UNIT I

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

It is one of the contemporary subjects of electrical engineering which has seen a lot of
advancements in recent times and has impacted human life in almost every sphere. We use
many power electronic applications in our daily life, without even realizing it. Now the
question infront of us is, “what is power electronics?”
Power electronics can be defined as the hybrid of power engineering, analogue electronics.
We derive the fundamentals of each subject and apply it in an amalgamated way so as to
get a regulated form of electrical energy. Electrical energy in itself is not usable until it is
converted into a tangible form of energy such as motion, light, sound, heat etc. In order to
regulate these forms of energy, an effective way is to regulate the electrical energy itself
and this forms the content of the subject power electronics. We can trace the overwhelming
advancement in the subject back to the development of commercial thyristors or silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCR) by General Electric Co. in 1958. Before this the control of electrical
energy was mainly done using thyratrons and mercury arc rectifiers which works on the
principle of physical phenomena in gases and vapors.
After SCR, many power electronic devices have emerged like GTO, IGBT, SIT, MCT, TRIAC,
DIAC, IEGT, IGCT and so on. These devices are rated for several hundreds of volt and
ampere unlike the signal level devices which work at few volts and mill amperes.
In order to achieve the purpose of power electronics, the devices are made to work as
nothing more than a switch. All the power electronic devices act as a switch and have two
modes, i.e. ON and OFF.
For example, a BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) has three regions of operation in its output
characteristics cut-off, active and saturation. In analogue electronics where the BJT is
supposed to work as an amplifier, the circuit is so designed to bias it in active region of
operation. However in power electronics BJT will work in cutoff region when it is OFF and in
saturation region when it is ON.
Now that the devices are required to work as a switch, they must follow the basic
characteristic of a switch, i.e. when the switch is ON, it has zero voltage drop across it and
carries full current through it, and when it is in OFF condition, it has full voltage drop across
it and zero current flowing through it. The figure below depicts the above statement.

FF

Figure 1.1 Ideal switch

Now since in both the mode either of the quantity V or I is zero, the switch power also
turns out to be zero always. This characteristic is easy to visualize in a mechanical switch
and the same has to be followed in power electronic switch also.
However practically there always exists a leakage current through the devices when in OFF
condition, i.e I leakage ≠ 0 and there is always a forward voltage drop in ON condition, i.e
Von ≠ 0. However the magnitude of Von or I leakage is very less and hence the power
across the device is also very less, in order of few mill watts. This power is dissipated in the
device and hence proper heat evacuation from the device is an important aspect. Apart
from this ON state and OFF state losses, there are switching losses also in power electronic
devices. This is mainly while the switch toggles from one mode to another and V and I
across the device changes. In power electronics both the losses are important parameters
of any device and essential in determining its voltage and current ratings.The power
electronic devices alone are not that useful in practical applications and hence require to be
designed with a circuit along with other supporting components. These supporting
components are like the decision making part which controls the power electronic switches
in order to achieve the desired output. This includes the firing circuit and the feedback
circuit. The block diagram below depicts a simple power electronic system.

Figure 1.1 a Basic power electronic circuit

The Control Unit takes the output feedback from sensors and compares it with references
and accordingly gives input to the firing circuit. Firing circuit is basically a pulse generating
circuit which gives pulse output in a fashion so as to control the power electronic switches
in the main circuit block.
The net result is that the load receives the desired electrical power and hence delivers the
desired result. A typical example of the above system would be speed control of motors.
You can learn more about power electronics by studying our basic electronics questions.
Majorly there are five types of power electronic circuits, each having different purposes-
1. Rectifiers – converts fixed AC to variable DC (such as half wave rectifiers or full
wave rectifiers)
2. Choppers – converts fixed DC to variable DC
3. Inverters – converts DC to AC having variable amplitude and variable frequency
4. Voltage Regulators – converts fixed AC to variable AC at same input frequency
5. Cyclo converters – converts fixed AC to AC with variable frequency
There is a common misconception about the term converter. Converter is basically any
circuit that converts electrical power from one form to another. The circuit need the power
semiconductor devices to be used to build a converter circuitry. Let us see the devices
operation in details.
1.2 THYRISTORS

The name 'thyristor ', is derived by a combination of the capital letters from THYRatr
on and transistor. SCRs are solid state devices, they are compact, possess high
reliability and have low loss. Because of these useful features, SCR is almost
universally employed these days for all high power-controlled devices. Thyristor is a
four layer, three-junction, p -n-p –n semiconductor switching device. It has three
terminals; anode, cathode and gate. The thyristor consists of four layers of alternate
p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors forming three junctions J l , J 2 and J3 as
shown in Fig. Gate terminal is usually kept near the cathode terminal. The terminal
connected to outer p region is called anode (A), the terminal connected to outer n
region is called cathode and that connected to inner p region is called the gate (G)‘

(a) (b)
Fig 1.2 (a) Schematic diagram and (b) circuit symbol of thyristor

An SCR is so called because silicon is used for its construction and its operation as a
rectifier (very low resistance in the forward conduction and very high resistance in the
reverse direction)can be controlled. Like the diode, an SCR is an unidirectional device
that blocks the current flow from cathode to anode. Unlike the diode, a thyristor also
blocks the current flow from anode to cathode until it is triggered into conduction by a
proper gate signal between gate and cathode terminals.

1.2.1 STATIC I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A THYRISTOR

Circuit diagram for obtaining static I-V characteristics of a thyristor is shown in Fig1.3
The anode and cathode are connected to main source through the load. The gate and
cathode are fed from a source ES which provides positive gate current from gate to
cathode.
Static I -V characteristics of a thyristor is shown in Fig.3. Va is the anode voltage
across thyristor terminals A , K and Io is the anode current. static I -V characteristics
of a thyristor has three basic modes of operation; namely, reverse blocking mode,
forward blocking (off-state) mode and forward conduction (on-state)mode.
Fig 1.2 b Elementary circuit diagram for obtaining the V-I characteristics

Three modes of operation of a thyristor are:

Reverse Blocking Mode.

Forward Blocking Mode.
Forward Conduction mode.

REVERSE BLOCKING MODE:

In this mode of operation, cathode is made positive with respect to anode. Then the
junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased and J2 is forward biased. This reverse voltage
drives the SCR into reverse blocking region results to flow a small leakage current
through it and acts as an open switch as shown in figure.
So, the device offers a high impedance in this mode until the voltage applied is less than
the reverse breakdown voltage VBR of the SCR. If the reverse applied voltage is
increased beyond the VBR, then avalanche breakdown occurs at junctions J1 and J3
which results to increase reverse current flow through the SCR.
This reverse current causes more losses in the SCR and even to increase the heat of it.
So there will be a considerable damage to the SCR when the reverse voltage applied
more than VBR.

FORWARD BLOCKING MODE

In this mode of operation, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier is connected such that the
anode terminal is made positive with respect to cathode while the gate terminal kept
open. In this state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the junction J2 reverse
biased.
Due to this, a small leakage current flows through the SCR. Until the voltage applied
across the SCR is more than the break over voltage of it, SCR offers a very high
resistance to the current flow. Therefore, the SCR acts as a open switch in this mode by
blocking forward current flowing through the SCR as shown in the VI characteristics curve
of the SCR.
FORWARD CONDUCTION MODE

In this mode, SCR or thyristor comes into the conduction mode from blocking mode. It can
be done in two ways as either by applying positive pulse to gate terminal or by increasing
the forward voltage (or voltage across the anode and cathode) beyond the break over
voltage of the SCR. If any one of these methods is applied, the avalanche breakdown occurs
at junction J2. Therefore the SCR turns into conduction mode and acts as a closed switch
thereby current starts flowing through it.

Note that in the IV characteristic figure 4, if the gate current value is high, the minimum will
be the time to come in conduction mode as Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1. In this mode, maximum
current flows through the SCR and its value depends on the load resistance or impedance.

Fig 1.3 (a ) J 2 forward biased and J 1,J3 reverse biased

(b ) J 2 reverse biased and J 1,J3 forward biased

It is also noted that if gate current is increasing, the voltage required to turn ON the SCR is
less if gate biasing is preferred. The current at which the SCR turns into conduction mode
from blocking mode is called as latching current (IL).
And also when the forward current reaches to level at which the SCR returns to blocking
state is called as holding current (IH). At this holding current level, depletion region starts to
develop around junction J2. Hence the holding current is slightly less than the latching
current.
 Figure 1.4 static VI characteristics of thyristor

1.2.2 THYRISTOR TURN ON METHODS

Triggering:-The turning on Process of the SCR is known as Triggering. In other words,
turning the SCR from Forward-Blocking state to Forward-Conduction state is known as
Triggering.

There is mainly five different methods turn on methods of SCR:

(a)Forward Voltage Triggering
(b)Gate Triggering
(c)dv/dt Triggering
(d)Temperature or Thermal Triggering
(e)Light Triggering

(A) FORWARD VOLTAGE TRIGGERING:-

In this mode, an additional forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode.
When the anode terminal is positive with respect to cathode(VAK) , Junction J1 and J3 is
forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased.
No current flows due to depletion region in J2 is reverse biased (except leakage current).
As VAK is further increased, at a voltage VBO (Forward Break Over Voltage) the junction J2
undergoes avalanche breakdown and so a current flows and the device tends to turn
ON(even when gate is open)
(B) GATE TRIGGERING:-

This is most widely used SCR triggering method.

Applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode can Turn ON a forward biased
thyristor.
When a positive voltage is applied at the gate terminal, charge carriers are injected in the
inner P-layer, thereby reducing the depletion layer thickness.
As the applied voltage increases, the carrier injection increases, therefore the voltage at
which forward break-over occurs decreases.

(C) DV/DT TRIGGERING:-

• When the device is forward biased, J1 and J3 are forward biased, J2 is reverse biased.
• Junction J2 behaves as a capacitor, due to the charges existing across the junction.
• If voltage across the device is V, the charge by Q and capacitance by C then,

ic =dQ/dt
Q=CV
ic =d(CV)/dt
=C.dV/dt+V.dC/dt
as dC/dt = 0
ic = C.dV/dt

Therefore when the rate of change of voltage across the device becomes large,
the device may turn ON, even if the voltage across the device is small.

(D) THERMAL (OR) TEMPERATURE TRIGGERING:-

• The width of depletion layer of SCR decreases with increase in junction temperature.
• Therefore in SCR when VAR is very near its breakdown voltage, the device is triggered by
increasing the junction temperature.
• By increasing the junction temperature the reverse biased junction collapses thus the
device starts to conduct.

(E) RADIATION TRIGGERING (OR) LIGHT TRIGGERING:-

For light triggered SCRs a special terminal niche is made inside the inner P layer instead of
gate terminal.
When light is allowed to strike this terminal, free charge carriers are generated.
When intensity of light becomes more than a normal value, the thyristor starts conducting.
This type of SCRs are called as LASCR

Fig 1.5 Light triggering SCR

1.2.3 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

Switching characteristics of SCR is the time variation of voltage across its anode and
cathode terminals and the current through it during its turn on and turn off process. This
means, there will be two types of characteristics: One during turn on process and other
during turn off process of SCR

1.2.3.1 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS DURING TURN-ON

SCR turn-on time is defined as the time during which SCR changes from forward blocking
mode to final on-state.
Total turn-on time can be divided into three intervals
1. Delay time td
2. Rise time tr
3. Spread time tp

Delay time:
Delay time is the time between the instant at which gate current reaches 0.9 Ig to the
instant at which anode current reaches 0.1 Ia. Here Ig and Ia are respectively the final
values of gate and anode currents.
(or)
The delay time may also be defined as the time during which anode voltage falls from Va
to 0.9 Va where Va = initial value of anode voltage.
(or)
The time during which anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 Ia where Ia
= final value of anode current.

Rise time:
The time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.1 Ia to 0.9 Ia.
(or)
The rise time is also defined as the time required for the forward blocking off-state anode
voltage to fall from 0.9 to 0.1 of its initial value OA.
During rise time, turn on losses in the thyristor are the highest due to high anode voltage
and large anode current occurring together in the thyristor.

Spread time:
The time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9 Ia to Ia.
(or)
It is also defined as the time for the forward blocking voltage to fall from 0.1 of its initial
value to the on-state voltage drop.
Figure 1.5 switching characteristics of Thyristor

1.2.3.2 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS DURING TURN-OFF:

SCR turns off means that it has changed from ON to OFF state and is capable of
blocking the forward voltage. This dynamic process of the SCR from conduction state to
forward blocking state is called commutation process or turn-off process.
Turn off time t q :

It is defined as time between the instant anode current becomes zero and the instant
SCR regains forward blocking capability.
During this time all the excess carriers from four layers of SCR are removed. The turn
off time is divided into two intervals.

1. Reverse recovery time

2. Gate recovery time

Reverse Recovery Time

It is the interval in which change carriers remove from J1, and J3 junction. At time t1,
anode current falls to zero and it will continue to increase in reverse direction with
same slope (di/dt) of the forward decreasing current. This negative current will help to
sweep out the carrier charges from junction J1 and J3.
At the time t2 carrier charge density is not sufficient to maintain the reverse current hence
after t2 this negative current will start to decrease. The value of current at t2 is called
reverse recovery current.
Due to rapid decreasing of anode current, a reverse spike of voltage may appear across
the SCR. Total recovery time t3 – t1 is called reverse recovery time. After that, device will
start to follow the applied reverse voltage and it gains the property to block the forward
voltage.

Gate Recovery Time

After sweeping out the carrier charges from junction J1 and J3 during reverse recovery
time, there still remain trapped charges in J2 junction which prevent the SCR from blocking
the forward voltage. This trapped charge can be removed by recombination only and the
interval in which this recombination is done, called gate recovery time.

Circuit turn off time:

It is defined as the time between the instant anode current becomes zero and the instant
reverse voltage due to practical circuit reaches zero.
t c > t q for reliable turn off, otherwise the device may turn-on at an undesired instant,
a process called commutation failure.

• Thyristors with slow turn-off time are called converter grade SCR's. Example:
phase controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters and ac voltage controllers.
• SCR's with fast turn off time are called inverter grade SCR. Example:
inverters, choppers and forced commutation converters.

1.2.4 TWO TRANSISTOR ANALOGY OF SCR

Two transistor analogy of SCR is a method of representing SCR in the form of two
transistor model. This represents SCR is the combination of PNP and NPN transistor.
SCR or thyristor is a three terminal semiconductor device which having P-N-P-N structure.
The basic operating principle of SCR can understand by two transistor method of SCR.
If we bisect it through the dotted line as shown in the figure 1.6.(a) then we will get two
transistors i.e. one pnp transistor with J1 and J2 junctions and another is with J2 and J3
junctions as shown in figure 1.6 (b).
Fig.1.7 Thyristor (a) its schematic diagram, (b) and (c) its two transistor model

Here, IC is collector current, IE is emitter current, ICBO is forward leakage current, α is

common base forward current gain and relationship between IC and IB is

IC=βIB

Where, IB is base current and β is common emitter forward current gain.

As per transistor leakage current equation,
Collector current is expressed as,

IC =α IE+ICBO

Where α is the current gain of transistor and Icbo is the leakage current of the common
base transistor.
For transistor Q1 emitter current = anode current Ia and collector current Ic = Ic1

IC1 = α1IA + ICB01

Where α1 is the current gain of transistor Q1.

Similarly, for transistor Q2

IC2 = α2IK + ICB02

Where α2 is the current gain of transistor Q2. And emitter current of transistor Q2 =
cathode current Ik.

From the figure 7.(c) the current Ia is the sum of two collector current: Ic1 and Ic2.

Ia = IC1 + IC2
Ia = α1IA + ICB01 + α2IK + ICB02
 By putting Ik = Ia + Ig, anode current Ia will be,

Ia = α1IA + ICB01 + α2( Ia+Ig) + ICB02

Ia = (α2 Ig+ICB01+ICB02 )/(1-(α1+α2))

By putting Ik = Ia + Ig, anode current Ia will be,

Ia = α1IA + ICB01 + α2( Ia+Ig) + ICB02

Ia = (α2 Ig+ICB01+ICB02 )/(1-(α1+α2))

Working of the SCR can be easily explained by two transistor model of SCR.
Assume the supply voltage V is less than break over voltage. When the gate is open
(i.e. switch S open), there is base current Ib=0. The base of the Q2 is connected with
the collector of Q1. Therefore, no current flows in the collector of Q2 and hence that
of Q1. So for this condition, SCR is in OFF condition.

When switch S is closed, a small gate current will flow through the base of Q2 which
means its collector current will increase. The collector of the transistor Q2 is connected
with transistor Q1. So, the collector current of Q2 is the base current of Q1. Therefore,
the collector current of Q1 increases. But collector current of Q1 is the base current of
Q2. This action is accumulative since an increase of current in one transistor causes an
increase of current in the other transistor. As a result of this action, both transistors
are driven to saturation, and heavy current flows through the load. Under such
conditions, the SCR closes.
1.3 TRIAC

Triacs are electronic components that are widely used in AC power control applications.
They are able to switch high voltages and high levels of current, and over both parts of
an AC waveform. This makes triac circuits ideal for use in a variety of applications where
power switching is needed.

An SCR is a unidirectional device as it can conduct from anode to cathode only and not
from cathode to anode. A triac can, however, conduct in both the directions. A triac is
thus a bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It is used extensively for the control
of power in ac circuits . Triac is the word derived by combining the capital letters from
the words TRIode and AC. When in operation, a triac is equivalent to two SCRs
connected in antiparallel.

The triac is a development of the thyristor. While the thyristor can only control current
over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it over two halves of an AC waveform.
The triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite thyristors with the two
gates connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of the
other.

Fig. 1.8.Symbol of TRIAC

As the triac can conduct in both the directions, the terms anode and cathode are not
applicable to triac. Its three terminals are usually designated as MTl (main terminal 1),
MT2 and the gate by G. The gate G is near terminal MTl. The cross-hatched strip shows
that G is connected to N3 as well as P2.Similarly terminal MTI is connected to P2 and N2,
terminal MT2 to P1 and N4 . With no signal to gate, the triac will block both half cycles of
the applied voltage in case peak value of this voltage is less than the breakover voltage
vBDl or VBD2 of the triac, Fig.1.8.
The triac can, be turned on in each half cycle of the applied voltage by applying a
positive or negative voltage to the gate with respect to terminal MTl. For convenience,
terminal MTI is taken as the point for measuring the voltage and current at the gate
and MT2 terminals.

Fig.1.9. cross sectional view of TRIAC

Fig.1.10.Static IV characteristics of TRIAC

1.3.1 TRIGERRING MODES OF OPERATION OF TRIAC
1.Terminal MT2 and gate are positive with respect to terminal MT1
2.Terminal MT2 is positive but gate is negative with respect to terminal MT1
3.Terminal MT2 and gate are negative with respect to terminal MT1
4.Terminal MT2 is negative but gate is positive with respect to terminal MT1

(i)MT2 is positive and gate current is also positive.

•When MT2 is positive with respect to MTI, junction PI NI, P2 N2 are forward biased but
junction NI P2 is reverse biased.
•When gate terminal is positive with respect to MTl, gate current flows mainly through
P2 N2 junction like an ordinary SCR, Fig. 1.11 (a ).
•When gate current has injected sufficient charge into P2 layer, reverse biased junction
NI P2 breaks down just as in a normal SCR.
•Triac starts conducting through PI N I P2 N2 layers.
•Thus when MT2 and gate terminals are positive with respect to MTl, triac turns on like
a conventional thyristor. Under this condition, triac operates in the first quadrant of Fig.
1.10.
•The device is more sensitive in this mode. It is recommended method of triggering if
the conduction is desired in the first quadrant.

(ii) MT2 is positive but gate current is negative.

•When gate terminal is negative with respect to MTl, gate current flows through P2 N3
junction, Fig, 1.11 (b) and reverse biased junction N1 P2 is forward biased as in a
normal thyristor.
•Triac starts conducting through P1 NI P2 N3 layers initially.
•With the conduction of Pl N1P2 N 3, the voltage drop across this path falls but
potential of layer between P2 N2 rises towards the anode potential of MT2.
•The right hand portion of P2 is clamped at the cathode potential of MTl, a potential
gradient exists across layer P2, its left hand region being at higher potential than its
right hand region.
•A current shown dotted is thus established in layer P2 from left to right. This current is
similar to conventional gate current of an SCR. As a consequence, right-hand part of
triac consisting of main structure PI NI P2 N2 begins to conduct.
•The device structure PI N1 P2 N3 is pilot SCR and the structure PINI P2N2 as the main
SCR.
•The anode current of pilot SCR serves as the gate current for the main SCR.
•With the device MT2 positive but gate current negative is less sensitive and therefore,
more gate current is required.
 Fig 1.11. Modes of operation of TRIAC

(iii) MT2 is negative but gate current is positive.

•The gate current Ig forward biases P2 N2 junction Fig. 11(C).

• Layer N2 injects electrons into P2 1ayer as shown by dotted arrows.
•The reverse biased junction N1P 1 breaks down as in a conventional thyristor.
•The structure P2 N1 PI N4 is completely turned on.
•As the triac is' turned on by remote gate N2, the device is less sensitive in the third
quadrant with positive gate current.

(iv ) Both MT2 and gate current are negative.

•In this mode, N3 acts as a remote gate, Fig.11 (d).

•The gate current 1g flows from P2 to N3 as in a normal thyristor.
•Reverse-biased junction N1 P1 is broken and finally, the structure P2 N1 Pl N4 is turned on
completely.
•The triac is turned on by remote gate N3 in third quadrant, yet the device is more
sensitive.

1.3.3. ADVANTAGES OF TRIAC

1.It can be triggered with positive or negative polarity gate pulses.

2.It requires only a single heat sink of slightly larger size, whereas for SCR, two heat sinks
should be required of smaller size.
3.It requires single fuse for protection.
4.A safe breakdown in either direction is possible but for SCR protection should be given
with parallel diode.
1.3.4. DISADVANTAGES OF TRIAC

1.They are not much reliable compared to SCR.

2.It has (dv/dt) rating lower than SCR.
3.Lower ratings are available compared to SCR.
4.We need to be careful about the triggering circuit as it can be triggered in either
direction.

1.3.5 APPLICATION OF TRIAC

1.They are used in control circuits.

2.It is used in High power lamp switching.
3.It is used in AC power control.

1.4 GATE TURN OFF THYRISTOR(GTO)

The Gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is a four layer PNPN power semiconductor switching
device that can be turned on by a short pulse of gate current and can be turned off by a
reverse gate pulse.

• This reverse gate current amplitude is dependent on the anode current to be turned off.
• There is no need for an external commutation circuit to turn it off. So inverter circuits
built by this device are compact and low-cost.
• The device is turned on by a positive gate current and it is turned off by a negative
gate cathode voltage.

The Symbol has three terminals namely Anode(A), Cathode(K) and Gate(G). The two-way
arrow convention on the gate lead distinguishes the GTO from the conventional thyristor.

Fig 1.12.Symbol of GTO

1.4.1 CONSTRUCTION

Consider the below structure of GTO, which is almost similar to the thyristor. It is also
a four layer, three junction P-N-P-N device like a standard thyristor. In this, the n+
layer at the cathode end is highly doped to obtain high emitter efficiency. This result
the breakdown voltage of the junction J3 is low which is typically in the range of 20 to
40 volts.The doping level of the p type gate is highly graded because the doping level
should be low to maintain high emitter efficiency, whereas for having a good turn OFF
properties, doping of this region should be high. In addition, gate and cathodes
should be highly interdigited with various geometric forms to optimize the current
turn off capability.

The junction between the P+ anode and N base is called anode junction. A heavily
doped P+ anode region is required to obtain the higher efficiency anode junction so
that a good turn ON properties is achieved. However, the turn OFF capabilities are
affected with such GTOs. This problem can be solved by introducing heavily doped
N+ layers at regular intervals in P+ anode layer as shown in figure. So this N+ layer
makes a direct contact with N layer at junction J1. This cause the electrons to travel
from base N region directly to anode metal contact without causing hole injection
from P+ anode. This is called as a anode shorted GTO structure.
Due to these anode shorts, the reverse blocking capacity of the GTO is reduced to the
reverse breakdown voltage of junction j3 and hence speeds up the turn OFF
mechanism.

However, with a large number of anode shorts, the efficiency of the anode junction
reduces and hence the turn ON performance of the GTO degrades. Therefore, careful
considerations have to be taken about the density of these anode shorts for a good
turn ON and OFF performance.

1.4.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The turn ON operation of GTO is similar to a conventional thyristor. When the anode
terminal is made positive with respect to cathode by applying a positive gate current,
the hole current injection from gate forward bias the cathode p-base junction.
This results in the emission of electrons from the cathode towards the anode
terminal. This induces the hole injection from the anode terminal into the base
region. This injection of holes and electrons continuous till the GTO comes into the
conduction state.
In case of thyristor, the conduction starts initially by turning ON the area of cathode
adjacent to the gate terminal. And thus, by plasma spreading the remaining area
comes into the conduction.

Unlike a thyristor, GTO consists of narrow cathode elements which are heavily inter
digitated with gate terminal, thereby initial turned ON area is very large and plasma
spreading is small. Hence the GTO comes into the conduction state very quickly.

1.4.2.1 TWO TRANSISTOR MODEL OF GTO OPERATION

The aspects of the Gate turnoff thyristor, GTO are very similar to that of the ordinary
thyristor. In GTO, one PNP and one NPN transistor being connected in a regenerative
configuration whereby once turned on the system maintains itself in this state.

When a potential is applied across the gate turn-off thyristor between the anode and
cathode, no current will flow because neither device is turned on. Current would only
flow if the voltage exceeded the breakdown voltage and current would flow as a result
of avalanche action, but this mode would not suggested for normal operation. In this
non-conducting state the gate turn-off thyristor is said to be in its forward blocking
mode.

To turn the device on it is necessary to inject current into gate circuit of the device.
When this is done, it turns on TR2 in the Fig 13. This pulls the collector of this
transistor down towards the emitter voltage and in turn this turns on the other
transistor TR1.

The fact that TR1 is now switched on ensures current flows into the base of TR2, and
thus this feedback process ensures that once the gate turn-off thyristor like any other
thyristor is turned on it remains on.

The key capability of the gate turn-off thyristor is its ability to be turned off by the use
of the gate electrode on the device.

The device turn off is achieved by applying a negative bias to the gate with respect to
the cathode. This extracts current from the base region of TR2. The resulting voltage
drop in the base starts to reverse bias the junction and thereby stopping the current
flow in this transistor TR2.Which stops the injection into the base region of TR1 and
this prevents current flow in this transistor.

When the overall current flow stops and the depletion layers around the junctions grow
- the gate turn-off thyristor enters its forward blocking state again.
Fig. 1.13. Basic structure of GTO

Fig.1.14.Equivalent circuit of GTO

1.4.4 STATIC I V CHARACTERISTICS

The static I-V characteristics of a GTO is identical with that of a conventional thyristor.If
gate current is not able to turn on the GTO,it behaves like a high-voltage, low gain
transistor with considerable anode current. This leads to a noticeable power loss under
such conditions.
In the reverse mode, reverse-voltage blocking capability of GTO is low, typically 20 to
30V, because of (i) anode shorts and (ii ) large doping densities on both sides of reverse
blocking junction J3, Fig. 1.13

1.4.5 SWITCHING PERFORMANCE

A basic gate drive circuit for a GTO is shown in Fig. 1.15(a). For turning•on a GTO, first
transistor TRI is turned on, this in turn switches on TR2 to apply a positive gate-current
pulse.

1.4.5.1 GATE TURN-ON:

The turn-on process in n GTO is similar to that of a conventional thyristor. Gate turn-on
time for GTO is made up of delay time, rise time and spread time like a CT. Further, turn-
on time in a GTO can be decreased by increasing its forward gate current as in a thyristor.
In Fig. 1.15 (b), a steep-fronted gate pulse is applied to tum-on GTO. Gate drive can be
removed once anode current exceeds latching current. However, some manufacturers
advise that even after GTO is on, a continuous gate current, called back porch current
should be applied during the entire on-period of GTO. The aim of this recommendation is
to avoid any possibility of unwanted turn-off of the GTO.

1.4.5.2 GATE TURN-OFF:

The turn-off characteristics of a GTO are different from those of an SCR. Before the
initiation of turn-off process, a GTO carries a steady current Ia. Fig. 15(b). This figure
shows a typical dynamic turn-off characteristic for a GTO. The total turn-off 'time tq is
subdivided into three different periods; namely the storage period (ts), the fall period (tf)
and the tail period (tt ).

