the previous experiment phase and note the measured values until
the red LED “U<” comes on.
The calculation of the reset ratios and determining their average is given in
Table 6.10 using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH test emulator at PVAMU.
Calculate the average hysteresis with the help of the reset ratios.

H = 8.9%
192 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 6.10
Set the Hysteresis to 10% (DIP Switch 7) Using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH Test
Emulator at PVAMU
U< (%) U> (%) RPU (V) RRe (V) R = RRe/RPU
90 120 101 110 1.09
85 120 96 106 1.1
80 120 90 100 1.11
75 120 84 94 1.12

6.9 DIRECTIONAL POWER PROTECTION

Figure 6.30 shows a Lucas-Nülle GmbH circuit diagram of directional power pro-
tection. The overhead transmission line receives a three-phase power supply and is
loaded symmetrically at its end. A circuit breaker (power-switch module) is located
before the transmission line for disconnecting the line from the power supply in
the event of a fault. The directional time overcurrent relay receives the necessary
measurement variables via a current transformer and a voltage transformer for each
phase. Figure 6.31 shows a Lucas-Nülle GmbH layout plan test emulator at PVAMU.

1. 3-phase power supply

2. Power-switch module
3. Current transformer
4. Voltage transformer
5. Line model
6. Load
7. Directional power relay

FIGURE 6.30 Lucas-Nülle GmbH circuit diagram of directional power protection.

Overcurrent Relay 193

FIGURE 6.31 Lucas-Nülle GmbH layout plan test emulator at PVAMU.

6.10 TESTING FORWARD AND REVERSE POWER

Initial steps: Use the LN SCADA software for precise adjustment of values (refer
to the chapter titled “Using LN SCADA Software”). This software indicates the
power in watts (W), which is considered a percentage of the protective relay’s refer-
ence power. Example: Un × In × power proportion (%) = 110 V × 1 A × 50% = 55 W;
Un = nominal voltage of the XP2-R; In = nominal current of the XP2-R.

6.10.1 TEST OF FORWARD POWER

For the connection in this section, the relay’s DIP switches are set as shown in
Table 6.11 (active setting = green background).
When the resistive load is at the maximum value, the voltage will be 110 V.
At current of 0.31, A, the apparent power will be 20 VA, and the percentage should
be set for this power level on the potentiometer at 31%. The trip level will be 35 W at
a delay time of 12.5 seconds.

TABLE 6.11
Show the Relay’s DIP Switches Setting Using the Lucas-Nülle GmbH Test
Emulator at PVAMU
Function Un Un Un t Return t RP> t P>
DIP Switch 1 (V) 2 (V) 3 (V) 4 5 6 (ms) 7 8
ON 110 230 400 Δ 40 ×10 ×10
OFF 100 100 100 Y 500 ×1 ×1
194 Power System Protection and Relaying

FIGURE 6.32 Lucas-Nülle GmbH layout for reverse power emulator at PVAMU.

6.10.2 TEST OF REVERSE POWER

When the resistive load is at maximum value, the voltage is 110 V.
Change the direction of the current ow by swapping the connections, as shown
in Figure 6.32. This reverses the current and, therefore, the power direction for the
protective relay.
The power of 10 W per phase corresponds to 6% of a gas turbine’s.
Maximum permissible reverse power. The setting will be 16%. The power at
which the relay is tripped is at a level of 17 W at a delay time of three seconds.

PROBLEMS
6.1. Determine the operation time of a 5 A, three seconds overcurrent relay with
a plug setting of 125% and a time multiplier of 0.58. The supplying CT is
rated 600:5 A, and the fault current is 3500 A.
6.2. The 40 MVA, 11/30 kV transformer shown in Figure 6.33 operates at 25%
overload. The transformer’s CB is equipped with a 1000/5 CT ratio, the
feeder’s CBs have a 500/5 CT ratio, the feeder relays are set at 125%, and

F
CB

FIGURE 6.33 The power system con guration of Problem 6.2.

Overcurrent Relay 195

TMS = 0.35. Use the time–PSM given in Table 6.12 and a discrimination
margin of 0.4 seconds for a three-phase fault current of 3300 A at point F to
nd (Table 6.13):

i. The operating time of the feeder relay.

ii. The minimum setting of the transformer relay.
iii. The TMS of the transformer.

TABLE 6.12
The Time–PSM Characteristics Table for TSM = 1.0
Time (seconds) 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.5 4.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 ∞
PSM 20.0 15.0 10.0 6.4 5.0 4.0 3.2 2.0 1.0

TABLE 6.13
System Data
Generator 11 kV 40 MVA X = 0.2 p.u.
Transformer 11/30 kV 60 MVA X = 0.12 p.u.
Feeder (each) 30 kV 50 MVA R = 0.05 p.u., X = 0.25 p.u.

6.3. The 25 MVA transformer shown in Figure 6.34 operates at 30% overload
and feeds n 11 kV bus through a circuit breaker. The transformer’s CB is
equipped with a 1000/5 CT ratio, the feeder’s CBs have a 400/5 CT ratio, the
feeder relays are set at 125%, and TMS = 0.375. Use the time–PSM given
in Table 6.12 and a discrimination margin of 0.4 seconds for a three-phase
fault current of 5000 A at point F to nd (Table 6.14):
i. The operating time of the feeder relay.
ii. The minimum setting of the transformer relay.
iii. The TMS of the transformer.