In other words,
tq = ts + tf+ tt

Initiation of turn-off process starts as soon as negative gate current begins to flow after t
= 0 at instant A. The rate of rise of this gate current depends upon the gate circuit
inductance L and the gate voltage applied. During the storage period, anode current Ia
and anode voltage (equal to on-state voltage drop) remain constant. Termination of the
storage period is indicated by a fall in If and rise in Va . During ts excess charges, i.e.
holes, in p base are removed by negative gate current and the centre junction comes out
of saturation. In other words, during storage time the negative gate current rises to a
particular value and prepares the GTO for turning-off (or commutation) by flushing out
the stored carriers. After ts anode current begins to fall rapidly and anode voltage starts
rising. As shown in Fig. 15 (b),
The anode current falls to a certain value and then abruptly changes its rate of fall. This
interval during which anode current falls rapidly is the fall time tf Fig. 1.15 (b) and is of
the order of 1second. The fall period tf is measured from the instant gate current is
maximum negative to the instant anode current falls to its tail current.

At the time t = ts + tf there is a spike in voltage due to abrupt change in anode current.
After tf anode current ia and anode voltage Va keep moving towards their turn-off values
for a time called tail time tt . After tf anode current reaches zero value and Va undergoes
a transient overshoot due to the presence of Rs, Cs and then stabilizes to its off-state
value equal to the source voltage applied to the anode circuit. Here Rs and Cs are the
snubber circuit parameters. The turn-off process is complete when tail current reaches
zero. The over shoot voltage and tail current can be decreased by increasing the size of
Cs, but a compromise with snubber loss must
be made. The duration off, depends upon the device characteristics.

1.4.6 APPLICATION OF GTO:

GTOs are used in motor drives, static VAR compensators (SVCs) and AC/DC power
supplies with high power ratings.

1.4.7 DISADVANTAGES OF GTO

Compared to a conventional SCR, the GTO has the following disadvantages:

1. Magnitude of latching, holding currents is more. The latching current of the GTO is
several times more as compared to conventional thyristors of the same rating.
2. On state voltage drop and the associated loss is more.
3. Due to multi cathode structure of GTO, triggering gate current is higher than that
required for normal SCR.
4. Gate drive circuit losses are more. Its reverse voltage blocking capability is less than
the forward voltage blocking capability.

1.4.8 ADVANTAGES OF GTO OVER BJT

Compared to BJT the GTO has the following advantages:

1. High blocking voltage capabilities
2. High over current capabilities
3. exhibits low gate currents
4. fast and efficient turn off
5. Better static and dynamic dv/dt capabilities
 Fig.1.15 circuit and switching characteristics of GTO

1.5 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

BJT is a 3-layer, 2-junction, 3-terminal npn or pnp semiconductor device. Bipolar= 2

polarities of charge carriers constitute the current flow in the device.There are 2 types,
NPN and PNP. NPN type is widely used as they are easy to manufacture and cheaper.

Fig 1.16
1.5.1 CONSTRUCTION

A power transistor is a vertically oriented four-layer structure of alternating p-type and

n-type. It helps in maximizing the cross-section area and results in higher current
rating of BJT, minimize the on-state resistance, and thus reduce the power losses.

❖ It has an extra lightly doped (n-) region called as collector drift region in addition to
NPN layers
❖ The n-layer increases the voltage blocking capacity of transistor which is needed is
fast switching application in efficient power control
❖ The characteristics of the device is determined by the doping level in each of the
layers and the thickness of the layers.
❖ The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the Power
transistor.
❖ The doping of emitter layer and collector layer is quite large typically 〖10〗^19 per 〖
cm〗^3
❖ A special layer called the collector drift region (n- ) has a light doping level of 〖10〗
^14 per 〖cm〗^3
❖ The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the
transistor.
❖ The base thickness is made as small as possible in order to have good amplification
capabilities, however if the base thickness is small the breakdown voltage capability
of the transistor is compromised.

1.5.2 POWER BJT – VI CHARACTERISTICS

The VI characteristics of the Power BJT is different from signal level transistor.
The major differences are Quasi saturation region & secondary breakdown region.
The Quasi saturation region is available only in Power transistor characteristic not in
signal transistors. It is because of the lightly doped collector drift region present in
Power BJT. The primary breakdown is similar to the signal transistor’s avalanche
breakdown. Operation of device at primary and secondary breakdown regions should
be avoided as it will lead to the catastrophic failure of the device.
Power BJT Characteristics
There are two characteristics
❖ Input characteristics
❖ Output characteristics

1.5.2.1 Input Characteristics

A graph between base current IB and base emitter voltage VBE is called as input
characteristics. The base emitter region is a diode and hence the input characteristics
resembles the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode. Base current decreases as
collector emitter voltage increases for the same base emitter voltage.
 Fig 1.17 Structure of BJT

Fig 1.18 Input characteristics of BJT

1.5.2.2 Output characteristics

A graph between collector current IC and collector emitter voltage VCE is called as
output characteristics,
Power BJT operates in four regions

❖ Cutoff region-Both BE and CE junction must be reversed biased.

❖ Active region-BE junction must be forward biased and CB reverse biased
❖ Quasi-saturation region-Both forward biased.
❖ Hard-saturation region-Both forward biased.

Quasi saturation region is a new region in Power BJT due to lightly doped (n-) drift
region.If the BJT is to be operated in high switching frequency, they operate in this
region. It provides low resistance to voltage in on state than active region. Since it
does not get into deep saturation we can turn on and off power BJT very quickly.
In power handling and control purposes power BJT are generally used in cutoff for off
state and quasi-saturation for on state to act as a switch.

Cut-off Region

When the base current (IB) is zero, the collector current (IC) is insignificant and the
transistor is driven into the cutoff region. The transistor is now in the OFF state.
The collector–base and base–emitter junctions are reverse biased in the cutoff region
or OFF state, the transistor behaves as an open switch. In this region:
IC= 0 and the collector–emitter voltage VCE is equal to the supply voltage VCC

Saturation Region

When the base current is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation.
During saturation, both junctions are forward-biased and the transistor acts like a
closed switch.
In the quasi saturation and hard saturation, the base drive is applied and transistor is
said to be on.
In this region: I(C )=VCC/RC and VCE=0.

Active Region

In the active region, the collector–base junction is reversed-biased and the base–
emitter junction is forward-biased.
The active region of the transistor is mainly used for amplifier applications and should
be avoided for switching operation.
The power BJT is never operated in the active region (i.e. as an amplifier) it is always
operated between cut-off and saturation.
 Fig 1.19 output characteristics of BJT

1.5.3 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER BJT

Switching characteristics of power BJT is shown in Fig.1.20. As the positive base

voltage is applied, base current starts to flow but there is no collector current for
some time. This time is known as the delay time(td) required to charge the junction
capacitance of the base to emitter to 0.7 V approx. (known as forward-bias voltage).
For t > td, collector current starts rising and VCE starts to drop with the magnitude of
90% of its peak value. This time is called rise time, required to turn on the transistor.
The transistor remains on so long as the collector current is at least of this value.

For turning off the BJT, polarity of the base voltage is reversed and thus the base
current polarity will also be changed as shown in Fig. 26. The base current required
during the steady-state operation is more than that required to saturate the
transistor. Thus, excess minority carrier charges are stored in the base region which
needs to be removed during the turn-off process. The time required to nullify this
charge is the storage time, ts. Collector current remains at the same value for this
time. After this, collector current starts decreasing and base-to-emitter junction
charges to the negative polarity; base current also get reduced.
1.5.4 APPLICATIONS OF POWER BJT
•SMPS(Switch mode power supply) commonly used in computers.
•Final audio amplifier in stereo systems.
•Power amplifiers.
•DC to AC inverters.
•Relay and display drivers.
•AC motor speed controllers.
•control circuits.

Fig 1.19 output characteristics of BJT

1.6 POWER MOSFET

•MOSFET is metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor.

•MOSFET is a three terminal device. The three terminals are gate (G), drain (D) and
source (S)
•MOSFET is a unipolar device as its operation depends on flow of majority charge carriers
only.
•It is a voltage controlled device requiring a small input gate voltage.
•It has high input impedance.
•MOSFET is operated in two states viz., ON STATE and OFF STATE.
•Switching speed of MOSFET is very high. Switching time is of the order of nanoseconds.

A power MOSFET is a special type of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It
is specially designed to handle high-level powers. The power MOSFET’s are constructed in
a V configuration. Therefore, it is also called as V-MOSFET, VFET
Power MOSFETs are of two types

1. n- channel Enhancement MOSFETs

2. p- channel Enhancement MOSFETs

n-channel enhancement MOSFET is commonly used due to the higher

mobility of electrons.

1.6.1 MOSFET CONSTRUCTION

Power MOSFETs are based on vertical structure, the doping and the thickness of the
epitaxial layer decide the voltage rating while the channel width decides its current rating.
This is the reason because of which they can sustain high blocking voltage and high
current, making them suitable for low power switching applications.
The figure shows the planar diffused MOSFET structure for n-channel.

On n+ substrate, high resistivity n- layer is epitaxially grown. The thickness of n- layer

decides the voltage blocking capability of the power Mosfets. The lightly doped n-type
semiconductor forms the main body of the device. Two heavily doped p-type regions are
there in the body separated by a certain distance L. Now there is a thin layer of silicon
dioxide (SiO2) on the top of the substrate which behaves as a dielectric. There is an
aluminum plate fitted on the top of this SiO2 dielectric layer.

Most importantly, here, the Source (S) terminal is placed over the Drain (D) terminal
forming a vertical structure. As a result, in VDMOS the current flows beneath the gate
area vertically between the source and the drain terminals through numerous n+ sources
conducting in-parallel. As a result, the resistance offered by the device during its ON
state RDS(ON) is much lower than that in the case of normal MOSFETs which enable
them to handle high currents.
 1.6.2 OPERATION OF MOSFET

When gate circuit voltage is zero, and VDD is present, n- -p- junction is reverse biased
and no current flows from drain to source. When gate terminal is made positive with
respect to source, an electric field is established and electrons form an n channel. With
gate voltage increased, drain current also increases.The length of n channel can be
controlled.
If we apply a positive voltage at gate (G). This will create positive static potential at the
aluminum plate of the capacitor. Due to capacitive action, electrons gets accumulated
just below the dielectric layer Now if we further increase the positive voltage at the
gate terminal, after a certain voltage called threshold voltage, due to the electrostatic
force, covalent bonds of the crystal just below the SiO2 layer start breaking.
Consequently, electron-hole pairs get generated there. By applying the positive voltage
at gate, we can control the drain current.

Fig 1.19

1.6.3 VI CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET

MOSFET can be in any of the in three operating regions viz.,

1.Cut-Off Region
Cut-off region is a region in which the MOSFET will be OFF as there will be no current
flow through it. In this region, MOSFET behaves like an open switch and is thus used
when they are required to function as electronic switches.
2.Ohmic or Linear Region

Ohmic or linear region is a region where in the current IDS increases with an
increase in the value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to operate in this region, they
can be used as amplifiers.

3.Saturation Region

In saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant inspite of an increase in
VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value of pinch-off voltage VP. Under this
condition, the device will act like a closed switch through which a saturated value of
IDS flows. As a result, this operating region is chosen whenever MOSFETs are
required to perform switching operations.
Figure 1.20 a shows the transfer characteristics (drain-to-source current IDS versus
gate-to-source voltage VGS) of n-channel Enhancement-type MOSFETs. From this, it
is evident that the current through the device will be zero until the VGS exceeds the
value of threshold voltage VT. This is because under this state, the device will be void
of channel which will be connecting the drain and the source terminals. Under this
condition, even an increase in VDS will result in no current flow as indicated by the
corresponding output characteristics (IDS versus VDS) shown by Figure 1.20 b. As a
result this state represents nothing but the cut-off region of MOSFET’s operation.
Next, once VGS crosses VT, the current through the device increases with an increase
in IDS initially (Ohmic region) and then saturates to a value as determined by the
VGS (saturation region of operation) i.e. as VGS increases, even the saturation
current flowing through the device also increases. This is evident by Figure 1b where
IDSS2 is greater than IDSS1 as VGS2> VGS1, IDSS3 is greater than IDSS2 as VGS3 >
VGS2, so on and so forth. Further, Figure 1b also shows the locus of pinch-off voltage
(black discontinuous curve), from which VP is seen to increase with an increase in
VGS.

Fig 1.20
1.6.4 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER MOSFET

The switching characteristics or the turn-on & turn-off times of the MOSFET are decided
by its internal capacitance and the internal impedance of the gate drive circuit.
Turn on time is defined as the sum of turn on delay time and rise time of the device.
Turn off time is the sum of turn off delay time and fall time

1.6.4.1 Turn ON Process:

A positive voltage is applied to the gate of MOSFET to turn e it on.

When the gate voltage is applied, the gate to source capacitance CGS starts charging.
When the voltage across CGS reached certain voltage level called Threshold voltage
(VGST), the drain current ID starts rising.
The time required to charge CGS to the threshold voltage level is known as turn on
delay time (td).
The time required for charging CGS from threshold voltage to full gate voltage (VGSP).
is called rise time (tr). During this period, the drain current rises to its full value, ie ID.
Thus the MOSFET is fully turned ON.
The total turn-on time of MOSFET is

TON = tdon+ tr

The turn-on time can be reduced by using low-impedance gate drive source.

1.6.4.2 Turn OFF Process:

• To turn off the MOSFET, the gate voltage is made negative or zero.
• Due to this, the gate to source voltage then reduces from VI to VGSP.
• As MOSFET is a majority carrier device, turn-off process is initiated soon after
removal of gate voltage at time t1.
• That is, CGS discharges from gate voltage V1 to VGSP. The time required for this
discharge is called turn-off delay time (td(off) )
• During this period, the drain current also starts reducing.
• The CGS keeps on discharging and its voltage becomes equal to threshold voltage
(VGST).
• The time required to discharge CGS from VGSP to VGST is called fall time (tf). The
drain current becomes zero when VGS < VGST. The MOSFET is then said to be have
turned-off.
• Thus the total turn-off time of MOSFET is

TOFF = t(d(off)) + tf
 Fig.1.21 turn on and off characteristics of MOSFET

1.6.5 Applications of POWER MOSFET

Power MOSEFET technology is applicable to many types of circuit.

Applications include:

1. Linear power supplies

2. Switching power supplies
3. DC-DC converters
4. Low voltage motor control
1.7 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)

•IGBT is a voltage controlled device.

•It has high input impedance like a MOSFET and low on-state conduction losses like a
BJT.
•IGBT has three terminals gate (G), collector (C) and emitter (E).
•With collector and gate voltage positive with respect to emitter the device is in forward
blocking mode.
•When gate to emitter voltage becomes greater than the threshold voltage of IGBT, a
n- channel is formed in the P-region. Now device is in forward conducting state.

1.7.1 CONSTRUCTION OF IGBT

The structure of IGBT is very much similar to that of Power MOSFET, except one layer
known as injection layer which is p+ unlike n+ substrate in PMOSFET. This p+ injection
layer is the key to the superior characteristics of IGBT.It injects holes into n- layer.
Thickness of n- layer decides the voltage blocking capability. Other layers are called
the drift and the body region. The two junctions are labelled J1 and J2. Figure below
show the structure of n-channel IGBT.

1.7.2 OPERATION OF IGBT

N-channel IGBT turns ON when the collector is at a positive potential with respect to
emitter and gate also at sufficient positive potential (>VGET) with respect to emitter.
This condition leads to the formation of an inversion layer just below the gate, leading
to a channel formation and a current begins to flow from collector to emitter. This n-
channel short circuits the n+ with n- emitter regions. Electrons from emitter n+ region
flows to n- drift region through n-channel.
The collector current Ic in IGBT constitutes of two components- Ie and Ih. Ie is the
current due to injected electrons flowing from collector to emitter through injection
layer, drift layer and finally the channel formed. Ih is the hole current flowing from
collector to emitter through Q1 and body resistance Rb. Hence

Fig 1.22 structure of IGBT

1.7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF IGBT

There are two characteristics

1.An output characteristic is a plot of collector current Ic versus collector to emitter
voltage VCE for given values of gate to emitter voltage VGE
2.A plot of collector current Ic versus gate-emitter voltage VGE for a given value of
VCE gives the transfer characteristic.
•Controlling parameter is the gate-emitter voltage VGE in IGBT. If VGE is less than
the threshold voltage VT then IGBT is in OFF state. If VGE is greater than the
threshold voltage VT then the IGBT is in ON state.

The graph is similar to that of a BJT except that the parameter which is kept
constant for a plot is VGE because IGBT is a voltage controlled device unlike BJT
which is a current controlled device. When the device is in OFF mode (VCE is positive
and VGE < VGET) the reverse voltage is blocked by J2 and when it is reverse biased,
i.e. VCE is negative, J1 blocks the voltage.

Transfer Characteristics of IGBT

Figure 1.23 C below shows the transfer characteristic of IGBT, which is exactly same
as PMOSFET. The IGBT is in ON-state only after VGE is greater than a threshold
value VGET.

Fig 1.23 a, b, c
1.7.3 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF IGBT

After turn-on collector-emitter voltage VCE will be very small during the steady state
conduction of the device.
•The turn off time toff consists of three components, delay time (tdf), initial fall time
(tf1) and final fall time (tf2). Delay time is defined as time when collector current falls
from IC to 0.9 IC and VGE falls to threshold voltage VGET and VCE begins to rise. Initial
fall time is the time during which collector current falls from 0.9 IC to 0.2 IC and
collector emitter voltage rises to 0.1 VCE. The final fall time is defined as time during
which collector current falls from 0.2 IC to 0.1 IC. During the turn-off time interval
collector-emitter voltage rises to its final value VCE

The gate drive circuit of an IGBT should ensure fast and reliable switching of the
device. In particular, it should.
• Apply maximum permissible VgE during ON period.
• Apply a negative voltage during off period.
• Control dic/dt during turn ON and turn off to avoid excessive Electro magnetic
interference (EMI).
• Control dvce dt during switching to avoid IGBT latch up.
• Minimize switching loss.
• Provide protection against short circuit fault.

1.7.4 IGBT APPLICATIONS

IGBT finds its use in Medium power applications like

1. DC and AC motor drives,

2. medium power supplies,
3. solid state relays and contractors,
4. general purpose inverters,
5. UPS,
6. welder equipments,
7. servo controls,
8. robotics,
9. cutting tools,
10. induction heating
 Fig 1.24

1.8 INTEGRATED GATE-COMMUTATED THYRISTOR

1.8.1 INTRODUCTION

The Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) operates on the principle that

thyristors are ideal conduction devices whereas transistors are ideal turn-off devices.
The IGCT therefore converts a thyristor structure to a transistor structure prior to turn-
off by fast commutation of the cathode current and keeps it biased off with a 20 V
source. This results in a device which dynamically and statically blocks like an IGBT
(open-base pnp transistor producing the same turn-off losses) but conducts like a
thyristor i.e. with about half the on-state voltage due to the greater plasma density
produced by the two emitters. (pnp & npn transistors)
 IGCT is the new member in the power semiconductor family (1997). It was introduced
by ABB. It is a special type of GTO thyristor. Similar to GTO, it is a fully controllable
power switch. ie, It can be turned-On and turned-Off by applying a gate signal. It has
lower conduction losses as compared to GTO thyristors.
It withstands higher rates of voltage rise(dv/dt). So snubber circuits are not required
for most of the applications.

Fig 1.24 Structure of IGCT

1.8.2 STATIC AND SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF

IGCT
The structure of IGCT is very similar to a GTO thyristor.
In an IGCT, the gate turn-off current is greater than the anode current. This results in shorter
turn-off times.
The main difference compared with a GTO and thyristor is a reduction in cell size, combined
with a much more substantial gate connection, resulting in a much lower inductance in the
gate drive circuit and drive circuit connection.
The very high gate currents and the fast di/dt rise of the gate current means that regular
wires cannot be used to connect the gate drive to the IGCT.
1.8.2.1 TURN-ON
In the turn-on mode, GCT behaves exactly like a thyristor (or a GTO). This operation
principle can be understood by considering the equivalent two-transistor model. The p
+n− p and n+ p n− regions represent PNP and NPN transistors respectively. The anode
of the GCT is connected to p+ region, which is the emitter of the PNP transistor. The
collector of the PNP is connected to the gate of the NPN transistor and vice-versa,
because of n− region neighboring the p region. The cathode of the GCT is connected to
the n+ region, which is the emitter of the NPN transistor. This two-transistor model has
two stable states, ON and OFF, which are determined by the gate control. When a
current is supplied to the gate to turn on the GCT, the gate current flows to the
cathode.

This turns on the NPN transistor and its collector current will now flow from the anode
through the J1junction. The J1junction is the emitter of the PNP transistor; therefore,
the collector current of the PNP is then the base current of the NPN. The two transistors
are connected in positive feedback allowing for a self-sustaining state called latch-up.
This state is reached because the large current flowing between the anode and cathode
is able to inject enough carriers into the base regions to keep the transistors saturated
without the need of continuous gate current flow. Typical turn-on time for a GCT is
about ≈ 10µs.

Figure 1.25 Turn on stages of IGCT

1.8.2.2 TURN-OFF

The turn-off mode, however, differs from that of a GTO. A GTO is turned off by
negative current injection into the NPN base. Once the base current is reduced to a
certain level, the collector current and hence the PNP base current reduces. This in
turn, reduces the collector current of the PNP, leading to a further reduction in the
base current of the NPN base. This positive feedback process turns-off the GTO. The
majority of the anode current flows out from the cathode and only a fraction of
anode current flows out from the gate that is why the turn-off gain of the GTO is of
the order 3 ∼ 5 µs.

To turn-off a GCT, all the anode current is diverted to the gate, causing the cathode
current to decrease rapidly. At the time cathode current decreases to a level close to
zero, the minority carriers associate with the gate-cathode junction (J3) are removed.
At zero cathode current, minority carrier injection from n+ side into the p base
seizes. Now, the GCT is an open base PNP transistor illustrates the turn-off process
using the two-transistor equivalent circuit). Typical turn-off time of a GCT is about ≈
20µs .The time it takes for the current to commutate to the gate is of the order∼
1µs. This short time constricts the maximum allowable stray inductance of the gate
unit. This tight constraint on the stray inductance is one of the reasons why the gate
unit is required to be integrated in a low-inductance arrangement with the GCT. Since
all the current flows from the anode to the gate the turn-off gain of the GCT is unity.
The unity gain is advantageous because it significantly shortens the storage time to
6times compared to that of a GTO.

Fig 1.26 Turn on stages of IGCT

Fig 1.27 Gate voltage, Anode voltage and Anode current characteristics of IGCT

1.8.3 TYPES OF IGCT

These devices are available either with or without reverse blocking capability.IGCTs
capable of blocking reverse voltage are known as symmetrical IGCTs. The typical
application of symmetrical IGCTs is in Current Source Inverters (CSI).IGCTs incapable
of blocking reverse voltage are known as asymmetrical IGCTs. They typically have a
reverse breakdown rating in tens of volts or less. Such IGCTs are used where either a
reverse conducting diode is applied in parallel or where reverse voltage would never
occur. Asymmetrical IGCT can be fabricated with a reverse-conducting diode in the
same package. These are known as reverse conducting (RC) IGCTs.

1.8.4 APPLICATIONS
The main applications of IGCT are in variable frequency inverters, drivers and traction.
Multiple IGCTs can be connected in series or in parallel for higher power applications.
The device has been applied in power system inter-tie installations (100MVA) and
medium-power (up to 5MW) industrial drives.
1.9 MOSFET DRIVE CIRCUIT

Since the MOSFET is a voltage-driven device, no DC current flows into the gate.In
order to turn on a MOSFET, a voltage higher than the rated gate threshold voltage
Vth must be applied to the gate. •While in a steady on or off state, the MOSFET gate
drive basically consumes no power. • The gate-source capacitance of a MOSFET seen
by the driver output varies with its internal state.MOSFETs are often used as
switching devices at frequencies ranging from several kHz to more than several
hundreds of kHz. The low power consumption needed for gate drive is an advantage
of a MOSFET as a switching device. MOSFETs designed for low-voltage drive are also
available.

The basic requirements for a MOSFET drive circuit include an ability to apply a
voltage sufficiently higher than Vth to the gate and a drive capability to sufficiently
charge the input capacitance. This section describes an example of a drive circuit for
an N-channel MOSFET. The below figure shows a basic MOSFET drive circuit. In
practice, the capacitance of a MOSFET to be driven and its usage conditions must be
considered in designing a drive circuit.

Fig 1.28 Basic MOSFET drive circuit

1.9.1 Logic drive

There is a growing need for MOSFETs for switching applications (load switches) to
provide a conducting path in a circuit only when it is operated, and thereby reduce the
power consumption of electronic devices. At present, MOSFETs are directly driven by a
logic circuit or a microcontroller in many applications. Figure 2.2 shows an example of a
circuit for turning on and off a power relay. Since turn-on and turn-off times may be as
slow as a few seconds for load switches, the MOSFET gate can be driven with a small
current

There are other ways of triggering MOSFET are using a high-voltage device and a
bootstrap circuit, Pulse transformer drive (insulated switching) ,using a photo coupler
and a floating power supply.

Fig 1.29 Directly driving a MOSFET with an MCU

1.10 COMMUTATION CIRCUIT FOR SCR

To turn On a Thyristor, there are various triggering methods in which a trigger pulse is
applied at its Gate terminal. Similarly, there are various techniques to turn Off a Thyristor,
these techniques are called Thyristor Commutation Techniques. It can be done by
bringing the Thyristor back into the forward blocking state from the forward conduction
state. To bring the Thyristor into forward blocking state, forward current is reduced
below the holding current level. For the purpose of power conditioning and power control
a conducting Thyristor must be commutated properly.
We will explain the various Thyristor Commutation Technique. We already explained
about Thyristor and its Triggering Methods
There are mainly two techniques for Thyristor Commutation: Natural and Forced.

1. Natural Commutation- in ac circuits

2. Forced Commutation- in dc circuits

Forced commutation is classified into 5 types based on the commutation voltage

generated as

1. Class A: Self or Load Commutation

2. Class B: Resonant-Pulse Commutation
3. Class C: Complementary Commutation
4. Class D: Impulse Commutation
5. Class E: External Pulse Commutation

1.10.1 Natural Commutation

Natural Commutation occurs only in AC circuits, and it is named so because it occurs

naturally and doesn’t require any external circuit. When a positive cycle reaches to zero
and the anode current is zero, immediately a reverse voltage (negative cycle) is applied
across the Thyristor which causes the Thyristor to turn OFF.A Natural Commutation
occurs in AC Voltage Controllers, Cycloconverters, and Phase Controlled Rectifiers.

1.10.2 Forced Commutation

As we know there is no natural zero current in DC Circuits like as natural commutation.

So, Forced Commutation is used in DC circuits and it is also called as DC commutation. It
requires commutating elements like inductance and capacitance to forcefully reduce the
anode current of the Thyristor below the holding current value, that’s why it is called as
Forced Commutation. Mainly forced commutation is used in Chopper and Inverters
circuits. Forced commutation is divided into six categories, which are explained below:
 Fig 1.30 Natural commutation circuit

1.10.2.1 Class A: Self or Load Commutation

Class A is also called as “Self-Commutation” and it is one of the most used technique
among all Thyristor commutation technique. In the below circuit, the inductor,
capacitor and resistor form a second order under damp circuit.
When we start supplying the input voltage to the circuit the Thyristor will not turn ON,
as it requires a gate pulse to turn ON. Now when the Thyristor turns ON or forward
biased, the current will flow through the inductor and charges the capacitor to its peak
value or equal to the input voltage. Now, as the capacitor gets fully charged, inductor
polarity gets reversed and inductor starts opposing the flow of current. Due to this,
the output current starts to decrease and reach to zero. At this moment the current is
below the holding current of the Thyristor, so the Thyristor turns OFF.

1.10.2.2 Class B: Resonant-Pulse Commutation

Class B commutation is also called as Resonant-Pulse Commutation. There is only a
small change between Class B and Class A circuit. In class B LC resonant circuit is
connected in parallel while in Class A it’s in series.
Now, as we apply the input voltage, the capacitor starts charging up to the input
voltage (Vs) and Thyristor remains reversed biased until the gate pulse is applied.
When we apply the gate pulse, the Thyristor turns ON and now the current start
flowing from both the ways. But, then the constant load current flows through the
resistance and inductance connected in series, due to its large reactance.
Then a sinusoidal current flow through the LC resonant circuit to charge the capacitor
with the reverse polarity. Hence, a reverse voltage appears across the Thyristor, which
causes the current Ic (commutating current) to oppose the flow of the anode current IA.
Therefore, due to this opposing commutating current, when the anode current is getting
lesser than the holding current, Thyristor turns OFF.

1.10.2.3 Class C: Complementary Commutation

Class C commutation is also called as Complementary Commutation. As you can see the
circuit below, there are two Thyristor in parallel, one is main and another is auxiliary.

Initially, both the Thyristor are in OFF condition and the voltage across capacitor is also
zero. Now, as the gate pulse is applied to the main Thyristor, the current will start flowing
from two paths, one is from R1-T1 and second is R2-C-T1. Hence, the capacitor also starts
charging to the peak value equal to the input voltage with the polarity of plate B positive
and plate A negative. Now, as the gate pulse is applied to the Thyristor T2, it turns ON
and a negative polarity of current appear across the Thyristor T1 which cause T1 to get
turn OFF. And, the capacitor starts charging with the reverse polarity. Simply we can say
that when T1 turns ON it turns OFF T2 and as T2 turns ON it turns OFF T1.

1.10.2.4. Class D: Impulse Commutation

Class D commutation is also called as Impulse Commutation or Voltage Commutation. As

Class C, Class D commutation circuit also consists of two Thyristor T1 and T2 and they
are named as main and auxiliary respectively. Here, diode, inductor, and auxiliary
Thyristor form the commutation circuit.

Initially, both the Thyristor are in OFF state and voltage across capacitor C is also zero.
Now as we apply the input voltage and trigger the Thyristor T1 the load current starts
flowing through it. And, the capacitor starts charging with polarity of plate A negative and
plate B positive. Now, as we trigger the auxiliary Thyristor T2, the main Thyristor T1 turns
OFF and the capacitor starts charging with the opposite polarity. When it gets full-
charged, it causes the auxiliary Thyristor T2 to turn OFF, because a capacitor does not
allow the flow of current through it when it gets fully charged.

Therefore, the output current will also be zero because at this stage because of both the
Thyristors are in OFF state.
1.10.2.5. Class E: External Pulse Commutation

Class E commutation is also called External Pulse Commutation. Now, you can see in
the circuit diagram, the Thyristor is already in forward bias. So, as we trigger the
Thyristor, the current will appear at the load. The capacitor in the circuit is used for the
dv/dt protection of the Thyristor and the pulse transformer is used to turn OFF the
Thyristor. Now, when we give pulse through the pulse transformer an opposite current
will flow in the direction of the cathode. This opposite current oppose the flow of the
anode current and if IA – IP < IH Thyristor will turn OFF. Where IA is Anode current,
IP is pulse current and IH is holding current.

Fig 1.31 a) Class A and b) Class B commutation circuits

Fig 1.32 c) Class C ,d) Class D and e) Class E commutation circuits
 ASSIGNMENTS
UNIT -1

Objective type questions

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Qs#1 which is the Power semiconductor device having

a) Highest switching speed;
b) Highest voltage / current ratings;
c) Easy drive features;
d) Can be most effectively paralleled;
e) Can be protected against over-currents with a fuse; f) Gate-turn off capability with
regenerative features;
g) Easy drive and High power handling capability
Ans: a) MOSFET; b) SCR; c) MOSFET; d) MOSFET; e) SCR ; (f) GTO; (g) IGBT

THYRISTORS AND TRIACS

1. Fill in the blank(s) with the appropriate word(s)
i. A thyristor is a ________________ carrier semi controlled device.
ii. A thyristor can conduct current in ________________ direction and block voltage
in________________ direction.
iii. A thyristor can be turned ON by applying a forward voltage greater than
forward________________ voltage or by injecting a positive ________________ current
pulse under forward bias condition.
iv. To turn OFF a thyristor the anode current must be brought below
________________current and a reverse voltage must be applied for a time larger than
________________time of the device.
v. A thyristor may turn ON due to large forward ________________.
Answers: (i) minority; (ii) one, both; (iii) break over, gate; (iv) holding, turn off; (v)
dv/dt.
2. Fill in the blank(s) with the appropriate word(s)
i. Forward break over voltage of a thyristor decreases with increase in the
________________ current.
ii. Reverse ______________ voltage of a thyristor is ________________ of the gate
current.
iii. Reverse saturation current of a thyristor ________________ with gate current.
iv. In the pulsed gate current triggering of a thyristor the gate current pulse width
should be larger than the ________________ time of the device.
v. To prevent unwanted turn ON of a thyristor all spurious noise signals between the
gate and the cathode must be less than the gate ________________ voltage.
Answer: (i) gate; (ii) break down, independent; (iii) increases; (iv) Turn ON; (v) non-
trigger.
3. Fill in the blank(s) with the appropriate word(s)
i. A thyristor is turned on by applying a ________________ gate current pulse
when it is________________ biased.
ii. Total turn on time of a thyristor can be divided into ________________ time
________________ time and ________________ time.
iii. During rise time the rate of rise of anode current should be limited to avoid
creating local________________.
iv. A thyristor can be turned off by bringing its anode current below
________________
current and applying a reverse voltage across the device for duration larger than
the
________________ time of the device.
v. Reverse recovery charge of a thyristor depends on the ________________ of
the forward current just before turn off and its ________________.
vi. Inverter grade thyristors have ________________ turn off time compared to
a converter grade thyristor.
Answer: (i) positive, forward; (ii) delay, rise, spread; (iii) hot spots (iv) holding,
turn off; (v)magnitude, rate of decrease (vi) faster
4. Fill in the blank(s) with the appropriate word(s)
i. A Triac is a ________________ minority carrier device
ii. A Triac behaves like two ________________ connected thyristors.
iii. The gate sensitivity of a triac is maximum when the gate is
________________ with
respect to MT1 while MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 or the gate
is________________ with respect to MT1 while MT2 is negative with respect to
MT1
iv. A Triac operates either in the ________________ or the ________________
quadrant of the i-v characteristics.
v. In the ________________ quadrant the triac is fired with ________________
gate
current while in the ________________ quadrant the gate current should be
________________.
vi. The maximum possible voltage and current rating of a Triac is considerably
________________ compared to thyristor due to ________________ of the two
current carrying paths inside the structure of the triac.
vii. To avoid unwanted turn on of a triac due to large dv/dt ________________
are used across triacs.
viii. For “clean turn ON” of a triac the ________________ of the gate current
pulse should be ________________ as possible.
Answer: (i) bidirectional; (ii) anti parallel; (iii) positive, negative; (iv) first, third;
(v) first, positive, third, negative (vi) lower, interaction; (vii) R-C snubbers; (viii)
rise time, small.
 PART A - Q & A
UNIT –I POWER SEMI-CONDUCTOR DEVICES

1. Why IGBT is very popular nowadays? CO1/ K1

a. Lower hate requirements
b. Lower switching losses
c. Smaller snubber circuit requirements

2. What are the different methods to turn on the thyristor? CO1/ K1

a. Forward voltage triggering
b. Gate triggering
c. dv/dt triggering
d. Temperature triggering
e. Light triggering

3. What is the difference between power diode and signal diode?CO1/K1

Power diode Signal diode
1.Constructed with n-layer, called drift region between p+ layer and n+layer. Drift
region is not present.
2.The voltage, current and power ratings are higher.
3.Power diodes operate at high speeds. Operates at higher switching speed.

4. IGBT is a voltage controlled device. Why? CO1/K1

Because the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage.

5. Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. Why? CO1/K1

Because the output (drain) current can be controlled by gate-source voltage.

6. Power BJT is a current controlled device. Why? CO1/K1

Because the output (collector) current can be controlled by base current.

7. What are the different types of power MOSFET? CO1/K1

a. N-channel MOSFET
b. P-channel MOSFET
9. Define latching current.CO1/K1
The latching current is defined as the minimum value of anode current which it
must attain during turn on process to maintain conduction when gate signal is
removed.

10. Define holding current. CO1/K1

The holding current is defined as the minimum value of anode current below
which it must fall to for turning off the thyristor.

11. What is a snubber circuit? CO1/K1

It consists of a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor in parallel with
the thyristors. It is mainly used for dv / dt protection.

12. What losses occur in a thyristor during working conditions? CO1/K1

a. Forward conduction losses
b. Loss due to leakage current during forward and reverse blocking.
c. Switching losses at turn-on and turn-off.
d. Gate triggering loss.

13. Define hard-driving or over-driving. CO1/K1

When gate current is several times higher than the minimum gate current
required, a thyristor is said to be hard-fired or over-driven. Hard-firing of a
thyristor reduces its turn-on time and enhances its di/dt capability.

14. Define circuit turn off time. CO1/K1

It is defined as the time during which a reverse voltage is applied across
the thyristor during its commutation process.

15. Why circuit turn off time should be greater than the thyristor turn-
off time? CO1/K1
Circuit turn off time should be greater than the thyristor turn-off time for reliable
turn-off, otherwise the device may turn-on at an undesired instant, a process
called commutation failure.
 PART B -QUESTIONS
S PART B QUESTIONS CO K
N LEVEL LEVEL
O
1 Explain the operation of SCR using two transistor CO1 K2
analogy. Briefly discuss the V -I characteristics of SCR. (13)
2 Explain the turn-on and turn-off characteristics of SCR with neat CO1 K2
waveforms. (13)
3 CO1 K2
i) Based on two transistor analogy, explain the turn-on
mechanism of an SCR. (5)
ii) Describe the various turn-on methods of SCR. (8)
4 With neat sketch explain the static and dynamic characteristics CO1 K2
of SCR. (13)
5 Explain the operating principle of a thyristor in terms of the “two CO1 K2
transistor analogy” and draw its V-I characteristics. (13)
6 Explain the structure, different modes of operation and CO1 K2
characteristics of TRIAC(13)
7 Explain why TRIAC is rarely used in I quadrant with negative CO1 K2
pulse and in III quadrant with positive pulse.(13)
8 Explain the structure, different modes of operation and CO1 K2
characteristics of TRIAC(13)
9 CO1 K2
Explain why TRIAC is rarely used in I quadrant with negative
pulse and in III quadrant with positive pulse.(13)
10 Explain the various Triggering modes of operation of TRIAC. CO1 K2
(13)
S NO PART B QUESTIONS CO K
LEVEL LEVEL
11 Describe the current commutation technique to turn CO1 K2

off SCR with neat sketch and waveforms.(15)

12 Explain any two commutation technique to turn off CO1 K2

SCR in detail.(15)

13 Describe the load and external pulse commutation CO1 K2

technique to turn off SCR with neat sketch and

waveforms.(15)

14 (i)Explain the external pulse and complimentary CO1 K2

commutation techniques of SCR. (12)

(ii)List the various techniques involved in commutation
of SCR(3)

15 (i)What is switching losses?(3) CO1 K2

(ii)Explain resonant pulse commutation technique in

detail.(12)
 ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
SWAYAM
Power Electronics
By Prof. G.Bhuvaneshwari | IIT Delhi
SUMMARY
Course Status :Upcoming
Course Type :Core
Duration : 12 weeks
Start Date : 14 Sep 2020
End Date : 04 Dec 2020
Exam Date : 20 Dec 2020
Enrollment Ends :21 Sep 2020
Category :
Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Power Systems and Power Electronics
COURSE ERA
Enrolled from JULY 2020
•Introduction to power electronics
•Converter control
•Power electronics specialization
 REAL TIME APPLICATION IN DAY TO DAY LIFE
AND INDUSTRY

•Application of Power Electronics to Power System

•Application of Power Electronics in Automotive Applications
•Real-time simulation of power electronic circuits
•Application of Power Electronics Technology to Energy Efficiency and
CO2 reduction.
CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

S CONTENT DATE OF QUESTION RELATED OUT COME

NO DELIVERY DELIVERY TO THE DELIVERY
1. Power 22.6.2020 to 1.Application of pulses to a Improving
electronics 25.6.2020 single thyristor and computer skills of
circuit variation of load voltage applying circuits
simulation and 2.Design of Single thyristor in real time data.
its analysis firing circuit
3.Application of pulses to
bridge type thyristor and
analyzed with different
type of load.
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:
1. M.H. Rashid, ‘Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and
Applications’, Pearson Education, Third Edition, New Delhi, 2004.
2. P.S.Bimbra “Power Electronics” Khanna Publishers, third Edition,
2003.
3. Ashfaq Ahmed ‘Power Electronics for Technology’, Pearson
Education, Indian reprint, 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Joseph Vithayathil,’ Power Electronics, Principles and Applications’,
McGraw Hill Series, 6th Reprint, 2013.
2. Philip T. Krein, “Elements of Power Electronics” Oxford University
Press, 2004 Edition.
3. L. Umanand, “Power Electronics Essentials and Applications”,
Wiley, 2010.
4. Ned Mohan Tore. M. Undel and, William. P. Robbins, ‘Power
Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design’, John Wiley and
sons, third edition, 2003.
5. S.Rama Reddy, ‘Fundamentals of Power Electronics’, Narosa
Publications, 2014.
6. M.D. Singh and K.B. Khanchandani, “Power Electronics,” Mc Graw
Hill India, 2013.
7. JP Agarwal,” Power Electronic Systems: Theory and Design” 1e,
Pearson Education, 2002.
 Thank you

Disclaimer:

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 UNIT-II
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc
output voltage.
Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply.
Type of output: Variable dc output voltage

Fig. 2.1 Block diagram of controlled rectifier

The input supply fed to a controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed rms voltage
and at a fixed frequency. We can obtain variable dc output voltage by using
controlled rectifiers. By employing phase controlled thyristors in the controlled
rectifier circuits we can obtain variable dc output voltage and variable dc
(average) output current by varying the trigger angle (phase angle) at which the
thyristors are triggered. We obtain a uni-directional and pulsating load current
waveform, which has a specific average value.
The thyristors are forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply
and can be turned ON by applying suitable gate trigger pulses at the thyristor
gate leads. The thyristor current and the load current begin to flow once the
thyristors are triggered (turned ON) say at ωt =α. The load current flows when
the thyristors conduct from ωt =α to β. The output voltage across the load follows
the input supply voltage through the conducting thyristor. At ωt = β, when the
load current falls to zero, the thyristors turn off due to AC line (natural)
commutation. In some bridge controlled rectifier circuits the conducting thyristor
turns off, when the other thyristor is (other group of thyristors are) turned ON.
The thyristor remains reverse biased during the negative half cycle of input
supply. The type of commutation used in controlled rectifier circuits is referred to
AC line commutation or Natural commutation or AC phase commutation.
When the input ac supply voltage reverses and becomes negative during the
negative half cycle, the thyristor becomes reverse biased and hence turns off.
There are several types of power converters which use ac line commutation.
These are referred to as line commutated converters.
2.2 APPLICATIONS OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
1. DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills employing dc motordrives.
2. AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
3. Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes.
4. Magnet power supplies.
5. Reactor controls.
6. Portable hand tool drives.
7. Variable speed industrial drives.
8. Battery charges.
9. High voltage DC transmission.
10. Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS).

The phase controlled converters are simple and less expensive and are widely
used in industrial applications for industrial dc drives. These converters are classified as
two quadrant converters if the output voltage can be made either positive or negative
for a given polarity of output load current. There are also single quadrant ac to dc
converters where the output voltage is only positive and cannot be made negative for a
given polarity of output current. Of course single quadrant converters can also be
designed to provide only negative dc output voltage. The two quadrant converter
operation can be achieved by using fully controlled bridge converter circuit and for
single quadrant operation we use a half controlled bridge converter.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based on the type of input power
supply as
•Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from single phase ac input
power supply.
•Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from three phase ac input power
supply.

2.3.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are further subdivided into different types
• Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which provides
output control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it provides low dc output).
Disadvantages of single phase half wave controlled rectifiers
Single phase half wave controlled rectifier gives
• Low dc output voltage.
• Low dc output power and lower efficiency.
• Higher ripple voltage & ripple current.
• Higher ripple factor.
• Low transformer utilization factor.
Single phase half wave controlled rectifiers are rarely used in practice
as they give low dc output and low dc output power. The above disadvantages
of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier can be over come by using a full
wave controlled rectifier circuit. Most of the practical converter circuits use full
wave controlled rectifiers.
2.3.2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
▪Full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (which
requires two thyristors).
▪ Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers (which do not require a center tapped
transformer)
▪Single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two SCR’s
and two diodes, to provide single quadrant operation).
▪Single phase full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which requires
four SCR’s, to provide two quadrant operation).
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers are of different types
▪Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers.
▪Three phase full wave controlled rectifiers.
▪Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter).
▪Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).
Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of various types
• Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer
(two pulse converter with mid point configuration).
• Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier
1. Half controlled bridge converter (semi converter).
2. Fully controlled bridge converter (full converter).
2.4 SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE MID POINT CONVERTER
(M-2 CONNECTION)
𝑽𝑺 = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉an = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡,
𝑉bn = −𝑉an = −𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
secondary winding.
This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center tapped transformer and two
thyristors T1and T2. The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer, the
primary side of the transformer is connected to the ac line voltage which is available
(normally the primary supply voltage is 230V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply
frequency in India). The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the
center point of the transformer (center line) is used as the reference point to measure
the input and output voltages. The upper half of the secondary winding and the
thyristor T1 along with the load act as a half wave controlled rectifier, the lower half of
the secondary winding and the thyristor T2with the common load act as the second
half wave controlled rectifier so as to produce a full wave load voltage waveform.

Fig.2.2 power circuit diagram

There are two types of operations possible.

▪Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive load or
an RL load with low inductance value.
▪Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load with large
load inductance.
2.4.1 DISCONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (FOR LOW
VALUE OF LOAD INDUCTANCE)
Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely
resistive or when the RL load has a low value of inductance. During the positive half
cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the secondary winding is at a positive
potential with respect to the center point ‘n’ the thyristor T1is forward biased and it
is triggered at a delay angle of α. The load current flows through the thyristor T1,
through the load and through the upper part of the secondary winding, during the
period α to β, when the thyristor T1 conducts.
The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that
appears across the upper part of the secondary winding from ωt =α to β. The load
current through the thyristor T1 decreases and drops to zero at ωt = β, where β>π
for RL type of load and the thyristor T1 naturally turns off at ωt = β.

Fig2.3 .voltage and current waveform

During the negative half cycle of the input supply the voltage at the
supply line ‘a’ becomes negative whereas the voltage at line ‘b’ (at the lower side of
the secondary winding) becomes positive with respect to the center point ‘n’. The
thyristor T2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle and it is triggered at a
delay angle of (π+α) . The current flows through the thyristor T2, through the load,
and through the lower part of the secondary winding when T2 conducts during the
negative half cycle the load is connected to the lower half of the secondary winding
when T2conducts.
2.4.2 TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A
SINGLE PHASE MIDPOINT CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD
(WITHOUT FREE WHEELING DIODE (FWD)
The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be calculated
by finding the average value of the output voltage waveform over one output cycle
(i.e., π radians) and note that the output pulse repetition time is 𝑇 2 seconds where
T represents the input supply time period and 𝑇 = 1/ 𝑓 ; where f = input supply
frequency.
Assuming the load inductance to be small so that β>π, β<(π+α) we obtain
discontinuous load current operation. The load current flows through T1 from ωt =α
to β, where α is the trigger angle of thyristor T1and β is the extinction angle where
the load current through T1 falls to zero at ωt = β.
The average or dc output voltage

1 
V0 =
  V d (t )
o

1 
V0 =
  V m sin t.d (t )

V0 =
Vm
− cos t 

V0 =
Vm
cos  − cos  

Therefore 𝑽o(dc) = 𝑽𝒎 /𝝅 (𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜶 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷) , for discontinuous load current
operation, π<β<(π+α).

For resistive load ,When the load inductance is small and negligible that is
L ≈0 , the extinction angle β=π radians . Hence the average or dc output voltage
for resistive load is obtained as

V0 =
Vm
cos  − cos  

V0 =
Vm
cos  − (−1)

V0 =
Vm
1 + cos  )

2.4.3 THE EFFECT OF LOAD INDUCTANCE
Due to the presence of load inductance the output voltage reverses
and becomes negative during the time period ωt =π to β. This reduces the dc
output voltage. To prevent this reduction of dc output voltage due to the
negative region in the output load voltage waveform, we can connect a free
wheeling diode across the load. The output voltage waveform and the dc output
voltage obtained would be the same as that for a full wave controlled rectifier
with resistive load.
2.4.4 CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (WITHOUT FWD)
For large values of load inductance the load current would be continuous and
does not fall to zero.
For large values of load inductance the load current flows continuously without
decreasing and falling to zero and there is always a load current flowing at any
point of time. This type of operation is referred to as continuous current
operation. Generally the load current is continuous for large load inductance and
for low trigger angles. The load current is discontinuous for low values of load
inductance and for large values of trigger angles.
The waveforms for continuous current operation are as shown.

Fig.2.4. Load voltage and load current waveform for a single phase
midpoint converter
 The thyristor T1conducts from α to (π+α) , until the next thyristor T2 is
triggered. When T2 is triggered at ωt = (π+α) , the thyristor T1will be reverse biased
and hence T1turns off.
In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1which is
triggered at a delay angle of α, conducts from ωt =α to (π+α) . Output voltage follows
the input supply voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
𝑣o = 𝑣an = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡. The next thyristor T2 is triggered at ωt = (π+α) , during the
negative half cycle input supply. As soon as T2is triggered at ωt = (π+α) , the thyristor
T1will be reverse biased and T1turns off due to natural commutation (ac line
commutation). The load current flows through the thyristor T2 from ωt = (π+α) to
(2π+α) . Output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage across the
lower half of the transformer secondary winding 𝑣o = 𝑣bn = −𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡. Each
thyristor conducts for π radians (1800) in the case of continuous current operation.
2.4.5 AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE
MID-POINT CONVERTER WITH LARGE LOAD INDUCTANCE ASSUMING
CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION.

1  +
V0 =
  Vo d (t )

1  +
V0 =
  Vm sin t.d (t )

V0 =
Vm
− cos t  +

V0 =
Vm
− cos( +  ) + cos  

V0 = cos  + cos  )
Vm

cos( +  ) = − cos 
2Vm
V0 = cos 

2.5 SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
(FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER)

Fig. 2.5. Circuit diagram

The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is
shown in the figure with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit
so that the load current is continuous and ripple free (constant load current
operation). The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1,
T2,T3 and T4 connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in
the figure. Each thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and
naturally turns off when a reverse voltage appears across it.
During the positive half cycle when the upper line of the transformer
secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end the
thyristors T1and T2are forward biased during the time interval ωt = 0 to π. The
thyristors T1and T2are triggered simultaneously ωt =α; (0 ≤α≤π) , the load is
connected to the input supply through the conducting thyristors T1and T2. The
output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage and hence output
voltage 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡. Due to the inductive load T1 and T2will continue to
conduct beyond ωt =π, even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and
T2 conduct together during the time period α to (π+α) , for a time duration of π
radians (conduction angle of each thyristor = 1800 ).
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for ωt =π to 2π the
thyristors T3and T4are forward biased. T3 and T4are triggered at ωt = (π+α) . As
soon as the thyristors 3 T and 4 T are triggered a reverse voltage appears across
the thyristors T1and T2and they naturally turn-off and the load current is
transferred from T1and T2to the thyristors T3and T4. The output voltage across
the load follows the supply voltage and 𝑉𝑂 = −𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 during the time period
ωt = (π+α) to (2π+α) . In the next positive half cycle when T1and T2 are
triggered, T3and T4are reverse biased and they turn-off. The figure shows the
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant load
current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.
 During the time period ωt =α to π, the input supply voltage VS and the
input supply current is both positive and the power flows from the supply to the
load. The converter operates in the rectification mode during ωt =α to π.
During the time period ωt =π to (π+α) , the input supply voltage Vs is
negative and the input supply current is positive and there will be reverse power
flow from the load circuit to the input supply. The converter operates in the
inversion mode during the time period ωt =π to (π+α) and the load energy is fed
back to the input source.
The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial
applications up to about 15kW of output power. Depending on the value of trigger
angle α, the average output voltage may be either positive or negative and two
quadrant operation is possible.
2.5.1 TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC)
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The output voltage waveform consists of two output pulses during the
input supply time period between 0 & 2π radians . In the continuous load current
operation of a single phase full converter (assuming constant load current) each
thyristor conduct for π radians (1800 ) after it is triggered. When thyristors T1and
T2are triggered at ωt =α, T1 and T2 conduct from α to (π+α) and the output
voltage follows the input supply voltage. Therefore output voltage 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
for ωt =α to (π+α). Hence the average or dc output voltage can be calculated as

1  +
V0 =
  Vo d (t )

1  +
V0 =
  Vm sin t.d (t )

V0 =
Vm
− cos t  +

V0 =
Vm
− cos( +  ) + cos  

V0 = cos  + cos  )
Vm

cos( +  ) = − cos 
2Vm
V0 = cos 

 The dc output voltage Vdc can be varied from a maximum value of
2𝑉𝑚/𝜋 for 𝛼 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 −2𝑉𝑚/𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.
The maximum average dc output voltage is calculated for a trigger angle α= 0 and is
obtained as
2Vm 2Vm
V0 = cos(0) =
 
2.5.2 CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL
CONVERTER :
The dc output control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the average or dc
output voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle α For a single phase full converter the
average dc output voltage is given by the equation

2Vm
V0 = cos 


Fig.2.7 .Control characteristics

From the control characteristic , by varying the trigger angle α we can vary
the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output
voltage by changing the trigger angle α. For trigger angle α in the range of 0 to 90
degrees (i.e., 0 ≤ α≤ 900 ), Vdc is positive and the average dc load current Idc is also
positive. The average or dc output power Pdc is positive, hence the circuit operates as
a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc output power which is fed to
the load. For trigger angle α>90˚ ,cos α becomes negative and as a result the average
dc output voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same
positive direction i.e., Idc is positive . Hence the output power becomes negative. This
means that the power flows from the load circuit to the input ac source. This is
referred to as line commutated inverter operation. During the inverter mode operation
for α>900 the load energy can be fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source.
Fig 2.8 Two quadrant operation exhibiting rectifier and inverting mode
operation of full converter

The above figure shows the two regions of single phase full converter
operation in the Vdc versus Idc plane.
In the first quadrant when the trigger angle α is less than 900, and Vdc ,Idc are
both positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier.
It converts the ac input power into dc output power. The power flows
from the input source to the load circuit. This is the normal controlled rectifier
operation where Pdc is positive.

When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative but Idc is
positive and the average output power (dc output power)
Pdc becomes negative and the power flows from the load circuit to the
input source. The operation occurs in the fourth quadrant where Vdc is negative
and Idc is positive. The converter operates as a line commutated inverter.
2.5.3 TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE

1
 1  + 2 2  2
Vor =   Vm sin t.dt 
  
1
Vm2  +  1 − cos 2t   2
=   .dt 

   2  
1
Vm2  sin 2t  
 + 2

=  t − 
 2  2  
1
V 2   sin 2( +  ) sin 2  
 + 2

=  ( +  −  ) − 
m
−  
 2   2 2  
1
Vm2  sin 2 sin 2   2
Vor =   − +  Note : sin( +  ) = sin 
 2  2 2 
1
Vm2  2
=  . 
 2 
V
Vor = m = Vs
2
Vor = Vs
2.6 INVERTER MODE OF OPERATION

Fig.2.9. Power circuit diagram

Fig.2.10.Voltage and current waveforms for single phase full converter for
α < π/2
2.6.1 INVERTER MODE OF OPERATION

❖ For α < π/2, Vo > 0.