F
CB

FIGURE 6.34 The power system con guration of Problem 6.3.

196 Power System Protection and Relaying

TABLE 6.14
System Data
Generator 11 kV 25 MVA X = 0.1 p.u.
Transformer 11/33 kV 60 MVA X = 0.15 p.u.
Feeder (each) 33 kV 50 MVA R = 0.05 p.u., X = 0.25 p.u.

6.4. A 11 kV busbar has two incoming feeders, each tted with 1000/5 A CT
and an IDMTL (inverse de nite minimum time-lag) relay having a plug
and time setting of 150% and 0.4, respectively. The corresponding data for
an outgoing feeder is 400/5 A, 175%, 0.3. For a three-phase 280 MVA fault
along the outgoing feeder, calculate the difference between the operating
times of the relay for:
i. The two incoming feeders are in operation.
ii. One incoming feeder is in operation (the other is switched out).
iii. Show that the protection and a single incoming feeder will not operate
to a load of 20 MVA.
6.5. It is required to provide time–current grading for the following system in
Figure 6.35 (Table 6.15).

a b c

FIGURE 6.35 The power system con guration of Problem 6.5.

TABLE 6.15
System Data
Relay Plug Setting (PS) (%) CT Ratio Fault Current (A)
a 150 400/5 5100
b 125 300/5 4200
c 100 200 3300
Overcurrent Relay 197

Use IDMTL characteristics for TMS = 1, shown in Figure 6.36.

Plug setting multiplier (PSM)

1 1.3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20

30 20 15 10 8 6 5 4 3.5 3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2

Time (second)

FIGURE 6.36 IDMTL characteristics.

6.6. For the relay R in the system shown, determine the current tap setting (CTS).
If the maximum three-phase fault current is 2400 A and the TDS = 2.0 nds
the operating time, the relay type is CO-8 (inverse type) (Figure 6.37).

13.2 kV
300/5

21
5 MVA

FIGURE 6.37 Connection of Problem 6.6.

 7 Transmission
Protection
Line

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A transmission line is the most important and integral part of a power system. Due to
more than 80% of disturbances or short-circuit faults in an overhead line, this section
has become the most vulnerable part of the electrical system. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to have designed a reliable protection system to protect against interference.
In order of ascending cost and complexity, the protective devices available for
transmission line protection are:

i. fuses
ii. sectionalizes, reclosers
iii. instantaneous overcurrent
iv. inverse, time delay, overcurrent
v. directional overcurrent
vi. distance
vii. pilot.

The current chapter describes transmission lines protection, distance relay as

impedance, reactance, and mho relay will be discussed in this chapter. The funda-
mentals of differential protection systems used to protect transmission lines will
also be discussed. Protection of parallel lines (Parallel operation) and Parametrizing
non-directional relays using the SCADA system are discussed. Directional time
overcurrent relays and High-speed distance protection using SCADA technology
are explained in this chapter.

7.2 DISTANCE RELAY

Distance relays represent the rst option for replacing overcurrent relays when con-
sidered inadequate for a speci c function. These relaying devices are not affected
as much as overcurrent relays by relative source impedances and system conditions.
Other advantages offered by distance relays are the integrated fault location function,
the possibility of being applied as remote backup protection, and the wide variety
of characteristics, which make the option for these devices the most adequate for
certain applications
The ratio of voltage to current at the relay location governs the distance relay’s per-
formance. The operating time of the relay automatically increases with an increase
in this ratio. The impedance or the circuit’s reactance between the relay and the fault
is proportional to the distance between them, provided the relay actuating quantities
(VR and IR) are properly chosen. Figure 7.1 shows a distance relay con guration.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003394389-7 199

200 Power System Protection and Relaying

Z AF
A B
F

if If
vf Vf

Restrain
Operating
coil
coil
Relay

FIGURE 7.1 Distance relay con guration.

Z 3a
Z 2a Z 2c
Time Z 1a Z 1c

A B C D

Z 2b Z 1b Z 1d
Z 2d
Time Z 3d

FIGURE 7.2 Two sections line system is protected by three zones protection scheme.

For the simple impedance relay shown, the relay operates for Z = V / I below a
particular value, whereas above this value of Z, the relay will restain. If possible,
select a setting comparable along the time to be protected.
Strictly speaking, the impedance seen by the relay is not proportional to the dis-
tance between the relay and the fault in general because of the following reasons:

i. Presence of resistance at the fault location (arc resistance).

ii. Presence of loads or generating sources between the relay and the fault
location.

Figure 7.2 shows a two sections line system protected by three zones protection
scheme.
Z1a corresponds to ~80% of the length of line AB and is a high-speed zone. It was
extended only to 80% of the length to pass the impedance measurements’ inaccura-
cies, especially when the current is offset.
The second Z2a zone for relay A causes the remaining 100% of line AB plus 20%
of the adjoining section CD.