❖ Since the thyristors conducts current only in one direction I0 >0 always.
❖ Therefore power flowing to the dc side.
❖ P = V0 I0 > 0 for α < π/2.
❖ However for α > π/2, V0 < 0. Hence P < 0. This may be interpreted as the load
side giving power back to the ac side
❖ and the converter in this case operate as a line commutated current source
inverter. So the same converter circuit may be operated as an inverter by just
increasing α beyond π/2.
❖ When the trigger angle is increased above 900 ,
❖ Vdc becomes negative but Idc is positive and the average output power (dc
output power) Pdc becomes negative.
❖ power flows from the load circuit to the input source.
❖ The operation occurs in the fourth quadrant where Vdc is negative and Idc is
positive.
❖ The converter operates as a line commutated inverter.
2.7 SINGLE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS

Fig.2.11. Power circuit diagram

Fig.2.12. Voltage and current waveforms for single phase semi converter
for continuous load current
Single phase semi-converter circuit is a full wave half controlled bridge converter
which uses two thyristors and two diodes connected in the form of a full wave
bridge configuration. The two thyristors are controlled power switches which are
turned on one after the other by applying suitable gating signals (gate trigger
pulses). The two diodes are uncontrolled power switches which turn-on and
conduct one after the other as and when they are forward biased. The circuit
diagram of a single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter) is
shown in the above figure with highly inductive load and a dc source in the load
circuit.
When the load inductance is large the load current flows continuously and we
can consider the continuous load current operation assuming constant load
current, with negligible current ripple (i.e., constant and ripple free load current
operation).
The ac supply to the semiconverter is normally fed through a mains supply
transformer having suitable turns ratio. The transformer is suitably designed to
supply the required ac supply voltage (secondary output voltage) to the converter.
During the positive half cycle of input ac supply voltage, when the transformer
secondary output line ‘A’ is positive with respect to the line ‘B’ the thyristor T1 and
the diode D1are both forward biased. The thyristor T1is triggered at ωt =α; (0
≤α≤π) by applying an appropriate gate trigger signal to the gate of T1. The
current in the circuit flows through the secondary line ‘A’, through T1, through the
load in the downward direction, through diode D1 back to the secondary line ‘B’.
T1and D1conduct together from ωt =α to π and the load is connected to the input
ac supply. The output load voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary
output voltage of the transformer) during the period ωt =αto π.
At ωt =π, the input supply voltage decreases to zero and becomes negative
during the period ωt =π to (π+α) . The freewheeling diode Dm across the load
becomes forward biased and conducts during the period ωt =π t o (π+α).
The load current is transferred from T1and D1 to the FWD Dm. T1and D1are
turned off. The load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm. The load
current free wheels (flows continuously) through the FWD during the
freewheeling time period π to (π+α).
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line ‘A’
becomes negative with respect to line ‘B’. The thyristor T2 and the diode D2are
both forward biased. T2 is triggered at
ωt = (π+α) , during the negative half cycle. The FWD is reverse biased and turns-
off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to flow through T2 and
D2 during the period ωt = (π+α) to 2π.
5.7.1TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT
VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER

1
Vor = 

V m sin t.dt

=
Vm
− cos 2t 

=
Vm
− cos  − (− cos  )

Vo =
Vm
1 + cos  )

5.7.2 TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A
SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER

1
1  2 2  2
Vor =   Vm sin t.dt 
  
1
Vm2  1 − cos 2t  2
=  dt 
  2 
1
V 2  sin 2t   
 2

= m  t −  
 2  2   
1
V 1   sin 2 sin 2  
2
= m   ( −  ) −  −  
2    2 2  
1
1  sin 2  2
Vm
Vor = Vs   ( −  ) +  = Vs
2 
Note :
  2
2.8 THREE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

2.8.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used to convert ac
input power supply into dc output power across the load.

FEATURES OF 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ARE

❖ Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.

❖ They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.
❖ Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
❖ Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and load
current.

Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power variable speed
industrial dc drives.

THREE PHASE SUPPLY VOLTAGE EQUATIONS

Fig.2.13 .Vector diagram of three phase supply

2.8.2 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER WITH R LOAD

Three single phase half-wave converters are connected together to form a three phase
half-wave converter as shown in the figure.

Fig.2.14. Three phase M-3 converter power circuit diagram

Fig.2.15. Line To Neutral Source Voltages and Load Voltage Waveforms of

Three Phase 3 Pulse Converter R Load
 The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half wave
controlled rectifiers in one single circuit feeding a common load. The thyristor T1 in
series with one of the supply phase windings ' a - n ' acts as one half wave
controlled rectifier. The second thyristor T2 in series with the supply phase winding
'b - n ' acts as the second half wave controlled rectifier. The third thyristor T3
rectifier in series with the supply phase winding ' c - n ' acts as the third half wave
controlled.
The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply
transformer as shown in the figure. The common neutral point of the supply is
connected to one end of the load while the other end of the load connected to the
common cathode point.
 
When the thyristor T 1 is triggered at t =  6 +   = (30 +  ) , the phase voltage an
0

Vm appears across the load when T1 conducts. The load current flows through the
supply phase winding ‘a - n ' and through thyristor T1 as long as T1 conducts.
 5 
When thyristor T 2 is triggered at t =  +   = (150 0 +  ) , T1 becomes reverse
 6 
biased and turns-off. The load current flows through the thyristor T2 and through
the supply phase winding 'b - n ' . When T2 conducts the phase voltage Vbn
appears across the load until the thyristor T3 is triggered .
 3 
 t =
 +  = (270 0 +  )
When the thyristor T3 is triggered at  2  , T2 is reversed biased
and hence T2 turns-off. The phase voltage Vcn appears across the load when T3
conducts.
When T1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next input cycle the thyristor T3
turns off as it is reverse biased naturally as soon as T1 is triggered. The figure
shows the 3-phase input supply voltages, the output voltage which appears across
the load.
For a purely resistive load where the load inductance ‘L = 0’ and the trigger angle
 
 
6

, the load current appears as discontinuous load current and each thyristor is
naturally commutated when the polarity of the corresponding phase supply voltage
reverses. The frequency of output ripple frequency for a 3-phase half wave
converter is 3fs , where fs is the input supply frequency.

The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical converter systems
because of the disadvantage that the supply current waveforms contain dc
components.
2.8.2.1 TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT
VOLTAGE OF A 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER FOR RESISTIVE
LOAD
The reference phase voltage is Vrn =Van= Vm sinwt. The trigger angle α is
measured from the cross over points of the 3-phase supply voltage waveforms. When the
phase supply voltage Van begins its positive half cycle at ωt =0 , the first cross over
point appears at

 
t =  radians = 30 0 deg rees
6

The trigger angle α for the thyristor 1 T is measured from the cross over point
at ωt = 30˚.The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the period ωt = 30˚ to 150˚
when the phase supply voltage an v has a higher amplitude than the other phase supply
voltages. Hence T1 can be triggered between 30˚ to 150˚ .When the thyristor T1 is
triggered at a trigger angle α ,
The average or dc output voltage for R load when firing angle < 30˚
150  +
1
2 30+ m
Vo = V sin t.dt
3
= m − cos t 30+
3V 150  +

2
= m − cos(150 +  ) + cos(30 +  )
3V
2
= m − cos150 cos  + sin 150 sin  + cos 30 cos  − sin 30 sin  
3V
2
= m − cos(180 − 30) cos  + sin(180 − 30) sin  + cos 30 cos  − sin 30 sin  
3V
2
Vo = m cos(30) cos  + sin( 30) sin  + cos 30 cos  − sin 30 sin  
3V
2

Vo =
3Vm
2 cos(30) cos  
2
3V  3 
Vo = m 2 cos  
2  2 

Vo =
3 3Vm
cos  
2
Vo = ml cos  
3V
2
Where,
Vml= 3Vm Max. line to line supply voltage for a 3-phase star connected transformer.
The maximum average or dc output voltage is obtained at a delay angle α= 0 and is
given byVdc (max) = 3 3 Vm , Where Vm is the peak phase voltage.
2

2.8.2.2 TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF

3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER FOR RESISTIVE LOAD

The RMS value of output voltage for R load when firing angle < 30˚
1
 1 150 +  2

 2 30+
Vor =  V 2
sin 2
 t .d t 

m

 3 
1
150  +
3Vm  1 − cos 2t  2
=   d t 
2   30+ 2 
1
150  +
  sin 2t   2

=
3Vm
 ( t )150  +
30  + −   
2  2   2 30+ 
1
  2

(150 +  − 30 −  ) − 2 (sin 2(150 +  ) − sin 2(30 +  ) )

3Vm 1
=
2   
1
1 3  2
Vor = 3Vm  + cos 2 
 6 8 
2.8.3 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER WITH R LOAD FOR FIRING
ANGLE > 30˚

Fig.2. 16. Line To Neutral Source Voltages and Load Voltage Waveforms of
Three Phase 3 Pulse Converter R Load
 180
1
Vo =
2  V m sin t.dt
3 30+
3Vm
= − cos t 180 
30  +
2
= m − cos(180) + cos(30 +  )
3V
2
Vo = m − (−1) + cos(30 +  )
3V
2
Vo = m 1 + cos( + 30)
3V
2

1
 1 180   2

 2 30+
Vor =  Vm sin t.dt 
2 2


 3 
1
3Vm  
180 
1 − cos 2t
2
=   dt 
2  30+ 2 
1
3Vm  
180 
 sin 2t 
2

(t )30+ − 
180 
=  
2  2   2 30+ 
1
  2
=
3Vm
 (180 − 30 −  ) −
1
(sin 2 (180 ) − sin 2 (30 +  ) )
2   2 
1
  2

(150 −  ) + 2 (sin 2(30 +  ) )

3Vm 1
Vor =
2   
1
3Vm  5  1   2
Vor =  6 −   + 2  sin( 2 + 3 ) 
2     
1
V  5  1   2
Vor = ml  6 −   + 2  sin( 2 + 3 ) 
2     
 2.9 THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled rectifier using six
thyristors connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. All the six
thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at a appropriate times by
applying suitable gate trigger signals.

Fig.2.17 . Three phase full converter - Voltage waveforms, current waveforms

& conduction of thyristors for different firing angles
➢ The three thyristors (T1 ,T3 andT5 ) will not work together at the same time or two
of them also will not work together at the same time.
➢ The three thyristors (T2 ,T4 andT6 ) will not work together at the same time or two
of them also will not work together at the same time.
➢ (T1 and T4 ), (T3 and T6 ) or (T5 and T2 ) will not work together at the same time.
➢ Each thyristor is triggered at an interval of 2pi / 3.
➢ Each thyristors pair ((T6&T1 ), (T1&T2 ), (T2&T3 ), (T3&T4 ), (T4&T5 ), (T5&T6 )) is
triggered at an interval of pi / 3.
➢ The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6fS.
➢ If T1 is triggered at (30 + α), T3 will be triggered at (30 + α+120) and T5 will be
triggered at (30 +α+240). T4 will be triggered at (30 + α+180), T6 will be triggered
at (30 + α+120+180) and T2 will be triggered at (30 +α +240+180).

Fig.2.18 . Three phase full converter – circuit diagram

Firing T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Angle
0˚ 30˚ 90˚ 150˚ 210˚ 270˚ 330˚

30˚ 60˚ 120˚ 180˚ 240˚ 300˚ 360˚

60˚ 90˚ 150˚ 210˚ 270˚ 330˚ 390˚

90˚ 120˚ 180˚ 240˚ 300˚ 360˚ 420˚

Table.2.1 Three phase full converter – triggering angles of

thyristor
 Fig.2.19. Voltage waveforms and conduction of thyristors for a 3 phase
full converter

At ωt = 30˚+α, thyristor T6 is already conducting when the thyristor T 1is turned on

by applying the gating signal to the gate of T 1. During the time period to ωt =
30+α to 90˚+α thyristors T 1and T 6 conduct together and the line to line supply
voltage Vab appears across the load. At ωt = 90 ˚+α , the thyristor T2 is triggered
and T6 is reverse biased immediately and T6 turns off due to natural
commutation. During the time period ωt = 90˚+α to 150˚+α , thyristor T1 and
T2 conduct together and the line to line supply voltage V ac appears across the
load. The thyristors are numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the order
in which they are triggered. The trigger sequence (firing sequence) of the
thyristors is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61,12, 23, and so on. The figure shows the
waveforms of three phase input supply voltages, output voltage, the thyristor
current through T1 and T4 , the supply current through the line ‘a’.
We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows

VRN = Van = Vm sin t

2 

VYN = Vbn = Vm sin  t − (
 = Vm sin t − 120
0
)
 3 
2 

VBN = Vcn = Vm sin  t + ( ) (
 = Vm sin t + 120 = Vm sin t − 240
0 0
)
 3 
  
VRY = Van = (Van − Vbn ) = 3Vm sin  t + 
 6
 
VYB = Vbc = (Vbn − Vcn ) = 3Vm sin  t − 
 2
 
VBR = Vca = (Vcn − Van ) = 3Vm sin  t + 
 2
2.9.1 THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
WITH HIGHLY INDUCTIVE LOAD ASSUMING CONTINUOUS AND CONSTANT
LOAD CURRENT
The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage pulses over a period of 2π radians,
hence the average output voltage is calculated as

120  +
1
 60+ ml
Vo = V sin t.dt
3

= ml − cos t 60+
3V 120  +


= ml − cos(120 +  ) + cos(60 +  )
3V

= ml − cos120 cos  + sin 120 sin  + cos 60 cos  − sin 60 sin  
3V

3V   − 1  3 1 3 
= ml −   cos  + sin  + cos  − sin  
   2 2 2 2 
3V
Vo = ml cos 

2.9.2 THE RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
WITH HIGHLY INDUCTIVE LOAD ASSUMING CONTINUOUS AND CONSTANT
LOAD CURRENT

1
 1 120 +  2

Vor = 
  60+
Vml sin t.dt 
2 2


 3 
1
3Vml  
120  +
1 − cos 2t
2
=   dt 
  60+ 2 
1
3Vml  120 +  sin 2t  
120  + 2

= ( t )60+ −   
 2   2  60+ 
1

( 120 +  − 60 −  ) − 1 (sin 2(120 +  ) − sin 2(60 +  ))
2
3Vml
=
2  2 
1
3  1  2
= Vml  − (sin( 2 + 240) − sin( 2 + 120) )
2  3 2 
1
3  1  1  2
= Vml  −  sin 2 cos 240 + cos 2 sin 240) + (sin 2 cos120 + cos 2 sin 120) 
2  3 2  2 
1
3  1  1  1 1  2
3 3
= Vml  −  − sin 2 − cos 2  +  − sin 2 + cos 2 
2  3 2  2 2  2 2 2 
1
3  1  2
3 1 3
= Vml  + sin 2 − cos 2 − sin 2 + cos 2 
2  3 4 4 4 4 
1
3  2 3  2
= Vml  + cos 2 
2  3 4 
1
3   2
3
Vo = Vml  + cos 2 
2  3 2 
2.9 A. THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS
A 3-phase semi-converters are three phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifiers
which employ three thyristors and three diodes connected in the form of a bridge
configuration. Three thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at
appropriate times by applying appropriate gating signals. The three diodes conduct
when they are forward biased by the corresponding phase supply voltages. 3-phase
semi-converters are used in industrial power applications up to about 120kW output
power level, where single quadrant operation is required. The power factor of 3-phase
semi-converter decreases as the trigger angle increases. The power factor of a 3-
phase semi converter is better than three phase half wave converter.
The figure shows a 3-phase semi-converter with a highly inductive load and the load
current is assumed to be a constant and continuous load current with negligible ripple.
Thyristor T1 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage Van is positive and
greater than the other phase voltages Vbn and Vcn . The diode D1 is forward biased
when the phase supply voltage Vcn is more negative than the other phase supply
voltages.
Thyristor T2 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage Vbn is positive and
greater than the other phase voltages. Diode D2 is forward biased when the phase
supply voltage Van is more negative than the other phase supply voltages.
Thyristor T3 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage Vcn is positive and
greater than the other phase voltages. Diode D3 is forward biased when the phase
supply voltage Vbn is more negative than the other phase supply voltages.

Fig.2.20. Power circuit for a 3 phase semi converter feeding RLE load
The figure shows the waveforms for the three phase input supply voltages, the output
voltage, the thyristor and diode current waveforms, the current through the free wheeling
diode Dm and the supply current Ia . The frequency of the output supply waveform is 3fs
, where fs is the input ac supply frequency. The trigger angle can be varied from 0˚ to
180˚ .
During the time period 30˚ to 210˚ , thyristor T1 is forward biased. If T1 is triggered at
ωt = 30˚+α , T1 and D1 conduct together and the line to line supply voltage Vac appears
across the load. At ωt = 210˚, Vac starts to become negative and the free wheeling diode
Dm turns on and conducts. The load current continues to flow through the free wheeling
diode Dm and thyristor T1 and diode D1 are turned off.
If the free wheeling diode m D is not connected across the load, then T1 would continue
to conduct until the thyristor T2 is triggered at ωt = 150˚+α and the free wheeling action
is accomplished through T1 and D2 , when D2 turns on as soon as Van becomes more
negative at ωt = 210˚+α. If the trigger angle α< 60˚ ,each thyristor conducts for 210˚
and the free wheeling diode Dm does not conduct. The waveforms for a 3-phase semi-
converter with α< 60˚ as shown in figure.

THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTER FOR

α< 60˚

120  120  +
1
Vo =
2  Vml sin t.dt + V m sin t.dt
3 60+ 60 

=
3Vml
1 + cos  
2

THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTER FOR

α> 60˚ 180 
1
Vo =
2 V

ml sin t.dt
3

=
3Vml
1 + cos  
2

It is seen that average output voltage is the same for both the six pulse and three pulse
operating modes of a semi converter.
Fig.2.21. Three phase semi converter - Voltage waveforms, current
waveforms & conduction of thyristors for different firing angles

A three phase semi converter has the unique feature of working as a six pulse
converter for α< 60 ֯and as a three pulse converter for α>60 .֯
2.10 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS


i (t ) = a0 +  (an cos nt + bn sin nt )
n =1, 2,3

1 2
where a 0 =
2 0
 i(t )d (t )

1 2 1 2
an =
 0
 i(t ) cos nt d(t) and bn =
 0
 i(t ) sin nt d(t)


is (t ) = I 0 +  (Cn sin( nt +  n )
n =1, 2,3

a 
where C n = a 2 n + b 2 n and  n = tan −1  n 
 bn 

1  + 2  + 
I0 =   I .d (t ) −  I 0 .d (t ) = 0
2  
0
 + 
 1  + 2  + 
an =   I cos n  td ( t ) −  I o cos nt.d (t )
 
0
 + 
4Io
=− sin n ............. for n = 1,3,5.....
n
= 0............................. for n = 2,4,6......

1  + 2  + 
bn =   I sin n  t .d ( t ) −  I o. sin nt.d (t )
 
o
n + 
4Io
= cos n ............. for n = 1,3,5.....
n
= 0............................. for n = 2,4,6......

1/ 2
 4 I 2
  4I  
2
C n =  − o sin n  +  o cos n  
 n   n  
4I o
=
n
n = tan −1 (− tan n ) = n

4I o
 sin( nt − n )
 i s (t ) =  n
n =1,3,5

DF = cos1 = cos(− ) = cos

 I S1 2 2 .I o 1 2 2
CDF = = = = 0.90032
IS  Io 

2 2
powerfacto r = CDF  DF = cos

1/ 2
 V 
2 
voltage ripple factor =  0 r  − 1
 V0  

Power input Pi = Vs .I s1. cos 1

= V0 .I o

Reactive Power Q i = Vs .I s1.sin 

2 2 .I o 2V .I
= Vs . sin  = m o sin 
 
Vo
Qi = I 0 sin  = Vo .I o tan 
cos

B) PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF SEMI CONVERTER

For this semi converter, the variation of input current isis continuous from α to
Π, (Π+α) to 2Π and so on. But is is not constant & assumed to be ripple free
with its amplitude Io.

1  2 
Io =   I .d (t ) −  I 0 .d (t ) = 0
2 
0
 + 
1  2 
Io =   I .d (t ) −  I 0 .d (t ) = 0
2 
0
 + 
 1  2 
an =   I cos n  td ( t ) −  I o cos nt.d (t )
 
0
 + 
2Io
=− sin n ............. for n = 1,3,5.....
n
= 0............................. for n = 2,4,6......

1  2 
bn =   I sin n  t .d ( t ) −  I o. sin nt.d (t )
 
o
n + 
2Io
= (1 + cos n )............. for n = 1,3,5.....
n
= 0............................. for n = 2,4,6......
1/ 2
 2 I 2
  2I  
2
C n =  − o sin n  +  o (1 + cos n )  
 n   n  
2 2
= (1 + cos n )1 / 2
n
4I n
= o cos
n 2

 an  sin n 
 n = tan −1   = tan −1  − 
 bn   1 + cos n 
n
=-
2
 4I o n  n 
 i s (t ) =  cos . sin  nt − 
n =1,3,5 n 2  2 
4I o n 2 2 I o n
i sn = cos = cos
2.n 2 n 2
2 2 .Io 
rms fundamenta l circuit, i s1 = cos
 2
 ( −  )   ( −  ) 
1/ 2 1/ 2
rms value of total input current Is =  I o 2 = I0 
     



1 = −
2

 
DF = cos 1 = cos(− ) = cos
2 2
 𝜋 𝜋−𝛼
= −1
4 1 + cos 𝛼
1/ 2
 
 1    ( −  ) 
1/ 2
HF or THD =  − 1 =  − 1
 CDF  2
2
 8 cos 
 2 

2 2 cos
I 2 2 .Io   2
CDF = S1 = cos =
IS  2 Io  −   ( −  )


2 2 cos
powerfacto r = CDF  DF = 2  cos 
 ( −  ) 2

2 𝛼 2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐶𝐷𝐹𝑥𝐷𝐹 = 2 𝐶𝑂𝑆 2 1 + cos 𝛼
𝜋 𝜋−𝛼 2 𝜋 𝜋−𝛼

Power input Pi = Vs .I s1. cos1

2 2 .Io   V .I . 2
= Vs . cos . cos = s o (1 + cos  )
 2 2 
Vm
= (1 + cos  ) = V0 .I o


2 2 .Io   V .I
= Vs . cos . sin = m o sin 
 2 2 
=
1
Re active power required in 1 phase full converter for the same Io 
2
Vm V Vo
Also, Vo = (1 + cos  ) or m =
  (1 + cos  )
Vo .Io 
Qi = sin  = Vo .Io tan
1 + cos  2
2.10.1 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF THREE PHASE
FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTERS
2.11 EFFECT OF SOURCE INDUCTANCE

In actual practice, the converter is connected to ac mains through a transformer.

In a converter, because of source inductance, the current in the outgoing thyristor cannot
change from full value to zero instantaneously and the current through the incoming thyristor cannot
increase from zero to full value instantaneously. Therefore after the triggering gate pulse is applied
to a thyristor, the current of the outgoing thyristor decreases from full value to zero over a time ωt =
µ. During this time interval the current through incoming thyristor rises from zero to full value.
During this period µ known as commutating period, both the outgoing and incoming thyristors
are conducting. µ is also known as overlap angle. The overlapping of currents causes a reduction
in output voltage. During this commutation period, the output voltage is equal to 0 in single phase

𝑣𝑎𝑛 +𝑣𝑏𝑛 𝑣𝑏𝑛 +𝑣𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑛 +𝑣𝑐𝑛

converter and is equal to or 𝑜𝑟 in three phase converter.
2 2 2

Fig.2.21 Single Phase Converter (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Equivalent Circuit

Figure shows a single phase fully controlled bridge convereter with source
inductance Ls. The load is assumed to be highly inductive so that load current
can be assumed to be constant and equal to I0. Let i1 and i2 be the currents
through Th1, Th2 combination and Th3, Th4 combination respectively.

During overlap period µ one of these currents decays to zero and the other
builds up from zero to full value. Four thyristors conduct together as shown in
Fig.(b)
 Fig.2.22. Waveform of the Effect of Source Inductance

During the overlap period, the two branches in fig(a) are in parallel. Therefore,

di1 di
v1 − Ls = v2 − Ls 2
dt dt
 di di 
or v1 − v 2 = L s  1 − 2 
 dt dt 
let v1 = V m sin t
then v2 = −V m sin t
 di di 
therefore L s  1 − 2  = v1 − v 2 = 2V m sin t
 dt dt 
sin ce i 1 + i 2 = I 0 = cons tan t
di1 di 2
+ =0
dt dt
di V sin t
i.e 1 = m
dt Ls
Th1, Th2 pair starts conducting at ωt = α and current through them builds up from
zero at ωt = α to I0 at ωt = α+µ. Therefore from t = α/ω to t = (α+µ)/ω the current
builds up from zero to I0. Therefore

0 𝐼 𝛼+𝜇 Τ𝜔 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑖1 = ‫𝛼׬‬Τ𝜔 𝐿𝑆
𝑑𝑡 or

𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑜 = cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛼 + 𝜇
𝜔𝐿𝑆

The output voltage is zero from ωt = α to ωt = (α+µ). Therefore to find average

output voltage , the effective period of conduction is (α+µ) to (Π+α). Therefore

Vm  +
V0 =  sin t d(t)
  +µ

V0 =
Vm
cos( +  ) − cos( + )


or V0 =
Vm
cos( +  ) − cos  

Ls
cos( +  ) = − I 0 + cos
From above equation, Vm

Substituting the value of cos(α+µ) in the above equation we get,

2 𝑉𝑚 𝜔 𝐿𝑆
𝑉𝑜 = cos 𝛼 − 𝐼
𝜋 𝜋 𝑜

If the effect of source inductance is neglected , the average output voltage is

2 𝑉𝑚
cos 𝛼
𝜋

𝜔 𝐿𝑆
Thus the source inductance causes a voltage drop equal to 𝐼 .
𝜋 𝑜
2.11 A. Overlap in a three-phase, fully-controlled converter
During the commutation angle µ, current in the outgoing line falls gradually to zero,
while the current in the incoming line rises to 𝐼𝑑 .

Fig.2.23 Three Phase Fully Controlled Converter with L s

Without the effect of source inductance, only 2 thyristors conduct at any time, one
from positive group and other from negative group.

Suppose 𝑇5 and 𝑇6 were conducting and now 𝑇1 is triggered. Due to 𝐿𝑆 , current through
𝑇5 will slowly decrease and at the same time current through 𝑇1 starts increasing.
Now 3 thyristors, 𝑇5 𝑇6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟. At ωt= 30+μ, 𝐼5 = 0 and 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑑 . ie
when +ve group thyristors are undergoing commutation 3 thyristors, two from +ve
group and 1 from -ve group conduct together for a period of μ and a fter 30+ μ, only 2
thyristors one from each group conduct.

For instance, when T1 is triggered with angle α, after the crossover of 𝑣𝑎𝑛 and 𝑣𝑐𝑛 , the

𝑣𝑎𝑛 +𝑣𝑐𝑛
output voltage vo is given by 𝑣𝑜 =
2

The average output voltage is reduced due to overlap. The reduction is

3 𝜇
𝑣𝐿𝑆 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝜔𝑡

3 𝜇 𝑑𝑖 3𝜔𝐿 𝐼 3𝜔𝐿𝑆
𝑣𝐿𝑆 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝐿𝑆 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔𝑡= 𝜋 𝑆 ‫׬‬0 𝑑 𝑑𝑖 = 𝜋
𝐼𝑑 where 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜𝑎𝑣
Fig.2.23 Three Phase Fully Controlled Converter waveforms with Ls
Due to the effect of source inductance ,the reduction of voltage by an amount 𝟑𝝎𝑳𝒔/𝝅
2.12 TRIGGERING CIRCUITS
It consists of step down transformer, uncontrolled rectifier, comparator, differentiator,
mono stable multi vibrator, oscillator, AND gate, pulse amplifier and pulse transformer.

The complete circuit diagram of triggering circuit is shown in Fig. 2.24. A single-phase
transformer with center tapped secondary windings has been used. The main
purpose of this transformer is to step down 50Hz, 220 V to 6-0-6 V. The secondary
voltage of the transformer is compared with a dc reference signal using a 741C op-amp
comparator to produce an alternating rectangular waveform of a variable pulse width.
The output of the comparator ideally swings between +5 and -5 V at every crossing
transformer output dc reference voltage. Using a variable resistor, the dc reference
voltage can be altered and hence the rectangular waveform of variable pulse width is
obtained at output terminal.

A simple R-C differentiator is used to differentiate the rectangular voltage waveform. The
elements R and C are selected as 10KΩ and 0.01μF, respectively. Monostable
multivibrator often called a on shot multivibrator, is a pulse generating circuit in which
the duration of this pulse is determined by the RC network connected externally to the
555 timer. A 555 timer produces an output pulse using a positive going edge trigger to
produce a delay angle between 0º and 90º for the conversion mode of operation.

The differentiator is blocked by a connected diode. The number of comparators and

monostable blocks are 2 blocks to produce firing pulses for conversion and inversion
mode together. The values of R9 and C7 for the monostable are chosen so that the pulse
width is approximately 0.5ms. Once triggered, the circuit’s output will remain in the high
state until the set time elapses. The output will not change its state even if an input
trigger is applied again during this time interval. The output will remain in the low state
until a trigger is again applied. IC 555 timer is used as oscillator.

The square wave output waveform of of 20kHz by connecting suitable resistor and
capacitor. Pulse gating of thyristor is not suitable for RL loads, this difficulty can be
overcome by using continuous gating. However, continuous gating may lead to increased
thyristor losses and distortion of output pulse. So, a pulse train generated by modulating
the gate pulse at high frequency is used to trigger the thyristor. This high frequency
wave is known as carrier wave and is generated by using 555 timer.The outputs of
monostable multivibrator and oscillator are applied to the AND gate. IC 7408 two input
AND gate is used for this purpose. A long duration pulse may saturate the pulse
transformer and the firing pulse may be distorted so high frequency modulation is
necessary.

The duty cycle is kept less than 50 percent, so that the magnetic flux in the transformer
can be reset. The modulation pulse also reduces the gate dissipation.
 Fig.2.24 firing circuit for full converter

2.12 A

It includes UJT triggering, SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier), Load resistor. A

unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one
junction. The UJThas three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The
base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2
are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The
resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is opencircuit is called inter base
resistance.

Fig. 2.25 Synchronised UJT Triggering Circuit

A synchronized UJT triggered circuit using an UJT is shown in the figure. Diodes ‘D1’
to ‘D4’ rectify ac to dc. Resistor Rs lowers Edc to a suitable value for the zener diode
and UJT. Zener diode ‘Dz’ functions to clip the rectified voltage to a standard level,
‘Vz’ which remains constant except near the Edc zero. The voltage Vz is applied to the
charging circuit RC. Current ‘I’, charges capacitor ‘c’ at a rate determined by ‘R’
voltage across capacitor is marked by ‘Vc’ as shown. When ‘Vc’ reaches the
unijunction threshold voltage Vz, the t-B1 junction of UJT breaks down and the
capacitor ‘c’ discharges through the primary of pulse transformer sending a current ‘i2’
as shown. As the current ‘i2’ is in the form of pulse, windings of the pulse transformer
have pulse voltages at their secondary terminals. Pulse at the two secondary windings
feeds the same in phase pulse to two SCRs of a full wave circuits. SCR with positive
anode voltage would turn ON. As soon as the capacitor discharges, it starts to recharge
as shown. Rate of rise of capacitor voltage can be controlled by varying ‘R’.
2.13 DUAL CONVERTER

➢ Dual converter, the name itself says two converters.

➢ It is really an electronic converter or circuit which comprises of two converters. One

will perform as a rectifier and the other will perform as an inverter.
➢ Therefore, we can say that double processes will occur at a moment. Here, two full
converters are arranged in anti-parallel pattern and linked to the same dc load. These
converters can provide four quadrant operations.

The basic block diagram is shown below.

Fig.2.26 Block diagram of dual converter

Modes of Operation of Dual Converter

There are two functional modes: Non-circulating current mode and circulating mode.

Non Circulating Current Mode

•One converter will perform at a time. So there is no circulating current between the
converters.
•During the converter 1 operation, firing angle (α1) will be 0<α1< 90o; Vdc and Idc are
positive.
•During the converter 2 operation, firing angle (α2) will be 0<α2< 90o; Vdc and Idc are
negative.
Circulating Current Mode
•Two converters will be in the ON condition at the same time. So circulating current is
present.
•The firing angles are adjusted such that firing angle of converter 1 (α1) + firing angle of
converter 2 (α2) = 180o.
•Converter 1 performs as a controlled rectifier when firing angle be 0<α1< 90o and
Converter 2 performs as an inverter when the firing angle be 90o<α2< 180o. In this
condition, Vdc and Idc are positive.
•Converter 1 performs as an inverter when firing angle be 90o<α1< 180o and Converter
2 performs as a controlled rectifier when the firing angle be 0<α2< 90o In this condition,
Vdc and Idc are negative.

•The four quadrant operation is shown below.

 Fig.2.26 Four quadrant operation

The term ‘ideal’ refers to the ripple free output voltage. For the purpose of
unidirectional flow of DC current, two diodes (D1 and D2) are incorporated between
the converters. However, the direction of current can be in any way. The average
output voltage of the converter 1 is V01 and converter 2 is V02. To make the output
voltage of the two converters in same polarity and magnitude, the firing angles of the
thyristors have to be controlled.

Fig.2.27 IDEAL ONE

 Average output voltage of Single-phase converter = 2Vm cos𝛼/𝜋

Average output voltage of Three-phase converter =3Vml cos 𝛼/𝜋

For converter 1, the average output voltage,Vo1

For converter 2, the average output voltage,Vo2

Output voltage, Vo=VO1+VO2

The firing angle can never be greater than 180˚. So,

Types of Dual Converters

They are of two types: Single-phase dual converter and three-phase dual converter.

Single Phase Dual Converter

The source of this type of converter will be single-phase supply. Consider, the
converter is in non-circulating mode of operation. The input is given to the converter 1
which converts the AC to DC by the method of rectification. It is then given to the load
after filtering. Then, this DC is provided to the converter 2 as input. This converter
performs as inverter and converts this DC to AC. Thus, we get AC as output. The
circuit diagram is shown below.

Fig.2.28 Single phase Dual converter

Three Phase Dual Converter

Here, three-phase rectifier and three-phase inverter are used. The processes are similar
to single-phase dual converter. The three-phase rectifier will do the conversion of the
three-phase AC supply to the DC. This DC is filtered and given to the input of the second
converter. It will do the DC to AC conversion and the output that we get is the three-
phase AC. Applications where the output is up to 2 megawatts. The circuit is shown
below.

Application of Dual Converter

• Direction and speed control of DC motors.

• Applicable wherever the reversible DC is required.
• Industrial variable speed DC drives.

Fig.2.29 Three phase Dual converter

2.14 APPLICATIONS

2.14.1 LIGHT DIMMERS

Semiconductor dimmers switch on at an adjustable time (phase angle) after the start of
each alternating current half-cycle, thereby altering the voltage waveform applied to lamps
and so changing its RMS effective value. Because they switch instead of absorbing part of
the voltage supplied, there is very little wasted power. Dimming can be almost
instantaneous and is easily controlled by remote electronics. This development also made
it possible to make dimmers small enough to be used in place of normal domestic light
switches.

In the electrical schematic shown, a typical silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) based light
dimmer dims the light through phase-angle control. This unit is wired in series with the
load. Diodes (D2, D3, D4 and D5) form a bridge, which generates pulsed DC. R1 and C1
form a circuit with a time constant. As the voltage increases from zero (at the start of
every halfwave) C1 will charge up. When C1 is able to make Zener diode D6 conduct and
inject current into the SCR, the SCR will fire. When the SCR conducts, D1 will discharge C1
via the SCR. The SCR will shut off when the current falls to zero and the supply voltage
drops at the end of the half cycle, ready for the circuit to start work on the next half cycle.
This circuit is called a Leading-Edge Dimmer or Forward Phase Dimming.

Fig 2.30 An electrical schematic for a typical SCR-based light dimmer

Fig 2.31 phase control waveform of SCR-based light dimmer

 Waveform of the output voltage of a thyristor dimmer set for 60 volts RMS output,
with 120 V input. The red trace shows the output device switching on about 5.5 ms
after the input (blue) voltage crosses zero. Switching the thyristor on earlier in each
half cycle gives a higher output voltage and brighter lights.

2.14.2 EXCITATION SYSTEM

The system which is used for providing the necessary field current to the rotor
winding of the synchronous machine, such type of system is called an excitation
system. In other words, excitation system is defined as the system which is used for
the production of the flux by passing current in the field winding. The main
requirement of an excitation system is reliability under all conditions of service, a
simplicity of control, ease of maintenance, stability and fast transient response. The
amount of excitation required depends on the load current, load power factor and
speed of the machine. Static Excitation System in a Generator is essential for the
production of working magnetic flux in the air gap. It is usually provided by having
filed winding on the rotor in case of Synchronous Generator. Providing field winding on
the rotor possess certain advantages over field winding on the stator. It shall be noted
at this point that DC current flows in the field winding to create working magnetic
flux.

Thus for any excitation system, the main aim shall be to flow DC current in
the field winding. Static Excitation system is one such method.

Static Excitation System, power for providing field excitation is derived

from the Generator output terminals. A transformer know as Excitation
Transformer, is connected to the output terminals of Generator to step
down the voltage to required voltage level usually 415 V AC. As we need
DC supply, therefore Transformer output is connected to a Thyristor Full
Bridge Rectifier.

The firing angle of thyristor Full Bridge Rectifier is controlled by a Regulator so that
required field excitation may be provided. Secondary terminal of CT and PT
connected to Generator output terminals is fed to regulator. On the basis of
Generator terminal voltage, the regulator adjusts its firing angle.

Therefore, regulator increases the firing angle so that average value of DC current
may reduce. Similarly, if the Generator terminal voltage goes below its rated value
then field current must be increased. Therefore regulator decreases the firing angle
to increase the average value of the field current.
Fig 2.30 simplified block diagram of static excitation system
2.14.3 Power Electronics in PV Systems
The power generation based on photovoltaic and its implication on the related power
electronic circuits is seen here . In applying power electronics, the system engineering
is indispensable for improving the performance of the whole system.
The major role of Power Electronics is as follows:
• To interconnect the individual solar panels in series and parallel according to
requirement. A dc-dc converter interfacing the two solar panels that cannot be
identical will help to maintain the required current and voltage, and with regulation
improve the overall efficiency. Several non-isolated dc-dc converters have been
employed. Buck, buck-boost, boost and Cuk topologies with suitable modifications can
be employed for this purpose .
• Interfacing the dc output of the PV system to the grid or the load, this
includes dc-dc-ac and dc-ac-ac con-version . Where the grid is not present and
the use of batteries to store energy is required, off-grid PV systems are used, in
order to cover the demand during the night or whenever energy is needed. To prevent
the batteries to dis-charge on the modules during the night, blocking diodes are used
which also protect the batteries from short circuit. They also provide over-current
protection of the strings in case of short circuits, if more than one string is used.
Charge regulators control the charging of the batteries . There is the need to use dc
voltage and current with stable characteristics, independent from irradiance
fluctuations, in off-grid systems. Hence, a DC-DC conversion topology is used.
Switch mode DC-DC converters are used to match the dc output of a PV generator to a
variable load. The system types can be used as grid-direct and battery-based systems.
The grid-direct systems use inverters to connect the PV array to the electric utility
grid. Battery based systems acts as energy storage systems. Battery-based systems are
divided into two subsystems: a stand-alone system and electric utility backup system.
The classification utility-interactive system is used to analyze these systems.
• Utility-interactive is a general term; it can apply in grid-direct and backup systems as
well, that are in parallel with the electric utility. In photovoltaic systems, PV array is
connected directly to an inverter .

Fig 2.31 simplified block diagram of SOLAR PV system to utility grid

 ASSIGNMENTS
1.Fill in the blank(s) with appropriate word(s)
i) In a single phase fully controlled converter the _________ of an uncontrolled converters
are replaced by ____________.
ii) In a fully controlled converter the load voltage is controlled by controlling the _________
of the converter.
iii) A single phase half wave controlled converter always operates in the ________
conduction mode.
iv) The voltage form factor of a single phase fully controlled half wave converter with a
resistive inductive load is _________ compared to the same converter with a resistive
load.
v) The load current form factor of a single phase fully controlled half wave converter with a
resistive inductive load is _________ compared to the same converter with a resistive
load.
Answers: (i) diodes, thyristors; (ii) firing angle; (iii) discontinuous (iv) poorer; (v) better.

2.Practice Problems and Answers

Q1. Is it possible to operate a single phase fully controlled half wave converter in the
inverting mode? Explain.

Q2. A 220V, 20A 1500 RPM separately excited dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.75Ω
and inductance of 50 mH. The motor is supplied from a single phase fully controlled
converter operating from a 230 V, 50 Hz, single phase supply with a firing angle of α =
30°. At what speed the motor will supply full load torque. Will the conduction be
continuous under this condition?

Q3. The speed of the dc motor in question Q2 is controlled by varying the firing angle of the
converter while the load torque is maintained constant at the rated value. Find the
“power factor” of the converter as a function of the motor speed. Assume continuous
conduction and ripple free armature current.

Q4. Find the load torque at which the dc motor of Q2 will operate at 2000 RPM with the field
current and α remaining same.
3.Fill in the blank(s) with the appropriate word(s).
i) A single phase fully controlled bridge converter can operate either in the _________ or
________ conduction mode.
ii) In the continuous conduction mode at least _________ thyristors conduct at all times.
iii) In the continuous conduction mode the output voltage waveform does not depend on the
________ parameters.
iv) The minimum frequency of the output voltage harmonic in a single phase fully controlled
bridge converter is _________ the input supply frequency.
v) The input displacement factor of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter in the
continuous conduction mode is equal to the cosine of the ________ angle.
Answer: (i) continuous, discontinuous; (ii) two; (iii) load; (iv) twice; (v) firing.

4. Fill in the blank(s) with appropriate word(s)

i. The internal impedance of an ac source supplying a converter is largely ______________
in nature.
ii. Due to the presence of source ______________ commutation in a converter is not
______________.
iii. The period over which the commutation process continues is called the ______________
period.
iv. Length of the overlap period depends on the valve of the source inductance and load
______________.
v. In a single phase converter ______________ thyristors conduct during the overlap
period.
vi. In a three phase converter ______________ thryistors conduct during the overlap period
provided the overlap angle is less than ______________ degrees.
vii. The average output voltage of a ac-dc converter ______________ as a result of
commutation overlap.
Answer: (i) inductive; (ii) inductance, instantaneous; (iii) overlap; (iv) current ; (v) four; (vi)
three, sixty;
 PART A - Q & A
UNIT- II Phase controlled converters
1. What is meant by phase controlled rectifier? CO2/K1
It converts fixed ac voltage into variable dc voltage.
2. Mention some of the applications of controlled rectifier. CO2/K1
Steel rolling mills, printing press, textile mills and paper mills employing dc motor drives. DC
traction, Electro chemical and electro-metallurgical process, Portable hand tool drives, Magnet
power supplies HVDC transmission system
3. What is the function of freewheeling diodes in controlled rectifier? It serves two process.
CO2/K1
• It prevents the output voltage from becoming negative.
• The load current is transferred from the main thyristors to the freewheeling diode, thereby
allowing all of its thyristors to regain their blocking states.
4. What are the advantages of freewheeling diodes in a controlled in a controlled rectifier?
CO2/K1
• Input power factor is improved.
• Load current waveform is improved and thus the load performance is better.
5. What is meant by delay angle? CO2/K1
The delay angle is defined as the angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage and the
instant the thyristor is fired.
6. What are the advantages of single phase bridge converter over single phase mid-point
converter? CO2/K1
SCRs are subjected to a peak-inverse voltage of 2Vm in a fully controlled bridge rectifier. Hence
for same voltage and current ratings of SCR s, power handled by mid-point configuration is
about In mid-point converter, each secondary winding should be able to supply the load power.
As such, the transformer rating in mid-point converter is double the load rating.
7. What are the different methods of firing circuits for line commutated converter?CO2/K1
• UJT firing circuit.
• The cosine wave crossing pulse timing control.
• Digital firing schemes.
8. Give an expression for average voltage of single phase semiconverters.CO2/K1
Average output voltage Vdc = (Vm / π) (1 + cos α ).
9. What is meant by input power factor in controlled rectifier? CO2/K1
The input power factor is defined as the ratio of the total mean input power to the total RMS
input volt-amperes.
PF = ( V1 I1 cos φ1 ) / ( Vrms Irms) where V1 = phase voltage, I1 = fundamental component of
the supply current, φ1 = input displacement angle, Irms = supply rms current.

10. What are the advantages of six pulse converter?CO3/K2

• Commutation is made simple.
• Distortion on the ac side is reduced due to the reduction in lower order harmonics.
• Inductance reduced in series is considerably reduced.

11. What is meant by commutation? CO2/K1

It is the process of changing the direction of current flow in a particular path of the circuit. This
process is used in thyristors for turning it off.

12.What are the types of commutation? CO2/K1

• Natural commutation
• Forced commutation

13. What is meant by natural commutation? CO2/K1

Here the current flowing through the thyristor goes through a natural zero and enable the
thyristor to turn off.

14. What is meant by forced commutation? CO2/K1

In this commutation, the current flowing through the thyristor is forced to become zero by
external circuitry.
 PART-B
QUESTIONS
S PART-B QUESTIONS CO K
NO level level
1. Draw and Explain the necessary circuit and waveforms of a single CO2 K2

phase full converter with RL load working under discontinuous

conduction mode. Obtain the expressions for average and RMS
output voltage.

2. Draw and Explain the necessary circuit and waveforms of single CO2 K2
phase Semi converter with RL load and explain its operation. Obtain
the expression for average output voltage and RMS output voltage.

3. Draw and Explain the necessary circuit and waveforms of a single CO2 K2

phase semi converter with R load working under conduction α=90°

and α=60° modes Obtain the expressions for average and RMS
output voltage

4. Draw and Explain the necessary circuit and waveforms of a single CO2 K2

phase full converter with R load working under conduction α=90°

and α=60° modes .Obtain the expressions for average voltage and
current.

5. Explain the rectifying and inverting mode operation of single phase CO2 K2

full converter. Also derive the expressions for average and RMS
output voltage.

6. Draw and Explain the necessary circuit and waveforms of a three CO3 K2

phase full converter with RLE load working under continuous

conduction mode and explain its operation under rectification and
inversion mode. Obtain the expressions for average and RMS output
voltage.
 S PART-B QUESTIONS CO K
NO level level
7. Explain the rectifying and inverting mode operation of 6 pulse CO3 K2

converters. Also derive the expressions for average and RMS output
voltage.

8. Draw and Explain the necessary circuit and waveforms of a three CO3 K2

phase semi converter with R load working under conduction α=90°

and α=60° modes Obtain the expressions for average and RMS
output voltage

9. With necessary circuit and wave forms, explain the principle of CO2 K2

operation of single phase Dual-converter. Derive the expression for

average output voltage.

10. With necessary circuit and wave forms, explain the principle of CO3 K2

operation of three phase Dual-converter. Derive the expression for

average output voltage.

11. Explain the principle of operation of single phase dual converter CO2 K2

with two functional modes.

12, Explain the effect of source inductance in the operation of single CO2 K2
phase fully controlled converter with a neat sketch.

13. Derive expression relating the effect of source inductance in the CO2 K2

operation of single phase fully controlled converter.

14. Draw the necessary circuit and waveforms of 6 pulse converter with CO3 K2

RLE load working under continuous conduction mode and explain

its operation. Obtain the expression for average output voltage

15. A 3-phase 6 pulse converter is connected to a resistive and CO3 K2

inductive load of 10 ohm and 1H respectively from 3-phase, 415V,
50 Hz Y- connected supply. For firing angle of 30 degree,
Determine(i)Average output voltage
(ii)Average output current
(iii)RMS output current
 ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
SWAYAM
Power Electronics
By Prof. G.Bhuvaneshwari | IIT Delhi
SUMMARY
Course Status :Upcoming
Course Type :Core
Duration : 12 weeks
Start Date : 14 Sep 2020
End Date : 04 Dec 2020
Exam Date : 20 Dec 2020
Enrollment Ends :21 Sep 2020
Category :
Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Power Systems and Power Electronics
COURSE ERA
Enrolled from JULY 2020
•Introduction to power electronics
•Converter control
•Power electronics specialization
 REAL TIME APPLICATION IN DAY TO DAY LIFE
AND INDUSTRY
Applications and Uses of Rectifiers
The primary application of the rectifier is to derive DC power from AC power. Rectifiers are used
inside the power supplies of almost all electronic equipment. In power supplies, the rectifier is
normally placed in series following the transformer, a smoothing filter and possibly a voltage
regulator. Below, we have discussed a few rectifier applications:

Rectifier is used for powering appliances

As we are aware that all electrical appliances uses DC power supply to function. Using a rectifier
in the power supply helps in converting AC to DC power supply. Bridge rectifiers are widely used
for large appliances, where they are capable of converting high AC voltage to low DC voltage.

These are used with transformers

Use of a half wave rectifier can help us achieve the desired dc voltage by using a step down or
step up transformers. Full wave rectifiers are even used for powering up motor and led, which
works on DC voltage.

Uses of rectifier while soldering

Half wave rectifier are used in soldering iron types of circuit and is also used in mosquito
repellent to drive the lead for the fumes. In electric welding, bridge rectifier circuits are used to
supply steady and polarized DC voltage.

It is also used in AM radio

A half wave rectifiers are used in AM radio as a detector because the output consists of an audio
signal. Due to the less intensity of current, it is of very less use to the more complex rectifier.

Uses of Rectifier in circuits

A half wave rectifier is used in firing circuits and pulse generating circuits.

It is used for modulation

For demodulating the amplitude of a modulated signal, a half wave rectifier is used. In a radio
signal, to detect the amplitude of a modulating signal, a full wave bridge rectifier is used.

It is used in voltage multiplier

For the purpose of voltage multiplier, a half wave rectifier is used.
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

S CONTENT DATE OF DELIVERY QUESTION OUT COME

No DELIVERY RELATED TO THE
DELIVERY
1. Power electronics 13.7.2020 to 1.Application of Improving computer
circuit simulation 17.7.2020 pulses to a single skills of applying
and its analysis thyristor and circuits in real time
variation of load data.
voltage Platform used
2.Design of Single Mat lab simulation
thyristor firing software
circuit
3.Application of
pulses to bridge
type thyristor and
analyzed with
different type of
load.
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE
BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:

1. M.H. Rashid, ‘Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications’, Pearson

Education, Third Edition, New Delhi, 2004.

2. P.S.Bimbra “Power Electronics” Khanna Publishers, third Edition, 2003.

3. Ashfaq Ahmed ‘Power Electronics for Technology’, Pearson Education, Indian

reprint, 2003.

REFERENCES

1. Joseph Vithayathil,’ Power Electronics, Principles and Applications’, McGraw Hill

Series, 6th Reprint, 2013.

2. Philip T. Krein, “Elements of Power Electronics” Oxford University Press, 2004

Edition.

3. L. Umanand, “Power Electronics Essentials and Applications”, Wiley, 2010.

4. Ned Mohan Tore. M. Undel and, William. P. Robbins, ‘Power Electronics:

Converters, Applications and Design’, John Wiley and sons, third edition, 2003.

5. S.Rama Reddy, ‘Fundamentals of Power Electronics’, Narosa Publications, 2014.

6. M.D. Singh and K.B. Khanchandani, “Power Electronics,” Mc Graw Hill India,
2013.

7. JP Agarwal,” Power Electronic Systems: Theory and Design” 1e, Pearson

Education, 2002.
 Thank you

Disclaimer:

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reliance on the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.
3.DC-DC Converters
❖There are three basic types of dc-dc converter circuits, termed as buck,
boost and buck-boost.
❖In all of these circuits, a power device is used as a switch.
❖This device earlier used was a thyristor, which is turned on by a pulse fed
at its gate. In all these circuits, the thyristor is connected in series with
load to a dc supply, or a positive (forward) voltage is applied between
anode and cathode terminals. The thyristor turns off, when the current
decreases below the holding current, or a reverse (negative) voltage is
applied between anode and cathode terminals. So, a thyristor is to be
force-commutated, for which additional circuit is to be used, where
another thyristor is often used.
❖Later, GTO’s came into the market, which can also be turned off by a
negative current fed at its gate, unlike thyristors, requiring proper control
circuit. The turn on and turn-off times of GTOs are lower than those of
thyristors. So, the frequency used in GTO based choppers can be
increased, thus reducing the size of filters.
❖Earlier, dc-dc converters were called ‘choppers’, where thyristors or GTOs
are used. It may be noted here that converter (dc-dc) is a ‘step-up
chopper’. In the case of chopper, no buck-boost type was used. With
the advent of bipolar junction transistor (BJT), which is termed as self-
commutated device, it is used as a switch, instead buck converter (dc-dc)
is called as ‘step-down chopper’, whereas boost of thyristor, in dc-dc
converters. This device (NPN transistor) is switched on by a positive
current through the base and emitter, and then switched off by
withdrawing the above signal. The collector is connected to a positive
voltage.
❖Now-a days, MOSFETs are used as a switching device in low voltage and
high current applications. It may be noted that, as the turn-on and turn-
off time of MOSFETs are lower as compared to other switching devices,
the frequency used for the dc-dc converters using it (MOSFET) is high,
thus, reducing the size of filters as stated earlier.
❖These converters are now being used for applications, one of the most
important being Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Similarly, when
application requires high voltage, Insulated Gate Bi-polar Transistors
(IGBT) are preferred over BJTs, as the turn-on and turn-off times of IGBTs
are lower than those of power transistors (BJT), thus the frequency can
be increased in the converters using them. So, mostly self-commutated
devices of transistor family as described are being increasingly used in dc-
dc converters.
 DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.

Fig.3.1 General block diagram of DC chopper

SYMBOL OF CHOPPER

Fig.3.2.Symbol of DC chopper
DC to DC converter is very much needed nowadays as many industrial
applications are dependent upon DC voltage source. The performance of these
applications will be improved if we use a variable DC supply. It will help to improve
controllability of the equipments also. Examples of such applications are subway
cars, trolley buses, battery operated vehicles etc. We can control and vary a
constant DC voltage with the help of a chopper.
Chopper is a basically static power electronics device which converts fixed DC
voltage/power to variable DC voltage or power. It is nothing but a high speed switch
which connects and disconnects the load from source at a high rate to get variable
or chopped voltage at the output.

Fig.3.3. DC-DC Power conversion block diagram

 Chopper can increase or decrease the DC voltage level at its opposite side. So,
chopper serves the same purpose in DC circuit transformers in case of ac circuit.
So it is also known as DC transformer.

DEVICES USED IN CHOPPER

Low power application: GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, Power MOSFET etc.
High power application: Thyristor or SCR.

3.1 DC-DC converters types

❖ Vo<Vin - Buck converter
❖ Vo>Vin- Boost converter
❖ Vo<Vin or Vo>Vin- Buck-Boost converter,
❖ Cuk converter

MAIN FUNCTIONS:
a) adjustable dc output voltage
b) a good output voltage regulation

APPLICATIONS OF CHOPPER
DC to DC converters are applied for many applications such as in
Switched Mode Power Supply System.
in DC motors as speed controllers.
DC voltage boosters.
Battery chargers.
Railway systems.
Electric cars etc…
3.2 BUCK CONVERTER
The voltage across the capacitance in steady state is equal to the output voltage.
The switch is on for a time TON and is off for a time TOFF. We define the time
period, T, as T=Ton+Toff, and the switching frequency,
f= 1/T = chopping frequency
The duty cycle,

MODE II: SWITCH IS OFF, DIODE IS ON

Here, the energy stored in the inductor is released and is ultimately dissipated in
the load resistance, and this helps to maintain the flow of current through the
load. But for analysis we keep the original conventions to analyse the circuit using
KVL.

Fig.3.6. Buck converter- Mode II circuit diagram

Average load Voltage is given by

V0 = Ton/ (Ton +Toff) * Vs = (Ton/T) V = D Vs………………(1.0)
Ton : on -time
Toff : off- time
Thus the load voltage can be controlled by varying the duty cycle D
V0 = f. Ton .Vs
Fig.3.7.Buck converter Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
3.3 BOOST CONVERTER | STEP UP CHOPPER

Step Up Chopper or Boost converter which increases the input DC voltage to

a specified DC output voltage. A typical Boost converter is shown below.
Step-up chopper works as a step-up transformer on DC current.
The working principle of a step up chopper can be explained from the above
diagram. In the circuit, a large inductor L is connected in series to the supply
voltage. Capacitor maintains the continuous output voltage to the load. The diode
prevents the flow of current from load to source.

Fig.3.8. Boost converter circuit diagram

The input voltage source is connected to an inductor. The solid-state device which
operates as a switch is connected across the source. The second switch used is a
diode. The diode is connected to a capacitor, and the load and the two are
connected in parallel as shown in the figure above.
The inductor connected to input source leads to a constant input current, and
thus the Boost converter is seen as the constant current input source. And the
load can be seen as a constant voltage source. The controlled switch is turned on
and off by using Pulse Width Modulation(PWM). PWM can be time-based or
frequency based. Frequency-based modulation has disadvantages like a wide
range of frequencies to achieve the desired control of the switch which in turn will
give the desired output voltage. Time-based Modulation is mostly used for DC-DC
converters. It is simple to construct and use. The frequency remains constant in
this type of PWM modulation.
The Boost converter has two modes of operation.
The first mode is when the switch is on and conducting.
MODE I : SWITCH IS ON, DIODE IS OFF

Fig.3.9. Boost converter- Mode I circuit diagram

The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally offering zero
resistance to the flow of current so when the switch is ON all the current will flow
through the switch and back to the DC input source. Let us say the switch is on for
a time TON and is off for a time TOFF. We define the time period, T, as T=Ton+Toff.
When the chopper is turned ON the current through the inductance L will increase
from I1 to I2. As the chopper is on the source voltage is applied to L that is
v L = VS .
MODE II : SWITCH IS OFF, DIODE IS ON

Fig.3.10. Boost converter- Mode II circuit diagram

When the chopper is OFF, the KVL can be written as
vL – V0+Vs =0 or vL =V0 -Vs where vL is the voltage across L. Variation of source
voltage vS , source current IS , load voltage v0 and load current iO is sketched in
the fig (d) . Let us assume that the variation of output current is linear, the
energy input to inductor from the source, during the time period Ton , is
Win= Vs (I1+I2/2) Ton
During the time Toff the chopper is off, so the energy released by the inductor to
the load is
Woff = (V0-Vs)(I1+I2/2).Toff
Let us assume that the system is lossless, then the two energies say Win and
Woff are equal.

Fig.3.11.Boost converter Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

So equating these two we will get
Vs (I1+I2/2) Ton = (V0-Vs)(I1+I2/2).Toff
Vs Ton = (V0-Vs) Toff
V0Toff = Vs (Toff + Ton) = Vs .T
V0 = VS (T/Toff) = VS (T/T-Ton) =VS (1/(1-D)
From the above equation , we can see that the average voltage across the load can
be stepped up by varying the duty cycle.
We know that D varies between 0 and 1. But as we can see from the equation
above that if D = 1 then the ratio of output voltage to input voltage at steady state
goes to infinity.

APPLICATION OF STEP-UP CHOPPER

Fig.3.12.Regenerative braking of dc motor

The principle of step-up chopper can be used for the regenerative braking of DC
motors. The armature voltage Ea is analogy to the VS and voltage V0 is the dc
source voltage. When the chopper is on the inductor L stores the energy and when
it is off the inductor release the energy. If Ea / (1-D) exceeds V0 , the dc machine
will work as a dc generator and the armature current will flow in a direction
opposite to the motoring mode. As the power now is flowing from dc machine to
the source V0 it will cause regenerative breaking of the dc motor. Even at
decreasing motor speeds, regenerative breaking can be provided as the motor
armature Ea is directly proportional to the field flux and motor speed.
3.4 BUCK BOOST CONVERTER/STEP UP-DOWN CHOPPPER

Buck Boost converter which can operate as a DC-DC Step-Down converter or a DC-DC
Step-Up converter depending upon the duty cycle, D.
A typical Buck-Boost converter is shown below.

Fig.3.13.Buck- Boost converter circuit diagram

The input voltage source is connected to a solid state device. The second switch used is a
diode. The diode is connected, in reverse to the direction of power flow from source, to a
capacitor and the load and the two are connected in parallel as shown in the figure above.
The controlled switch is turned on and off by using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). PWM
can be time based or frequency based. Frequency based modulation has disadvantages
like a wide range of frequencies to achieve the desired control of the switch which in turn
will give the desired output voltage. Time based Modulation is mostly used for DC-DC
converters. It is simple to construct and use. The frequency remains constant in this type
of PWM modulation.

The Buck Boost converter has two modes of operation.

MODE I : SWITCH IS ON, DIODE IS OFF

Fig.3.14.Buck- Boost converter- Mode I circuit diagram

The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally offering zero resistance to
the flow of current so when the switch is ON all the current will flow through the switch
and the inductor and back to the DC input source. The inductor stores charge during the
time the switch is ON and when the solid state switch is OFF the polarity of the Inductor
reverses so that current flows through the load and through the diode and back to the
inductor.
So the direction of current through the inductor remains the same.
MODE II : SWITCH IS OFF, DIODE IS ON

Fig.3.15.Buck- Boost converter- Mode II circuit diagram

In this mode the polarity of the inductor is reversed and the energy stored in the
inductor is released and is ultimately dissipated in the load resistance and this
helps to maintain the flow of current in the same direction through the load and
also step-up the output voltage as the inductor is now also acting as a source in
conjunction with the input source.
Let us now analyse the Buck Boost converter in steady state operation for Mode
II using KVL.

It is already established that the net change of the inductor current over any one
complete cycle is zero.

D varies between 0 and 1. If D > 0.5, the output voltage is larger than the input;
and if D < 0.5, the output is smaller than the input. But if D = 0.5 the output
voltage is equal to the input voltage.
3.5 CONTROL STRATEGY OF CHOPPER

There are mainly two techniques or methods to control the output voltage of a chopper:
Time Ratio Control Method and Current Limit Control. The output voltage of
chopper depends on the duty cycle. By changing the duty cycle, the output voltage can be
varied.
TIME RATIO CONTROL METHOD:
Time Ratio Control is the method of controlling the output voltage of chopper by changing
the ON (TON) period of chopper while keeping the chopping frequency constant or keeping
the TON or TOFF constant and varying the chopping frequency. Change in chopping
frequency essentially means that the total time period T is changed. In this way, the duty
cycle (α) is varied to get the controlled output voltage.
As we know that, the output voltage of chopper is given as
Therefore, changing α while keeping T constant will result in change in Vo.
Time Ratio Control is realized in two different strategies called the Constant Frequency
System and Variable Frequency System.
CONSTANT FREQUENCY SYSTEM OR PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUE:
In this technique, the time period of chopper is maintained constant and change in duty
cycle is achieved by changing TON period. Since, time period is constant, chopping
frequency will be constant, hence this scheme is called constant frequency system.
It should be noted that, by changing the ON, the width of output voltage pulse is adjusted
to have the desired output voltage. This method of voltage control of chopper is also
known as Pulse Width Modulation Scheme.
Figure below illustrate the principle of Pulse Width Modulation Scheme / Constant
Frequency System.

Fig.3.16. Pulse Width Modulation Technique waveform

 VARIABLE FREQUENCY SYSTEM OR FREQUENCY MODULATION SCHEME:
In this scheme, the chopping frequency is varied (hence, chopping time period T)
either by maintaining ON time TON or OFF time TOFF. Therefore, the duty cycle of
chopper is varied. This method of controlling duty cycle α is also called Frequency
Modulation Scheme.

Fig.3.17.Frequency modulation waveforms

(a)TON is kept constant but T is varied .
(b)TOFF period may be varied to get controlled duty cycle α and hence controlled
output voltage.
DISADVANTAGE OF FREQUENCY MODULATION SCHEME:
The chopping frequency has to be varied over a wide range for control of output
voltage in frequency modulation. Filter design for such wide frequency variation is
quite difficult.
A wide frequency variation is required for control of chopper duty cycle.
Therefore, there is always a chance of interference with signaling and telephone
lines in frequency modulation scheme.
The large off time in this scheme may make the load current discontinuous which
is undesirable.
 3.6 TYPES OF CHOPPER –BASED ON QUADRANT OPERATION

The semiconductor devices are arranged appropriately in a chopper to work in any

of the four quadrants.
we can classify chopper circuits according to their working in any of these four
quadrants as type A, type B, type C, type D and type E.

TYPE A CHOPPER OR FIRST–QUADRANT CHOPPER

This type of chopper is shown in the figure. It is known as first-quadrant chopper

or type A chopper. When the chopper is on, v0 = VS as a result and the current
flows in the direction of the load. But when the chopper is off v0 is zero but
I0 continues to flow in the same direction through the freewheeling diode FD,
thus average value of voltage and current say V0 and I0 will be always positive
as shown in the graph.

Fig.3.18. Type A Chopper or First–Quadrant Chopper

In type A chopper the power flow will be always from source to the load. As the
average voltage V0 is less than the dc input voltage Vs
 TYPE B CHOPPER OR SECOND-QUADRANT CHOPPER

Fig.3.19. Type B Chopper Or Second-quadrant Chopper

In type B or second quadrant chopper the load must always contain a dc source E
. When the chopper is on, v0 is zero but the load voltage E drives the current
through the inductor L and the chopper, L stores the energy during the time Ton of
the chopper . When the chopper is off , v0 =( E+ L . di/dt ) will be more than the
source voltage Vs . Because of this the diode D2 will be forward biased and begins
conducting and hence the power starts flowing to the source. No matter the
chopper is on or off the current I0 will be flowing out of the load and is treated
negative . Since VO is positive and the current I0 is negative , the direction of
power flow will be from load to source. The load voltage V0 = (E+L .di/dt ) will
be more than the voltage Vs so the type B chopper is also known as a step up
chopper .

TYPE -C CHOPPER OR TWO-QUADRANT TYPE-A CHOPPER

Type C chopper is obtained by connecting type –A and type –B choppers in
parallel. We will always get a positive output voltage V0 as the freewheeling
diode FD is present across the load. When the chopper is on the freewheeling
diode starts conducting and the output voltage v0 will be equal to Vs . The
direction of the load current i0 will be reversed. The current i0 will be flowing
towards the source and it will be positive regardless the chopper is on or the
FD conducts. The load current will be negative if the chopper is or the diode D2
conducts. We can say the chopper and FD operate together as type-A chopper
in first quadrant. In the second quadrant, the chopper and D2 will operate
together as type –B chopper.
The average voltage will be always positive but the average load current might
be positive or negative. The power flow may be life the first quadrant operation
ie from source to load or from load to source like the second quadrant
operation. The two choppers should not be turned on simultaneously as the
combined action my cause a short circuit in supply lines. For regenerative braking
and motoring these type of chopper configuration is used.
Fig.3.20. Type -C Chopper Or Two-quadrant Type-A Chopper

TYPE D CHOPPER OR TWO-QUADRANT TYPE –B CHOPPER

Fig.3.21. Type D Chopper Or Two-quadrant Type-B Chopper

The circuit diagram of the type D chopper is shown in the above figure. When the
two choppers are on the output voltage v0 will be equal to Vs .
When v0 = – Vs the two choppers will be off but both the diodes D1 and D2 will
start conducting. V0 the average output voltage will be positive when the choppers
turn-on the time Ton will be more than the turn off time Toff its shown in the wave
form below. As the diodes and choppers conduct current only in one direction the
direction of load current will be always positive.
The power flows from source to load as the average values of both v0 and i0 is
positive. From the wave form it is seen that the average value of V0 is
positive thus the forth quadrant operation of type D chopper is obtained.
From the wave forms the Average value of output voltage is given by
V0= (Vs Ton-VsToff)/T = Vs.(Ton-Toff)/T
Fig.3.22. Type D Chopper Or Two-quadrant Type-B Chopper

(a)Ton>Toff , Vo is Positive, First Quadrant Operation and

(b) Ton<Toff , Vo is Negative, Fourth Quadrant Operation

TYPE –E CHOPPER OR THE FOURTH-QUADRANT CHOPPER

Type E or the fourth quadrant chopper consists of four semiconductor switches

and four diodes arranged in antiparallel. The 4 choppers are numbered according
to which quadrant they belong. Their operation will be in each quadrant and the
corresponding chopper only be active in its quadrant.

Fig.3.23.E-type Chopper Circuit diagram with load emf E and E Reversed

FIRST QUADRANT
During the first quadrant operation the chopper CH4 will be on . Chopper CH3 will
be off and CH1 will be operated. AS the CH1 and CH4 is on the load voltage
v0 will be equal to the source voltage Vs and the load current i0 will begin to flow.
v0 and i0 will be positive as the first quadrant operation is taking place. As soon as
the chopper CH1 is turned off, the positive current freewheels through CH4 and
the diode D2 . The type E chopper acts as a step- down chopper in the first
quadrant.

SECOND QUADRANT
In this case the chopper CH2 will be operational and the other three are kept off.
As CH2 is on negative current will starts flowing through the inductor L . CH2 ,E
and D4. Energy is stored in the inductor L as the chopper CH2 is on. When CH2 is
off the current will be fed back to the source through the diodes D1 and D4. Here
(E+L.di/dt) will be more than the source voltage Vs . In second quadrant the
chopper will act as a step-up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source

THIRD QUADRANT
In third quadrant operation CH1 will be kept off , CH2 will be on and CH3 is
operated. For this quadrant working the polarity of the load should be reversed. As
the chopper CH3 is on, the load gets connected to the source Vs and v0 and i0 will
be negative and the third quadrant operation will takes place. This chopper acts
as a step-down chopper

FOURTH QUADRANT
CH4 will be operated and CH1, CH2 and CH3 will be off. When the chopper CH4 is
turned on positive current starts to flow through CH4, D2 ,E and the inductor L will
store energy. As the CH4 is turned off the current is feedback to the source
through the diodes D2 and D3 , the operation will be in fourth quadrant as the
load voltage is negative but the load current is positive. The chopper acts as a step
up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source.
SWITCHED MODE
REGULATORS
Buck, Boost, Buck- Boost regulator
3.7 BUCK REGULATOR
Switched Mode Regulators provide much greater power efficiency in DC-to-DC
conversion than linear regulators, which are simpler circuits that lower voltages
by dissipating power as heat, but do not step up output current.

Switched mode regulators consists of energy storage elements along with dc-dc
chopper circuits.

To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (or capacitors in combination

with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter)
and input (supply-side filter.

A buck converter (step-down converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter which

steps down voltage while stepping up current from its input (supply) to its
output (load).

Fig.3.24. circuit diagram

OPERATION

The load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the circuit

inductance, duty cycle and the amount of load current.

The load is connected to the source when the switch is ON and is disconnected
when the switch is OFF. Hence, there are two modes of operation.
MODE 1: When the switch is ON

• Fig.3.25. Switch is on-mode I

• During TON, the switch is closed, and the voltage across the inductor is

ⅆi
vL = vs − v0 where vL = L ⅆt

• The current through the inductor rises linearly (in approximation, so long as the voltage drop is
almost constant). The he energy stored in L increases during on-time as 𝑖𝐿 increases .

• As the diode is reverse-biased by the voltage source V, no current flows through it.
MODE 2: When the switch is OFF

Fig.3.26. Switch is OFF-mode II

• During TOFF, the switch is opened. Since the current in an inductor cannot change suddenly,
the inductor creates a voltage across it. This voltage is allowed to charge the capacitor and
power the load through the diode when the switch is turned off, maintaining current. Now the
diode is forward biased. The voltage across the inductor is vL = −v0 (neglecting diode drop).
Current 𝑖𝐿 decreases.
Fig.3.26 Voltage and current waveforms of Buck Regulator

DERIVATIONS

1. To find the average output voltage

• MODE-1
ⅆi
During TON, inductor voltage vL = vs − v0 where vL = L ⅆt

Here di=Imax- Imin and dt=TON

ⅆi
vs − v0 = L ⅆt

𝐿 ⅆⅈ = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉0 𝑇0 𝑁 -------------------(i)

• MODE-2
ⅆi
During TOFF, inductor voltage vL = −v0 where vL = L
ⅆt

dt=TOFF
𝐿 ⅆⅈ = −𝑉0 𝑇0𝐹𝐹 -------------------(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii) , 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉0 𝑇0 𝑁 = −𝑉0 𝑇0 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑆 =D 𝑉𝑆
𝑂𝑁 +𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑇

Where D is the duty ratio.

 3.8 BOOST REGULATOR

Boost regulator (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up voltage
(while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load).

Power for the boost converter can come from any suitable DC source, such as batteries,
solar panels, rectifiers, and DC generators.

It consists at least two semiconductors (a diode and a transistor switch) and at least one
energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination.

To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with

inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input
(supply-side filter).

Fig.3.27. circuit diagram

The circuit diagram of the boost converter is shown in Fig. . The boost converter finds
application in electric vehicles, LEDs, radar or ignition systems …..

OPERATION

There are two modes of operation

• When the switch is ON (Mode-1) and when the switch is OFF (Mode-2)
 MODE-1

• Fig.3.28. Switch is on-mode I

When the switch S is on,

VS=VL

⇒Ldi/dt=VS=Constant supply voltage

⇒Ldi/dt=VS=Constant supply voltage

idt=constant di/dt=constant
⇒Current increases with constant slope.

MODE 2

• When the switch is OFF, the supply is connected to the load through the inductance

⇒VS=VL+VC⇒VS=VL+VC

⇒Ldi/dt=VS−VC;⇒Ldi/dt=VS−VC;

⇒di/dt=(VS−VC)/L.

• Fig.3.29. Switch is off-mode II

Now, current decreases and must reach at a value equal to the value of the
current at the initial stage when switch S is just switched on according to steady-
state stability.

Current increment during switch on

=Imax−Imin=VSLDT=Imax−Imin=VSLDT

Current decrement during switch off

𝑣𝑠 −𝑣𝐶
=Imin−Imax= 𝐿
1−𝐷 𝑇

NN

Fig.3.30. Supply current, diode current, inductor current, and inductor

voltage
 ∆𝑄
Ripple voltage across the capacitor =∆𝑉𝐶 =
𝐶

Where, ∆ Q is the charge accumulated during the switch-on condition.

𝑉𝑂 1 𝑉𝑆 1
∆𝑉𝐶 = 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐷𝑇
𝑅 𝐶 (1−𝐷)𝑅 𝐶
3.9 BUCK-BOOST REGULATOR

This converter is an inverting DC-to-DC converter i.e. polarity of

the output voltage is reversed compared to the input supply.

It is a negative-output buck-boost converter.

Fig.3.31 Circuit diagram

OPERATION

• Fig.3.32. Switch is on-mode I

• Let the capacitor be totally charged up before switching on the switch S.

• When the switch S is closed 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑆

𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊
→ 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑳 = 𝑳
𝒅𝒕 𝑻𝑶𝑵

• Also 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶
 MODE II

• Fig.3.33. Switch is on-mode I

• when the switch S is opened as given in Fig. 3,33,

VL = V0

𝑑𝑖
L 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉0

𝑑𝑖
𝑉0 = −𝐿 𝑇
𝑂𝐹𝐹

Ldi= 𝑉0 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

Fig.3.34. various waveforms of buck boost regulator

 To find average output voltage

During TON ,

𝑑𝑖 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑂𝑁

𝐿(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 )= 𝑉𝑆 𝑇𝑂𝑁

During TOFF

𝑑𝑖 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑂 = 𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

𝐿(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 )= 𝑉𝑂 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

𝑉𝑆 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝐷𝑇
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 1−𝐷 𝑇
3.10 RESONANT CONVERTER

A resonant converter is a type of electric power converter that contains a network

of inductors and capacitors called a "resonant tank", tuned to resonate at a
specific frequency.

There are multiple types of resonant converter:

Series resonant inverter

Parallel resonant inverter

Class E Resonant Converter

Class E Resonant Rectifier

Zero Voltage Switching Resonant Converter

Zero Current Switching Resonant Converter[2]

Two Quadrant ZVS Resonant Converter

Resonant dc-link inverter

Why resonant converter?

Hard switching is based on on/off– Switching losses– Electromagnetic Interference

(EMI) because of high dv/dt and di/dt

SMPS size decreases with increasing switching frequency

– Target is to use as high switching frequency as possible – Switching losses are

reduced if voltage and/or current are zero during switching
 3.11 ZCS Resonant-Switch Converter

Fig.3.35. ZCS CONVERTER

Operation principle
• Current Io goes through the diode
Cr is charged to the supply voltage Ud
Switch is turned on –
Diode D conducts untill at t1 current is equal to the load current
• Lr Cr is a resonant circuit discharging Cr
At t2 current goes to zero and switch turns off
• Output current Io charges Cr to the supply voltage –
At t3 diode starts to conduct
3.12 ZVS Resonant-Switch Converter

Fig.3.36. ZCS CONVERTER

Comparison of ZVS and ZCS
3.13 BATTERY OPERATED VEHICLES

Definition: The vehicles which get powered through a self-controlled battery for
converting fuel into electricity, such type of vehicles are called battery powered
vehicles or electrical vehicles. The lead acid battery is mostly used for powering the
vehicles because of their low cost. The various types of DC and induction motors
are used in battery powered vehicles.
The following are the advantages of the battery powered vehicles.
It causes less pollution.
It reduces noise pollution.
The battery powered vehicles required less maintenance because it has no water
cooling system to maintain, no filters, belts, or hoses to replace, or no oil to
change.
It is more reliable because of the presence of fuel injectors, compressors, pumps
and valve.
The following are the disadvantage of battery powered vehicles.
The battery powered vehicles are more expensive as compared to internal
combustion vehicles.
The battery powered vehicles cannot go far on a single charge.
Much longer time is required to charge a battery of battery powered vehicles.

Let us consider a permanent magnet DC drive as shown in the figure below. The
drive has chopper control and DC drive facility. The Lf and Cf are the filters which
are used to filter the harmonics which is generated by the chopper. MS is the
manual switch and RS is the reversal switch. The inductance L keep the ripple in
motor current low.
Motoring Operation
For motoring operation, the manual switch is kept close. The transistor switch
operates at a constant frequency to obtaining variable DC voltage for starting and
speed control. When the transistor is on the current flows through the source to
Lf, MS, L, R, armature S and T. When the transistor is closed the current flows
through S, D1, MS, L and R.
Regenerative Braking Operation
For regenerative braking operation, the manual switch is kept open.The motor
armature is reversed by the help of reversal switch which makes the B positive
with respect to A. When the transistor is on the current flows through T, D2 and L.
When the transistor is closed the current flow through D1, Lf and battery, D2 and L
and hence charge the battery.
ASSIGNMENTS

1.The input voltage VDC of the buck-boost converter shown below varies from 32 V
to 72 V. Assume that all components are ideal, inductor current is continuous, and
output voltage is ripple free. The range of duty ratio D of the converter for which
the magnitude of the study-state output voltage remains constant at 48 V is

2. In the circuit shown all elements are ideal and the switch S is operated at 10 kHz
and 60% duty ratio. The capacitor is large enough so that the ripple across it is
negligible and at study state acquires a voltage as shown. The peak current in
amperes drawn from the 50 V DC source is ______. (Give the answer up to one
decimal place.)

3. A buck converter, as shown in Figure (a) below, is working in steady state. The
output voltage and the inductor current can be assumed to be ripple free. Figure
(b) shows the inductor voltage vL during a complete switching interval. Assuming
all devices are ideal, the duty cycle of the buck converter is ________.
4. A buck-boost DC-DC converter, shown in the figure below, is used to convert 24 V
battery voltage to 36 V DC voltage to feed a load of 72 W. It is operated at 20 kHz
with an inductor of 2 mH and output capacitor of 1000 μF. All devices are considered
to be ideal. The peak voltage across the solid-state switch (S), in volt, is
____________.

5. A DC-DC boost converter, as shown in the figure below, is used to boost 360V
to 400 V, at a power of 4 kW. All devices are ideal. Considering continuous
inductor current, the rms current in the solid state switch (S), in ampere, is
_________
6. In the following chopper, the duty ratio of switch S is 0.4. If the inductor and
capacitor are sufficiently large to ensure continuous inductor current and ripple free
capacitor voltage, the charging current (in Ampere) of the 5 V battery, under steady-
state, is ________.

7. A self commutating switch SW, operated at duty cycle δ δ is used to control the
load voltage as shown in the figure. Under steady state operating conditions, the
average voltage across the inductor and the capacitor respectively, are
 PART A - Q & A

UNIT- III DC DC converters

1. What are the two types of control strategies? CO4/K1
a. Time Ratio Control (TRC)
b. Current Limit Control method (CLC)

2. What is meant by TRC? CO4/K1

In TRC, the value of Ton / T is varied in order to change the average output
voltage.

3. What are the two types of TRC? CO4/K1

a. Constant frequency control
b. Variable frequency control

4. What is meant by FM control in a dc chopper? CO4/K1

In frequency modulation control, the chopping frequency f (or the chopping
period T) is varied. Here two controls are possible.
a. On-time Ton is kept constant
b. Off period Toff is kept constant.

5. What is meant by PWM control in dc chopper? CO4/K1

In this control method, the on time Ton is varied but chopping frequency is kept
constant. The width of the pulse is varied and hence this type of control is known as
PulseWidth Modulation (PWM).
6. Write down the expression for the average output voltage for step down and step up
chopper. CO4/K1
Average output voltage for step down chopper is VO = KVS. Average output
voltage for step up chopper is VO = VS x [1/ ( K-1 )].

7. What are the different types of chopper with respect to commutation process?
a. Voltage commutated chopper.
b. Current commutated chopper.
8. What is meant by voltage commutation? CO4/K1
In this process, a charged capacitor momentarily reverse biases the conducting
thyristor and turn it off.

9. What is meant by current commutation? CO4/K1

In this process, a current pulse is made to flow in the reverse direction through the
conducting thyristor and when the net thyristor current becomes zero, it is turned off.

10. What is meant by load commutation? CO4/K1

In this process, the load current flowing through the thyristor either becomes zero or
is transferred to another device from the conducting thyristor.

11. What are the advantages of current commutated chopper? CO4/K1

a. The capacitor always remains charged with the correct polarity.
b. Commutation is reliable as load current is less than the peak commutation current
ICP.
c. The auxiliary thyristor TA is naturally commutated as its current passes through
zero value.

12. What are the advantages of load commutated chopper? CO4/K1

a. Commutating inductor is not required.
b. It is capable of commutating any amount of load current.
c. It can work at high frequencies in the order of kHz.
d. Filtering requirements are minimal.
 PART-B
QUESTIONS
S PART-B QUESTIONS K CO
NO level level
1. i)Explain the various control strategies of chopper (8) K3 CO4
ii) A dc chopper has an input voltage of 200V and a load of 15ohm
resistance. When the chopper is on, its voltage drop is 1.5V and the
chopping frequency is 10KHz. If the duty cycle is 80%.Calculate i)
average and rms output voltage ii) chopper on time. (5)

2. Describe the operation of different classification of choppers and K2 CO4

explain each in detail.(13)

3. (i)Explain the steady state analysis of step down chopper.(9) K2 CO4

(ii)Explain in detail about Battery operated vehicle(4)

4. Draw the circuit diagram of buck boost regulator and explain its K2 CO4

working principle with necessary waveforms. Derive the expression

for average load voltage, average load current .ripple inductor
current and peak to peak ripple voltage of the capacitor that is
present across the load. (13)

5. Draw the circuit diagram of boost regulator and explain its working K2 CO4

principle with necessary waveforms. Derive the expression for

average load voltage, average load current .ripple inductor current
and peak to peak ripple voltage of the capacitor that is present
across the load. (13)

6. The buck boost regulator has an input voltage of 6V. The average K3 CO4

output voltage is 15V. The average load current is 0.5A. The

switching frequency is 20KHz. If L=250µH and C=440µF, determine
a) duty cycle b) ripple current of inductor ΔI c) critical values of L&C
d) ripple voltage of filter capacitor ΔVc (15)
 S PART-B QUESTIONS CO K
NO level level
7. The buck boost regulator has an input voltage of 6V. The average K3 CO4

output voltage is 15V. The average load current is 0.5A. The

switching frequency is 20KHz. If L=250µH and C=440µF, determine
a) duty cycle b) ripple current of inductor ΔI c) critical values of L&C
d) ripple voltage of filter capacitor ΔVc (15)

8. For a Type A step down chopper of dc voltage source of 230V, load K3 CO4

resistance =10 ohms. Take a voltage drop of 2 V across chopper

when it is on. For a duty cycle of 0.4, calculate (i) average and rms
values of output voltage and (ii) chopper efficiency (15)

10. The buck boost regulator has an input voltage of 6V. The average K3 CO4

output voltage is 15V. The average load current is 0.5A. The

switching frequency is 20KHz. If L=250µH and C=440µF, determine
a) duty cycle b) ripple current of inductor ΔI c) critical values of L&C
d) ripple voltage of filter capacitor ΔVc (15)
 ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
SWAYAM
Power Electronics
By Prof. G.Bhuvaneshwari | IIT Delhi
SUMMARY
Course Status :Upcoming
Course Type :Core
Duration : 12 weeks
Start Date : 14 Sep 2020
End Date : 04 Dec 2020
Exam Date : 20 Dec 2020
Enrollment Ends :21 Sep 2020
Category :
Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Power Systems and Power Electronics
COURSE ERA
Enrolled from JULY 2020
•Introduction to power electronics
•Converter control
•Power electronics specialization
REAL TIME APPLICATION IN DAY TO DAY LIFE
AND INDUSTRY
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

S CONTENT DATE OF DELIVERY QUESTION OUT COME

No DELIVERY RELATED TO THE
DELIVERY
1. Power electronics 10.8.2020 to 1.Design of filter L Improving computer
circuit simulation 14.8.2020 and C. skills of applying
and its analysis 2.Steady state circuits in real time
analysis of data.
converters Platform used
Mat lab simulation
software
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE
BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. M.H. Rashid, ‘Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and
Applications’, Pearson Education, Third Edition, New Delhi, 2004.
2. P.S.Bimbra “Power Electronics” Khanna Publishers, third Edition,
2003.
3. Ashfaq Ahmed ‘Power Electronics for Technology’, Pearson
Education, Indian reprint, 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Joseph Vithayathil,’ Power Electronics, Principles and Applications’,
McGraw Hill Series, 6th Reprint, 2013.
2. Philip T. Krein, “Elements of Power Electronics” Oxford University
Press, 2004 Edition.
3. L. Umanand, “Power Electronics Essentials and Applications”,
Wiley, 2010.
4. Ned Mohan Tore. M. Undel and, William. P. Robbins, ‘Power
Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design’, John Wiley and
sons, third edition, 2003.
5. S.Rama Reddy, ‘Fundamentals of Power Electronics’, Narosa
Publications, 2014.
6. M.D. Singh and K.B. Khanchandani, “Power Electronics,” Mc Graw
Hill India, 2013.
7. JP Agarwal,” Power Electronic Systems: Theory and Design” 1e,
Pearson Education, 2002.
MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

https://electronicsproject.org/dc-to-dc-converter/
https://projectabstracts.com/14553/soft-switching-dc-dc-
converters.html
 Thank you

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 INTRODUCTION

❖ The inverter is a power electronic converter that converts direct power to

alternating power.
❖ By using this inverter device, we can convert fixed dc into variable ac power which
as a variable frequency and voltage.
❖ Secondly from this inverter, we can vary the frequency i.e we will be able to
generate the 40HZ, 50HZ, 60HZ frequencies as of our requirement.
❖ If the dc input is a voltage source then the inverter is known as VSI (Voltage
Source Inverter).
❖ The bridge inverters are of two types they are half-bridge inverter and full-
bridge inverter.
❖ The full bridge inverters need four switching devices whereas half-bridge inverter
needs two switching devices.

4.1 SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE INVERTER WITH R,RL and RLC
LOAD
The circuit diagram of a single-phase half-bridge inverter with resistive load is shown
in the below figure.4.1

❖ Fig 4.1 Circuit diagram

❖ Vs/2 is the voltage source, S1 and S2 are the two switches, i0 is the current. Where
each switch is connected to diodes D1 and D2 parallelly.

❖ In the above figure 4, the switches S1 and S2 are the self-commutating switches.
• The switch S1 will conduct when the voltage is positive and current is negative,
switch S2 will conduct when the voltage is negative, and the current is negative.
The diode D1 will conduct when the voltage is positive and current is negative,
diode D2 will conduct when the voltage is negative, and the current is positive.

• Case 1 (when switch S1 is ON and S2 is OFF):

• When switch S1 is ON from a time period of 0 to T/2, the diode D1 and D2 are in
reverse bias condition and S2 switch is OFF.

• Where output voltage V0= Vs/2

• Where output current i0 = V0/R= Vs/2R

• In case of supply current or switch current, the current iS1 = i0 = Vs/2R, iS2 = 0
and the diode current iD1 = iD2 = 0.

• Case 2 (when switch S2 is ON and S1 is OFF):

• When switch S2 is ON from a time period of T/2 to T, the diode D1 and D2 are in
reverse bias condition and S1 switch is OFF.

• Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)

Vs/2+V0=0

• Where output voltage V0= -Vs/2

• Where output current i0 = V0/R= -Vs/2R

• In case of supply current or switch current, the current iS1 = 0, iS2 = i0 = -Vs/2R
and the diode current iD1 = iD2 = 0.

• The single-phase half-bridge inverter output voltage waveform is shown in the

below figure 4.1.
Fig 4.1 output waveform for various loads- R,RL,RLC
Resistive Load
vo and io is Square Wave,
Each Switching device conducts for 180˚ or T/2.

Pure inductive load

RL Load

RLC Load
 THREE PHASE INVERTER

• A three-phase inverter converts a DC input into a three-phase AC output.

• Its three arms are normally delayed by an angle of 120° so as to generate a
three-phase AC supply.
• The inverter switches each has a ratio of 50% and switching occurs after every
T/6 of the time T and for 60°angle interval.
• The switches S1 and S4, the switches S2 and S5 and switches S3 and S6
complement each other.
• The figure below shows a circuit for a three phase inverter. It is nothing but three
single phase inverters put across the same DC source.
• The pole voltages in a three phase inverter are equal to the pole voltages in single
phase half bridge inverter.

• Three-phase inverters are normally used for high power applications.

• The advantages of a three-phase inverter are:

• The frequency of the output voltage waveform depends on the switching rate of
the switches and hence can be varied over a wide range.

• The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by changing the output
phase sequence of the inverter.

Types of control signals can be applied to the switches:

1. 180° conduction

2. 120° conduction
 180 DEGREE CONDUCTION MODE

• In this mode of conduction, every device is in conduction state for 180° where
they are switched ON at 60° intervals. The terminals A, B and C are the output
terminals of the bridge that are connected to the three-phase delta or star
connection of the load.

• The operation of a balanced star connected load is explained in the diagram

below. For the period 0° − 60° the points S1, S5 and S6 are in conduction mode.

• The terminals A and C of the load are connected to the source at its positive
point. The terminal B is connected to the source at its negative point.

• In addition, resistances R/2 is between the neutral and the positive end while
resistance R is between the neutral and the negative terminal.

• Output voltage can be controlled by varying the dc-link voltage.

In the three-phase inverter, each SCR conducts for 180° of a cycle. Thyristor pair
in each arm, i.e. Tl , T4 ; T3, T6 and T5 , T2 are turned on with a time interval of
180°.

T1 conducts for 180°and T4 for the next 180° of a cycle.

Thyristors in the upper group, i.e. T1, T3, T5 conduct at an interval of 120°. It
implies that if T1 is fired at wt = 0°, then T3 must be fired at wt =120° and T5 at
wt =240°.

Similarly for lower group of SCRs. On the basis of this firing scheme, a table is
prepared as shown at the top of Fig. 4.3.

In this table, first row shows that T1 from upper group conducts for 180°, T4 for
the next 180° and then again T1 for 180 ° and so on.

In the second row, T3 from the upper group is shown to start conducting 120°
after T1 starts conducting. After T3 conduction for 180 ° , T6 conducts for the
next 180 ° and again T3 for the next 180 ° and so on.

In the third row, T5 from the upper group starts conducting 120° after T3 or
240° after T1. After T5 conduction for 180° , T2 conducts for the next 180° , T5
for the next 180° and so on.

The table shows that T5, T6, T1 should be gated for step I ; T6, T1, T2 for step II
; T1, T2, T3 for step III; T2, T3, T4 for step IV and so on. Thus the sequence of
firing the thyristors is T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 ; T1, T2 .... It is seen from the table
that in every step of 60° duration, only three SCRs are conducting-one from
upper group and two from the lower group or two from the upper group and one
from the lower group.

The circuit models for step I-IV are shown in Fig. 4.2. During step I, thyristors 5,
6, 1 are conducting. These are shown as closed switches and non-conducting
SCRs 2, 3, 4 as open switches in Fig. 4.2 (a). The load terminals a and c are
connected to the positive bus of dc source whereas terminal b is connected to the
negative bus of dc source, Fig. 4.2(a).

The load voltage is vab =vcb= Vs in magnitude

 4.3 THREE PHASE INVERTER- 180 DEGREE CONDUCTION
MODE

Fig.4.2.Three phase bridge inverter

EXPLANATION:

• In the three phase inverter of each switch conduct 180° of cycle, thyristor pair in each
arm i.e. S1, S4; S3, S6 and S5, S2 are turned on with a time interval of 180°. It
means that S1 conduct for 180° and S4 for the next 180° of a cycle.

• Switch in the upper group i.e. S1, S3, S5 conduct at an interval of 120°. It implies that
if S1 is fired at ωt=0°, then S3 must be fired at ωt=120° and S5 at ωt=240°. Same is
proved lower group of switches. On the basis of this firing scheme, a table in prepared
as shown below.

Table : Switching of 180 Degree Conduction mode

• In this table, first row show that S1 from upper group conducts for 180°, S4 for
the next 180° and then again S1 for 180° and so on.

• In the second row, S3 from the upper group is shown to start conducting 120°
after S1 starts conducting. After S3 conduction for 180°, S6 conducts for the next
180° and again S3 for the next 180° and so on.

• In the third row, S5 from the upper group start conducting 180° after S3 or 240°
after S1. After S5 conduction for 180°, S2 conducts for the 180°, S5 for the next
180° and so on. In this manner, the pattern of firing the six switch is identified.

• S5, S6, S1 should be gated for step I; S6, S1, S2 for step II ; S1, S2, S3 for step
III ;S2, S3, S4 for step IV and so on. Thus the sequence of firing the thyristor is
S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6; S1, S2….

• For every step of 60° duration, only three switches are conducting, one from
upper group and two from the lower group or two from the upper group and one
from the lower group.

OPERATION

• There are six modes of operation

• MODE I(0-60°) Switches closed- 5,6,1

• Fig 4.2 (a) Equivalent circuit : for (0-60°) Switches closed- 5,6,1
The magnitude of line to neutral voltage can be obtained as under :

MODE II (60°-120°) Switches closed- 6,1,2

Fig 4.2 (b) Equivalent circuit : (60°-120°) Switches closed- 6,1,2

 STEP III (120°-180°) Switches closed- 1,2,3

Fig 4.2 (c) Equivalent circuit : (120°-180°) Switches closed- 1,2,3

MODE IV (180°-240°) Switches closed- 2,3,4

(d) Equivalent circuit : (180°-240°) Switches closed- 2,3,4

• Fig.4.2.(a),(b),(c ),(d) Equivalent circuit for a three phase six step 180° mode
inverter with a balanced star connected load.

• The line voltage vab = Vao + Vob or Vab = Vao - Vbo is obtained by reversing
Vbo and adding it to Vao .

• Similarly, line voltages vbc =vbo - vco and Vca =Vco - vao are plotted .

• The phase voltages have six steps per cycle and line voltages have one positive
pulse and one negative pulse (each of 120° duration) per cycle.

• The phase as well as line voltages are out of phase by 120°.

• The function of diodes Dl to D6 is to allow the flow of currents through them

when the load is reactive in nature.
The three line output voltages can be described by the Fourier series as follows:

Fourier series expansion of line to neutral voltage

4.4 THREE-PHASE 120 DEGREE MODE VSI

Fig.4.4.Three phase bridge inverter

• The power circuit diagram of this inverter is the same as that 180 ° mode.

• For the 120-degree mode VSI, each thyristor conducts for 120° of a cycle.

• Like 180° mode, 120° mode inverter also requires six steps, each of 60° duration,
for completing one cycle of the output ac voltage.

• For this inverter a table giving the sequence of firing the six thyristors is prepared
as shown in the top of Fig. 4.3.

• In this table, first row shows that Tl conducts for the 120-degree mode VSI, each
thyristor conducts for 120° of a cycle. Like 180° mode, 120° mode inverter also
requires six steps, each of 60° duration, for completing one cycle of the output ac
voltage.

• Tl conducts for 120° and for the next 60°, neither T1 nor T4 conducts. Now T4 is
turned on at wt =180 ° and it further conducts for 120°, i.e. from wt =180° to wt
=300°. This means that for 60° interval from wt =120° to wt = 180°, series
connected SCRs T1, T4 do not conduct. At wt = 300°, T4 is turned off, then 60°
interval elapses before T1 is turned on again at wt =360°.
• In the second row, T3 is turned on at wt =120° as in 180° mode inverter. Now T3
conducts for 120°, then 60° interval elapses during which neither T3 nor T6
conducts. At wt =300°, T6 is turned on, it conducts for 120° and then 60° interval
elapses after which T3 is turned on again.

• The third row- is also completed similarly. This table shows that T6, Tl should be
gated for step I;T1, T2 for step II ; T2, T3 for step III and so on.

• The sequence of firing the six thyristors is the same as for the 180° mode
inverter.

• During each step, only two thyristors conduct for this inverter - one from the
upper group and one from the lower group ; but in 180° mode inverter, three
thyristors conduct in each step.

• Load is assumed to be resistive and star connected.

• During step I, thyristors 6, 1 are conducting and as such load terminal a is

connected to the positive bus of dc source whereas terminal b is connected to
negative bus of dc source, Fig. 8.23 (a). Load terminal c is not connected to dc
bus.

• It is seen from Fig. 4.3 that phase voltages have one positive pulse and one
negative pulse (each of 120 ° duration) for one cycle of output alternating
voltage. The line voltages, however, if,. have six steps per cycle of output
alternating voltage.
MODES OF 120 DEGREE CONDUCTION

STEP I(0-60°) Switches closed- 6,1

Fig 4.4 (a) Equivalent circuit (0-60°) Switches closed- 6,1

STEP II (60°-120°) Switches closed- 1,2

Fig 4.4 (b) Equivalent circuit (60°-120°) Switches closed- 1,2

STEP III (120°-180°) Switches closed- 2,3

Fig 4.4(c)Equivalent circuit (120°-180°) Switches closed- 2,3

STEP IV (180°-240°) Switches closed- 3,4

Fig 4.4 d. Equivalent circuit (180°-240°) Switches closed- 3,4

Fig.4.4.(a),(b),(c ),(d) Equivalent circuit for a three phase six step 120°
mode inverter with a balanced star connected load.
The Fourier analysis of phase voltage waveform

The Fourier analysis of line voltage waveform vab

Similar expressions for Vbc and Vca can also be written.

Fig.4.4. e. Voltage waveforms of 120 ° mode three phase VSI
4.5 VOLTAGE CONTROL OF INVERTERS

The various methods for the control of output voltage of inverters can be classified
as:

(a) External control of ac output voltage

(b) External control of dc input voltage

(c) Internal control of the inverter.

4.5.1 External Control of ac Output Voltage

In this type of control as shown in Figure 4.5.a, an ac voltage controller is used to

control the output of inverter . Through the firing angle control of ac voltage controller
the voltage input to the ac load is regulated.

Fig 4.5.a. External Control of Output Voltage

4.5.2 External Control of dc Input Voltage

When the available voltage souecr is ac then the dc voltage input to the inverter can
be controlled through fully controlled rectifier, uncontrolled rectifier and chopper, ac
voltage controller and uncontrolled rectifier as shown in Figure 4.5.b
 Fig 4.5.b . External Control of Input Voltage

• 4.5.3 Internal Control of Inverter

• The first method require the use of peripheral components whereas the
second method requires no external components.

• Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control

within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing is by pulse-
width modulation control used within an inverter. This method is called the
internal voltage control of the inverter.
 Pulse width modulation is the most commonly used technique to control the output
voltage of inverter. In pulse Width Modulation method, a fixed dc input voltage is
given to the inverters and a controlled ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting
the on and off periods of the inverter components

PWM is a technique that is used to reduce the overall harmonic distortion THD in a
load current. It uses a pulse wave in square form that results in a variable average
waveform value, after its pulse width has been modulated.

4.5.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PWM CONTROL TECHNIQUE

They are as follows:
1. Single pulse width modulation (Single PWM)

2. Multiple pulse width modulation (MPWM)

3. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)

4. Modified Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (MSPWM)

5. Phase displacement control

4.5.4.1. Single Pulse Width Modulation(Single PWM)
In single pulse width modulation control technique only one pulse will be there for
every half cycle. The width of the single pulse can be adjusted in order to control
the output voltage of the inverter. By comparing rectangular reference signal of
amplitude (Ar) and a triangular carrier wave (Ac), the gating signals can be
generated as shown in Figure below. This generated gating signal is used to control
the output of single phase full bridge inverter. The fundamental frequency of the
output voltage is determined by the frequency of the reference signal. For this

𝐴𝐶
technique the amplitude modulation index (M) can be defined as 𝑀= ,
𝐴𝑟
whereas the instantaneous output voltage of the inverter can be given as VO =Vs
(S1 -S4)

FIG.4.5.C SINGLE PWM

 Derivations:

1. Instantaneous value of output voltage:

𝑉0 = 𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑛=1

2. RMS value of output voltage

The rms ac output voltage is

𝑇𝑂𝑁
where 𝛿 = 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑇

By varying the control signal amplitude Vc from 0 to Vcar the pulse width ton can
be modified from 0 secs to T/2 secs and the rms output voltage Vo from 0 to Vs.

Advantages:

• Single pulse width modulated inverters are relatively cheap.

• It can work with ordinary light bulbs, fans.

Disadvantages:

• The main drawback in this type of voltage control scheme is the introduction of
harmonics in the output voltage. Because of the above disadvantages of single pulse
width modulation, Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Technique is adopted. The
harmonics content in the output voltage is reduced.
4.5.4.2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

The main drawback of single PWM technique is high harmonic content. In order to
reduce the harmonic content, the multiple PWM technique is used, in which
several pulses are given in each half cycle of output voltage. The generation of
gating signal is achieved by comparing the reference signal of the amplitude (Ar)
with a triangular carrier wave (Ac) as shown Figure below.

Fig.4.5.d Multiple pulse width modulation

The output frequency (fo) is determined by the frequency of the reference signal.
The output voltage can be controlled by modulation index.

The number of pulses (p) per half cycle is calculated by the carrier frequency (fc).
Number of pulses per half cycle is found by
 𝑓𝐶 𝑚𝑓
𝑝= =
2𝑓0 2

𝑓𝐶
Where 𝑚𝑓 = called as frequency modulation ratio. The
𝑓0

instantaneous output voltage of the inverter can be given as Vo=Vs(s1-S4)

Derivations:

1. Instantaneous value of output voltage

∞
• 𝑉0 = 𝑎0 + ෌𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡

• 𝑉0 = σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 due to symmetry

2 𝜋
• 𝑏𝑛 = ‫׬‬0 𝑣𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋

𝑑
2 𝛾+ 2
=2 න 𝑉 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝛾−𝑑 𝑆
2

8𝑉𝑆 𝑛𝑑
= sin 𝑛𝛾 sin
𝑛𝜋 2

∞
8𝑉𝑆 𝑛𝑑
𝑉0 = ෎ sin 𝑛𝛾 sin sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑛𝜋 2
𝑛=1

2𝑑
2. RMS value of output voltage=𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 𝜋
4.5.4.3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
Figure below explains the generation of a sinusoidal PWM signal, which finds more
applications in industries. The gating signal can be generated by comparing a
sinusoidal reference signal with a triangular carrier wave and the width of each
pulse varied proportionally to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center
of the same pulse. The output frequency (fo) of the inverter can be found by using
the frequency of the reference signal (fr). The rms output voltage (vo) can be
controlled by modulation index M and in turn modulation index is controlled by
peak amplitude (Ar). The voltage can be calculated by VO =Vs (S1- S4) . The
number of pulses per half cycle depends on the carrier frequency. The gating signal
can be produced by using the unidirectional triangular carrier wave.

Fig.4.5.e. Multiple pulse width modulation

The frequency of control signal or the modulating signal sets the inverter output
frequency (fo) and the peak magnitude of control signal controls the modulation
index ma which in turn controls the rms output voltage. The area of each pulse
corresponds approximately to the area under the sine wave between the adjacent
midpoints of off periods on the gating signals. If ton is the width of nth pulse, the
rms output voltage can be determined by:
where,
𝑣ො𝐶 = peak magnitude of control signal (modulating sine wave)
𝑣ො𝐶𝑎𝑟 =peak magnitude of carrier signal (triangular signal)

The frequency modulation ratio is defined as:

where,
𝑓መ𝐶 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙)
𝑓መ𝐶𝑎𝑟 = frequency of carrier signal (triangular signal)
4.5.4.4.MODIFIED Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
When considering sinusoidal PWM waveform, the pulse width does not change
significantly with the variation of modulation index. The reason is due to the
characteristics of the sine wave. Hence this sinusoidal PWM technique is modified so
that the carrier signal is applied during the first and last 600 intervals per half cycle as
shown in Figure 5.4. The fundamental component is increased and its harmonic
characteristics are improved. The main advantages of this technique is increased
fundamental component, improved harmonic characteristics, reduced number of
switching power devices and decreased switching losses.

Fig.4.5.f Modified Sinusoidal PWM

4.5.4.5.Advantages of PWM

1. The output voltage control with method can be obtained without any additional

components.

2. With this method, lower order harmonic can be eliminated or minimized along

with it’s output voltage control. It reduces the filtering requirements

4.5.4.6 Applications

• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS),

• Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD) for ac motors,
• Electronic frequency changer circuits used in induction heating, welding etc.,
• HVDC transmission at lower power levels
• Renewable Energy such as solar, fuel cell to AC conversion
• Electronic Ballast and Compact Fluorescent lamps
• Active Filters for power quality improvement
• Custom power devices: DSTACTCOM, DVR, UPQC,
• FACTS: STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC, etc.
4.6 SPACE VECTOR MODULATION SVPWM

❖ SVM is another direct digital PWM technique

❖ It has become a basic power processing technique in three-phase converters.

❖ SVM based converter can have a higher output voltage output

❖ The output voltage is about 15% more in case of SVPWM as compared to SPWM.

❖ The current and torque harmonics produced are much less in case of SVPWM.

❖ The maximum peak fundamental magnitude of the SVPWM technique is about

90.6% of the inverter capacity

❖ SVPWM is accomplished by rotating a reference vector around the state diagram,

which is composed of six basic nonzero vectors forming a hexagon. The reference
is sampled at fixed interval and is formed using the voltage vectors of the
particular sector in which reference lies along with zero vectors.

Fig.4.6 Basic diagram of two level three phase inverter

From fig 4.6 .It has six switches (S1-S6) and each of these is represented with an
IGBT switching device. A, B and C represents the output for the phase shifted
sinusoidal signals. Depending on the switching combination the inverter will
produce different outputs, creating the two-level signal (+Vdc and -Vdc).

The switches 1,3 and 5 are the upper switches and if these are 1 (separately or
together) it turns the upper inverter leg ON and the terminal voltage (Va, Vb, Vc)
is positive (+Vdc). If the upper switches are zero, then the terminal voltage iszero.

The lower switches are complementary to the upper switches, so the only possible
combinations are the switching states: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 110, 110, and
111.

This means that there are 8 possible switching states, for which two of them are
zero switching states and six of them are active switching states. These are
represented by active (V1-V6) and zero (V0) vectors . The zero vectors are placed
in the axis origin.

Next step is to calculate the dwell times or time for which we have to provide
voltage vectors, so as to generate the Vref at that particular point of time. Vref can
be found with two active and one zero vector. For sector 1 (0 to pi/3), Vref can be
generated with V0, V1 and V2 as shown in fig.3. Vref in terms of the duration time
can be considered as:

Vref *Ts= V1*T1+V2*T2+ V0*T0 ,Where Ts is the sampling time (3.3

*104sec) and T1, T2 andT0 are the time periods for which V1, V2 and V0 are
applied for particular sample.

𝑇1 = (𝑇𝑠 ∗ 3 ∗ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ sin𝑝𝑖3− 𝜃 )/𝑉𝑑𝑐: 𝑇2 = (𝑇𝑠 ∗ 3 ∗ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ sin 𝜃 )/𝑉𝑑

Fig.4.6.a space vector diagram of two level three phase inverter
 4.7 SINGLE-PHASE CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER

Fig.4.7.a Single phase current source inverter (CSI) of ASCI type.

The circuit of a Single-phase Current Source Inverter (CSI) is shown in Fig. 4.7.a. The
type of operation is termed as Auto-Sequential Commutated Inverter (ASCI). A constant
current source is assumed here, which may be realized by using an inductance of
suitable value, which must be high, in series with the current limited dc voltage source.
The thyristor pairs, Th1 & Th3, and Th2 & Th4, are alternatively turned ON to obtain a
nearly square wave current waveform. Two commutating capacitors − C1 in the upper
half, and C2 in the lower half, are used. Four diodes, D1–D4 are connected in series
with each thyristor to prevent the commutating capacitors from discharging into the
load. The output frequency of the inverter is controlled in the usual way, i.e., by varying
the half time period, (T/2), at which the thyristors in pair are triggered by pulses being
fed to the respective gates by the control circuit, to turn them ON, as can be observed
from the waveforms (Fig.4.7.b ). The inductance (L) is taken as the load in this case,
the reason(s) for which need not be stated, being well known. The operation is
explained by two modes.
Fig.4.7.b wave forms of Single phase current source inverter (CSI) of ASCI
type.
Mode I: The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 39.3. The following are the
assumptions. Starting from the instant ,t= 0 , the thyristor pair, Th 2 & Th4, is
conducting (ON), and the current (I) flows through the path, Th2, D2, load (L), D4,
Th4, and source, I. The commutating capacitors are initially charged equally with
the polarity as given, i.e., . This mans that both capacitors have right hand plate
positive and left hand plate negative. If two capacitors are not charged initially, they
have to pre-charged.

Fig.4.7.c and d. mode I and mode II

At time, t = 0, thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3, is triggered by pulses at the gates. The
conducting thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4, is turned OFF by application of reverse
capacitor voltages. Now, thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3, conducts current (I). The current
path is through Th1, C1, D2, L, D4,C2, Th3, and source, I. Both capacitors will now
begin charging linearly from –Vco by the constant current, I. The diodes, D2& D4,
remain reverse biased initially. As the capacitor gets charged, the voltage vD1 across
D1, increases linearly. At some time, say t1, the reverse bias across D1 becomes
zero (0), the diode, D1.starts conducting. This means that the voltages across C1 &
C2, varies linearly from –Vco to zero in time, t1. Mode I ends, whent=t1, and vc= 0 .
Note that t1 is the circuit turn-off time for the thyristors.

Mode II: The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 39.4a. Diodes, D2 & D4, are
already conducting, but at t = t1 , diodes, D1 & D3, get forward biased, and start
conducting. Thus, at the end of time t1, all four diodes, D1–D4 conduct. As a result,
the commutating capacitors now get connected in parallel with the load (L).

At the end of the process, constant current flows in the path, Th1, D1, load (L), D3,
Th3, and source, I. This continues till the next commutation process is initiated by
the triggering of the thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4.
4.8 BATTERY OPERATED VEHICLES
In Figure 1 a configuration of an EV. In this figure it can be seen that the traction
motor requires AC input. The main source of electrical power is the battery which
is a DC source. The DC output of the battery is bucked or boosted according to
the requirement and then converted into AC using a DC-AC inverter. The function
of an inverter is to change a dc input voltage to a symmetric ac output voltage of
desired magnitude and frequency. The output voltage waveforms of ideal inverters
should be sinusoidal.

However, the waveforms of practical inverters are non-sinusoidal and contain

certain harmonics.

Just as there are a variety of technologies available in conventional vehicles, plug-

in electric vehicles (also known as electric cars or EVs) have different capabilities
that can accommodate different drivers’ needs. A major feature of EVs is that
drivers can plug them in to charge from an off-board electric power source. This
distinguishes them from hybrid electric vehicles, which supplement an internal
combustion engine with battery power but cannot be plugged in.

There are two basic types of EVs: all-electric vehicles (AEVs) and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEVs). AEVs include Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Fuel
Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). In addition to charging from the electrical grid, both
types are charged in part by regenerative braking, which generates electricity from
some of the energy normally lost when braking. Which type of vehicle will fit your
lifestyle depends on your needs and driving habits. Find out which BEVs and
PHEVs are available to suit your needs.

All-electric vehicles (AEVs) run only on electricity. Most have all-electric ranges of
80 to 100 miles, while a few luxury models have ranges up to 250 miles. When
the battery is depleted, it can take from 30 minutes (with fast charging) up to
nearly a full day (with Level 1 charging) to recharge it, depending on the type of
charger and battery.
4.8.1 Types of EVs

EVs (also known as plug-in electric vehicles) derive all or part of their power from
electricity supplied by the electric grid. They include AEVs and PHEVs.

AEVs (all-electric vehicles) are powered by one or more electric motors. They
receive electricity by plugging into the grid and store it in batteries. They
consume no petroleum-based fuel and produce no tailpipe emissions. AEVs
include Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs).

PHEVs (plug-in hybrid electric vehicles) use batteries to power an electric motor,
plug into the electric grid to charge, and use a petroleum-based or alternative fuel
to power the internal combustion engine. Some types of PHEVs are also called
extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs).

FIG 4.8 Configuration of electric vehicle

4.9 Induction Heating
What is Induction Heating?
The working principle of the induction heating process is a combined recipe of
Electromagnetic induction and Joule heating. Induction heating process is the non-
contact process of heating an electrically conductive metal by generating eddy currents
within the metal, using electromagnetic induction principle. As the generated eddy
current flows against the resistivity of the metal, by the principle of Joule heating, heat
is generated in the metal.

FIG 4.9 Configuration of electric vehicle

How Induction Heating Works?

Knowing the Faraday’s law is very useful for understanding the working of induction
heating. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, changing the electric
field in the conductor gives rise to an alternating magnetic field around it, whose
strength depends on the magnitude of the applied electric field. This principle also
works vice-versa when the magnetic field is changed in the conductor.
So, the above principle is used in the inductive heating process. Here a solid state RF
frequency power supply is applied to an inductor coil and the material to be heated is
placed inside the coil. When Alternating current is passed through the coil, an
alternating magnetic field is generated around it as per Faraday’s law. When the
material placed inside the inductor comes in the range of this alternating magnetic field,
eddy current is generated within the material.
Induction Heating Circuit Diagram

The setup used for the induction heating process consists of an RF power supply to
provide the alternating current to the circuit. A copper coil is used as inductor and
current is applied to it. The material to be heated is placed inside the copper coil.

By altering the strength of the applied current, we can control the heating
temperature. As the eddy current produced inside the material flows opposite to the
electrical resistivity of the material, precise and localized heating is observed in this
process.

Besides eddy current, heat is also generated due to hysteresis in magnetic parts. The
electrical resistance offered by a magnetic material, towards the changing magnetic
field within the inductor, cause internal friction. This internal friction creates heat.

As the induction heating process is a non-contact heating process, the material to be

heated can be present away from the power supply or submerged in a liquid or in
any gaseous environments or in a vacuum. This type of heating process doesn’t
require any combustion gases.

FIG 4.9 a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4.10 UPS – UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY
A UPS is an uninterruptible power supply. It is a device which maintains a continuous
supply of electrical power, even in the event of failure of the mains (utility) supply. A
UPS is installed between the mains supply and the equipment to be protected.

UPS are used to safeguard various types of equipment. One of the common uses is
computers, particularly in data centres and the critical equipment of large
organizations.

A UPS works by converting the mains alternating current (a.c.) supply to a direct
current (d.c.) voltage. The part of the UPS which does this is called the rectifier.
Output from the rectifier is then used to charge batteries, which can supply power
during a mains failure. The d.c. voltage from the rectifier (or batteries during mains
failure) is the converted back to a.c. by the UPS inverter and supplies power to the
equipment.

FIG 4.10. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

In addition to protecting equipment in the event of mains failure, because the first
convert the a.c. to d.c, a UPS has the added benefit of being able to solve other
problems related to power supply quality. These include voltage dips, harmonics,
frequency variations, etc.

UPS units and systems come in various sizes, from 1 or 2 kVA all they way to the
MVA range. On of the problems and limiting factors with how large a UPS can be is
the amount of batteries required. These can become substantial, costing a lot and
taking up significant amounts of space. For smaller UPS the batteries are normally
internal to the device, while for larger systems the batteries are mounted externally
on racks or in cabinets.

Another element to batteries is the discharge time. Any battery backed UPS will
only be rated for a certain period (5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, etc.). For
this reason, most UPS applications are centred around providing sufficient power for
a limited time to enable any necessary actions - safely shut down the equipment,
change over to generator power, etc.

UPS Configurations

The arrangement of rectifier, inverter, battery and other components can be carried
out in different ways. Each arrangement has advantages and disadvantages.
Normally the more robust the configuration, the more expensive the UPS.

UPS are classified in two basic ways - standby and on-line.

In a standby UPS, power is normally supplied directly from the mains and the
inverter only switched in if the mains fails. This can have the advantages of
cheaper cost and higher efficiencies. On-line UPS always supply the load via the
inverter. These are more expensive, but because the inverter is always used they
can resolve many power quality issues.
ASSIGNMENT ON INVERTERS

Modelling of grid-interconnected photovoltaic power system

Modelling of single phase inverter system

 PART A - Q & A

UNIT- IV INVERTERS
1. What is meant by inverter?
A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and
frequency is called an inverter.

2. What are the applications of an inverter?

a. Adjustable speed drives
b. Induction heating
c. Stand-by aircraft power supplies
d. UPS
e. HVDC transmission

3. What are the main classification of inverter?

a. Voltage Source Inverter
b. Current Source Inverter

4. Why thyristors are not preferred for inverters?

Thyristors require extra commutation circuits for turn off which results in increased
complexity of the circuit. For these reasons thyristors are not preferred for inverters.

4. How output frequency is varied in case of a thyristor?

The output frequency is varied by varying the turn off time of the thyristors in the
inverter circuit, i.e. the delay angle of the thyristors is varied.

5. Give two advantages of CSI.

a. CSI does not require any feedback diodes.
b. Commutation circuit is simple as it involves only thyristors.
6. What are the applications of a CSI?
a. Induction heating
b. Lagging VAR compensation
c. Speed control of ac motors
d. Synchronous motor starting.

7. What is meant by PWM control?

In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled
ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter
components. This is the most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this
method is termed as PWM control
.
8. What are the advantages of PWM control?
a. The output voltage can be obtained without any additional components.
b. Lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its
output voltage control. As the higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the
filtering requirements are minimized.

9. What are the disadvantages of the harmonics present in the inverter system?
a. Harmonic currents will lead to excessive heating in the induction
motors. This will reduce the load carrying capacity of the motor.
b. If the control and the regulating circuits are not properly shielded,
harmonics from power ride can affect their operation and malfunctioning can
result.
c. Harmonic currents cause losses in the ac system and can even some time
produce resonance in the system. Under resonant conditions, the instrumentation
and metering can be affected.
d. On critical loads, torque pulsation produced by the harmonic current
can be useful.
10.What are the methods of reduction of harmonic content?
a. Transformer connections
b. Sinusoidal PWM
c. Multiple commutation in each cycle
d. Stepped wave inverters

11. Compare CSI and VSI.

VSI
1. Input voltage is maintained Constant
2. The output voltage does not depend the load
3. It requires feedback diodes
4. Commutation circuit is complicated
CSI
1.Input current is constant
2. The output current the does not on load
3. It does not requires feedback diodes
4. Commutation circuit is simple
 PART-B
QUESTIONS
S PART-B QUESTIONS K CO
NO level level
1. Explain the operation of single phase full bridge Inverter with K2 CO3

neat circuit diagram and waveform for R, RL loads. Also

derive the expression for RMS output voltage.

2. Explain the operation of single phase half bridge Inverter with K2 CO3

neat circuit diagram and waveform for R, RL ,RLC loads. Also

derive the expression for RMS output voltage.

3. Explain the operation of 180° conduction mode of three K2 CO4

phase bridge voltage source inverter with neat circuit and
waveform.

4. Explain the operation of 120° conduction mode of three K2 CO4

phase bridge voltage source inverter with neat circuit and

waveform.

5. Explain various PWM techniques in detail. K2 CO3

6. What are the various voltage control techniques of single K2 CO3

phase inverters? Explain in detail.

 S PART-B QUESTIONS CO K
NO level level
7. (i)Explain the various harmonics elimination methods in K2 CO5

detail.(9)
(ii)Explain in detail about UPS(6)

8. Explain the principle of operation of 1 phase auto K3 CO2

sequentially commutated CSI with power circuit. Draw the

equivalent circuits and relevant wave forms (15)

9. (i)The single phase full bridge inverter has resistive load of K3 CO2`

R=3.4 ohm and dc input voltage is 54V. Determine rms

output voltage at the fundamental frequency, output power
and the total harmonic distortion. (8)
(ii)Explain in detail about UPS (7)

10. (i)The single phase half bridge inverter has resistive load of K3 CO2

R=20 ohm and dc input voltage is 220v. Determine rms

output voltage, average value, rms current and output
power.(8)
(ii)Explain in detail about UPS (7)
 ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
SWAYAM
Power Electronics
By Prof. G.Bhuvaneshwari | IIT Delhi
SUMMARY
Course Status :Upcoming
Course Type :Core
Duration :12 weeks
Start Date : 14 Sep 2020
End Date : 04 Dec 2020
Exam Date : 20 Dec 2020
Enrollment Ends :21 Sep 2020
Category :
Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Power Systems and Power Electronics

COURSE ERA
Enrollment from JULY 2020
•Introduction to power electronics
•Converter control
•Power electronics specialization
 REAL TIME APPLICATION IN DAY TO DAY LIFE
AND INDUSTRY
Applications of Inverters
AC power that is supplied in our houses and that’s the reason why bigger appliances
are designed to work on AC voltages.
Another reason is the fact that DC cannot supply sufficient volts as many as large
appliances require. So AC power is very crucial. Due to this reason now-a-days,
inverters find diverse uses and applications in daily life, due to their function of
converting DC to AC.
Use of Inverters
As we know that an inverter takes current from a battery, which is usually 12 Volt Dc,
as batteries usually produce DC power, and then after passing this current through a
50Hz processor, it converts it into the normal 220 volt Ac which is commonly used here.
In case we want to power a small appliance like a mobile charger, an LED or some
small radio, then that 12 volt Dc power would be sufficient enough. But if the question
is of a bigger appliance, like a fridge, TV, Laptop or something like that, then we surely
have to make use of AC power since most of our bigger appliances are designed to run
on AC.
Use in Solar Panels
Other than these, bigger inverters are also available which can run on 24 volt DC as
well and deal with higher currents. Other than batteries, we know that solar power is
becoming the new trend now a days, since it is cheaper, economical and hence more
affordable.
So it is needless to mention here that inverters find their diverse uses in solar panels as
well, as the solar panels produce DC, which then needs to be converted to AC by the
help of inverters.
Use in fuel cells and UPS
Another very common use of inverter is in fuel cells, as they also produce DC power
which later needs to be converted to AC for use in electronic equipment.
Similarly, we have seen that UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) are a very common
trend now a days due to load shedding and a need of an uninterruptible power to
sensitive equipment for domestic or commercial uses.
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

S CONTENT DATE OF DELIVERY QUESTION OUT COME

No DELIVERY RELATED TO THE
DELIVERY
1. Power electronics 7.9.2020 to 1.Design of H Improving computer
circuit simulation 14.9.2020 bridge inverter. skills of applying
and its analysis 2.Steady state circuits in real time
analysis of verters data.
Platform used
Mat lab simulation
software
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE
BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:

1. M.H. Rashid, ‘Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications’, Pearson

Education, Third Edition, New Delhi, 2004.

2. P.S.Bimbra “Power Electronics” Khanna Publishers, third Edition, 2003.

3. Ashfaq Ahmed ‘Power Electronics for Technology’, Pearson Education, Indian

reprint, 2003.

REFERENCES

1. Joseph Vithayathil,’ Power Electronics, Principles and Applications’, McGraw Hill

Series, 6th Reprint, 2013.

2. Philip T. Krein, “Elements of Power Electronics” Oxford University Press, 2004

Edition.

3. L. Umanand, “Power Electronics Essentials and Applications”, Wiley, 2010.

4. Ned Mohan Tore. M. Undel and, William. P. Robbins, ‘Power Electronics:

Converters, Applications and Design’, John Wiley and sons, third edition, 2003.

5. S.Rama Reddy, ‘Fundamentals of Power Electronics’, Narosa Publications, 2014.

6. M.D. Singh and K.B. Khanchandani, “Power Electronics,” Mc Graw Hill India,
2013.

7. JP Agarwal,” Power Electronic Systems: Theory and Design” 1e, Pearson

Education, 2002.

8. Mehrdad Ehsani, Texas A&M University, Yimin Gao, Texas A&M University,
Sebastien E. Gay, Texas A&M University and Ali Emadi, Illinois Institute of,

Technology ‘Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles’

Fundamentals, Theory, and Design’ , CRC Press, 2004
MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

https://electronicsproject.org/dc-to-ac-converter/
https://projectabstracts.com/14553/inverters.html
 Thank you

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5. AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

AC voltage controllers are thyristor based devices which convert fixed alternating
voltage directly to variable alternating voltage without a change in the frequency.
Some of the main applications of ac voltage controllers are for domestic and industrial
heating, transformer tap changing, lighting control, speed control of single phase and
three phase ac drives and starting of induction motors.

Figure.5.1.Block diagram of AC voltage controller

5.1 TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac
supply applied to the circuit.
Single Phase AC Controllers.
Three Phase AC Controllers.
Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of 230V
RMS at 50Hz in our country.
Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of 400V RMS at 50Hz
supply frequency.

5.2 APPLICATIONS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

Lighting / Illumination control in ac power circuits.
Induction heating.
Industrial heating & Domestic heating.
Transformers tap changing (on load transformer tap changing).
Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac induction motor
control).
AC magnet controls.
 5.3 SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

• It consists of one thyristor in antiparalIel with one diode.

• Then SCR is forward biased during positive half cycle, it is turned on at firing angle
α.

• Load voltage at once jumps to Vm sinωt, likewise load current becomes Vm sinα.

• Thyristor get turned off at ωt = ∏ for R load. After ωt = ∏, negative half cycle
forward biases diode Dl, therefore Dl conducts from ωt = ∏ to 2∏.

• Only positive half cycle onduction can be controlled, by varying firing angle.
negative half cycle cannot be controlled. So single-phase half wave voltage
controller is also called single phase unidirectional voltage controller. From the
Figure it is understood that positive half cycle is not identical with negative half-
cycle for both voltage and current waveforms. As a result, dc component is
introduced in the supply and load circuits which is undesirable.
5.3.1 RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF SINGLE PHASE
UNIDIRECTIONAL VOLTAGE CONTROLLER:

5.3.2 AVERAGE VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

5.3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE AC VOLTAGE

CONTROLLER.
• The output load voltage has a DC component because the two halves of the output
voltage waveform are not symmetrical with respect to ‘0’ level. The input supply
current waveform also has a DC component (average value) which can result in the
problem of core saturation of the input supply transformer.
• The half wave ac voltage controller using a single thyristor and a single diode
provides control on the thyristor only in one half cycle of the input supply. Hence ac
power flow to the load can be controlled only in one half cycle.
• Half wave ac voltage controller gives limited range of RMS output voltage control.
Because the RMS value of ac output voltage can be varied from a maximum of
100% of VS at a trigger angle α = 0 to a low of 70.7% of VS at α = π Radians.
These drawbacks of single phase half wave ac voltage controller can be over come
by using a single phase full wave ac voltage controller.
5.4 SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

It consists of two SCRs connected in antiparallel.

During positive halfcycle T1 is triggered at firing angle , it conducts from wt = α
to ∏ for R load.
During negative half cycle,T2 is triggered at wt = ∏ + α, it conducts from rot = ∏
+ α to 2 ∏.

Fig.5.3.Single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller (a) Power-circuit diagram and

(b)Output voltage and current waveforms.
It has been stated above that ac voltage controllers are phase-controlled
converters, the phase relationship between the start of load current and the
supply voltage is controlled by varying the firing angle. These are called phase-
controlled ac voltage controllers or ac voltage controllers.
Single phase full-wave ac voltage controller is also called single phase bidirectional
voltage-controller.
rms value of output voltage Vor and rms value of output current Ior
1
1 π 2
Vor =   Vm2 sin 2 ωtd(ωt) 
π α 
π
Vm2
2π α
Vor2 = (1 − cos2ωt)d(ωt)

π
Vm2  sin2t 
Vor2 = (t) + 2 
2π  α
1
V 1  sin2α   2
Vor = m  (π − α) +
2 π  2  

Vor
I or =
R

Average value of output voltage for single phase full wave AC voltage controller is
zero.
5.5 AC VOLTAGE CONTROL TECHNIQUES

There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the
flow ac power
1. Phase control
2. On-Off control
5.5.1. PHASE CONTROL TECHNIQUE
In phase control, the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to
the input ac supply, for a part of every input cycle. That is the ac supply voltage is
chopped using thyristors during a part of each input cycle. The thyristor switch is
turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that input supply voltage appears across
the load and then turned off during the remaining part of input half cycle to
disconnect the ac supply from the load. By controlling the phase angle or the
trigger angle ‘α’ (delay angle), the output RMS voltage across the load can be
controlled.
5.5.2. INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL
Integral cycle control consists of switching on the supply to load for an integral
number of cycles and then switching off the supply for a further number of
integral cycles.

• Fig.5.4.Integral cycle control

The principle of integral cycle control can be explained by referring to the above
Figure for a single phase voltage controller with resistive load. Gate pulses ig1
turn on the thyristors Tl, T2 respectively at zero-voltage crossing of the supply
voltage. The source energises the load for n (= 3) cycles. When gate pulses are
withdrawn, load remains off for m (= 2) cycles. In this manner, process of turn
on and turn off is repeated for the control of load power. By varying the number
of n and m cycles, power delivered to load can be regulated as desired.
For n = 3 and m = 2. Power is delivered to load for n cycles. No power is
delivered to load for m cycles. It is the average power in the load that is
controlled.
Integral cycle control is also known as on-off control, burst firing, zero-voltage
switching, cycle selection or cycle syncopation.
5.6 INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL

For integral cycle control the rms value of the output voltage Vor
and rms value of the output current Ior is
1
 n
2π
 2
V =  m ωt.d(ωt)
2 2
V sin 
 2π(n + m) 0
or

1
 nV 2 2π
 2
V =
or
 4 π (n + m
m
) 
0
( 1 − cos 2ωt).d(ωt) 

1
 nV 
2
sin 2ωt 
2π
 2
V = m
(t ) −  
or  4π(n + m)  2 0 

1
 nV 
2
 sin 2(2π )   2
V = m
or  4π(n + m) 
(2 π − 0 ) −  − sin 0  
 2  
1
 nV 2
 2
V = 2π 
m
or  4π(n + m) 

Vm n
V =
or 2 (n + m )
n
V = Vs
or (n + m )
V = Vs k
or
n
k=
(n + m )
V
I or = or
R
5.7 SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH
R LOAD

Single phase voltage controller feeding power to a resistive load R. A single phase
full wave ac voltage controller with a resistive load is shown in the figure below. It
is possible to control the ac power flow to the load in both the half cycles by
adjusting the trigger angle ' α ' . Hence the full wave ac voltage controller is also
referred to as to a bidirectional controller. Two thyristors are connected in
antiparallel.

Fig.5.4.(a)Single phase AC voltage controller with R load,(b)Voltage and current

waveforms
5.7.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• Thyristors Tl and T2 are forward biased during positive and negative half cycles
respectively. During positive half cycle, Tl is triggered at a firing angle α.
• Tl starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load from α to ∏.
• At ∏, both Vo, io fall to zero, after ∏, Tl is subjected to reverse bias, it is therefore
turned off.
• During negative half cycle, T2 is triggered at (∏+ α). T2 conducts from ∏+ α to
2∏.
• After 2∏, T2 is subjected to a reverse bias, it is therefore commutated.
• Load and source currents have the same waveform.
• From zero to α, Tl is forward biased, VT1 =Vs as shown in fig.5.4(b). From α, Tl
conducts, VT1 is therefore about 1 V. After, Tl is reverse biased by source voltage,
therefore VT1 =Vs from ∏ to ∏+ α.
• From ∏+ α to 2 ∏, T2 conducts; Tl is therefore reverse biased by voltage drop
across T2 which is about 1 to 1.5 V. The voltage variation VT1 across SCR Tl and
the variation of voltage VT2 across T2 is shown in fig.5.4(b).
• voltage drop across thyristors Tl and T2 is purposely shown in fig.5.4(b) just to
highlight the duration of reverse bias across Tl and T2. Examination of the
fig.5.4(b) reveals that for any value of α, each thyristor is reverse biased for ∏ / w
sec. There is thus no restriction on the value of firing angle α. Firing angle can,
therefore, be controlled from zero to ∏ and rms output voltage from V to zero.
Here Vs is the rms value of source voltage.
• Circuit turn off time, tc = ∏ / w sec
• The fig.5.4(b) reveals that positive half-cycle is identical with negative half cycle
for both voltage and current waveforms.
• The power circuit of Single phase full wave voltage controller therefore,
introduces no direct component in the supply and load circuit. This circuit is thus
more suited to practical circuits than single-phase half-wave circuit.

• The Rms value of output voltage Vor, Rms value of output current Ior,the average
power delivered to the load ‘P’, maximum power delivered to the load when α =0
’Pmax’,Power factor (pf)
 5.7.2 DERIVATION OF OUPUT RMS VOLTAGE,CURRENT
POWER AND SUPPLY PF

1
1 π 2 2 2
Vor =   V sin ωt.dωt 
 π α m 
1
V 1  
Vor = m  (π − α ) + sin2α   2
1
2 π  2 
Vor
Ior =
R
V2 V 2
 
P = I 2 R = or = m (π − α ) + sin2α 
1
or R 2ππ  2 
V2  
P = s (π − α ) + sin2α 
1
πR  2 
V2
P = s
max R
Realpower V I cosφ I cosφ
pf = = S 1 1 = 1 1
Apparentpower VI I
s rms rms
5.8 SINGLE-PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH
RL LOAD

In practice most of the loads are of RL type. For example if we consider a single
phase full wave ac voltage controller controlling the speed of a single phase ac
induction motor, the load which is the induction motor winding is an RL type of
load, where R represents the motor winding resistance and L represents the
motor winding inductance.
A single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit (bidirectional controller) with
an RL load using two thyristors T1 and T2 (T1 and T2 are two SCRs) connected in
parallel is shown in the figure 5.5(a).

Fig.5.5.(a) Single phase full wave AC voltage controller with RL load,(b)Voltage

and current waveforms
5.8.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply.T1
is triggered at ωt =α , by applying a gate trigger pulse to T1 during the positive
half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load follows the input
supply voltage when T1 is ON. The load current Io flows through the thyristor T1
and through the load. This load current pulse flowing through T1 can be
considered as the positive current pulse.
Due to the inductance in the load, the load current Io flowing through T1 would
not fall to zero at ωt = π , when the input supply voltage starts to become
negative. The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the
inductive energy stored in the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load
current through T1 falls to zero at ωt = β , where β is referred to as the Extinction
angle, (the value of ωt ) at which the load current falls to zero.
The extinction angle β is measured from the point of the beginning of the positive
half cycle of input supply to the point where the load current falls to zero. The
thyristor T1 conducts from ωt =α to β . The conduction angle of T1 is (δ= β−α),
which depends on the delay angle α and the load impedance angle φ .
The waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulses of T1 and T2 ,
the thyristor current, the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as
shown in the figure 5.5(b).
After the commutation of Tl at β, a voltage of magnitude Vm sin β appears as a
reverse bias across TI and as a forward bias across T2.
From β to ∏+ α, no current exists in the power circuit, theretore, Vo = 0,
VT1 = -Vs and VT2 =Vs.
Thyristor T2 is turned on at (∏+ α) > β. Current Io =IT2 starts building up in the
reversed direction through the load. At 2 ∏ , Vs and Vo are zero but IT2 = Io is
not zero. At ∏+α+γ , iT2 = 0 and T2 is turned off because it is already reverse
biased.
At (∏+α+γ ), V m sin (∏+α+γ) appears as a forward bias across TI and as a
reverse bias across T2.
From (∏+α+γ) to (2∏+α), no current exists in the power circuit, Vo = 0, VT1 =Vs,
and VT2 =-Vs.
At (2∏+α), TI is turned on and current starts building up as before. When Tl
conducts, voltage drop across it appears as a reverse bias across T2. Similarly,
when T2 conducts, VT2 appears as a reverse bias across Tl.
circuit turn-off time tc for each SCR, for any firing angle α, is tc = ∏ /ωo sec.
5.9 THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

To control the current and voltage of three phase loads, Three Phase AC Voltage
Controller are required. The single phase controller described previously can be
introduced singly in each phase or line, to form a three phase controller. There
exist a variety of connections for Three Phase AC Voltage Controller.

Fig.5.6.Three phase four wire controller

A three phase four wire controller is shown in Fig 5.6. The load neutral and
supply neutral are connected together. Each of the three controllers can be
independently controlled to feed the load impedance. Each phase has the same
relations as a single phase controller. The neutral and line currents contain triplet
harmonics along with other odd harmonics.

Fig.5.7.Delta connected voltage controller

A similar connection, which can function as three groups of single phase
controllers, is shown in Fig.5.7. In this connection, three single phase converters
supplying their loads are connected in delta. Each controller supplies its own load.
Unlike the previous four wire star-connection, the triplen harmonics are absent
here. The other odd harmonics are present.
Fig.5.8.Three phase, three wire star-connected controller,
Three phase, three wire star-connected controller is normally used when the
source neutral cannot be loaded or is absent. The load neutral is isolated.

Fig.5.9.Asymmetrical controlled three phase ac voltage controllers

A Three Phase AC Voltage Controller has symmetrical control if both the back to
back connected thyristors have the same firing angle. It has asymmetrical
control if the firing angles differ or if one of the thyristors is replaced by a diode,
or if the controllers are placed in only two of the three lines.
We now discuss the features of a symmetrically controlled three phase, three
wire, star-connected controller for both ohmic and inductive loads.

5.9.1 THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

FEEDING THREE PHASE, THREE WIRE
STAR-CONNECTED R LOAD
The schematic of a three phase, three wire voltage controller feeding a three
phase, star-connected balanced resistance is shown in Fig. 5.10. Phase control of
the thyristors is employed. The phase and line voltages of the three phase
system are shown in Fig. 5.10. For a controller, the control pulse is of a long
duration, equal to the conduction period of the thyristor. This is to make sure that
the firing pulse is available at the gate whenever the thyristor is forward biased,
so that the thyristor can go into conduction. It also ensures the firing of the
thyristor whenever a forward current is expected. If, because of some circuit
condition, the current goes to zero the thyristor turns off. A lengthy pulse can
bring it into conduction. Further, slow building up of current in the load circuit
when the thyristor is fired (to give maximum load voltage) may cause the
thyristor to go to an off state if it is not fully turned on.
 Fig.5.10.Three phase ac voltage controller feeding a resistive load

For current to flow it is necessary to trigger at least two thyristors at a time.

If we define the instantaneous input phase voltages as:

van= Vm sin ωt

vbn= Vm sin (ωt - 2π / 3)

vcn= Vm sin (ωt - 4π / 3)

The instantaneous input line voltages are

vab = 3 van = 3 vm sin (ωt + π/6)

vbc = 3 vbn = 3 vm sin (ωt - π/2)

vca = 3 vcn = 3 vm sin (ωt - 7π/6)

The waveforms the input voltages, conduction angles of thyristors and output phase
voltages are shown in Fig.5.11 for α = 30˚
 For complete control of the thyristors using the triggering pattern shown each
thyristor must be triggered by two separated by 60 degree in time.
Hence we have generally three distinct ranges of firing angle:
1- Range (1) 0˚ ≤ α < 60˚
2- Range(2) 60˚ ≤ α < 90˚
3- Range (3) 90˚ ≤ α ≤ 150˚
The R.M.S output voltage for a Y– connection loads are found to be:

5.10 POWER FACTOR CONTROL

Power factor control, also known as correction of power factor, is the process of
reducing the amount of reactive power. The power electronic device used in this case
is called a power factor controller (PFC). From the power triangle (which comprises
reactive, true and apparent power), the reactive power is at right angle (90°) to the
true power and is used to energize the magnetic field. Although reactive power does
not have a real value in electronic equipment, the bill for electricity comprises real and
reactive power costs. This makes it necessary to have power factor controllers in
electronic devices.
Power factor (k) is defined as the ratio of the real power (in kW) to the reactive power
(in kVAr). Its value ranges from 0 to 1. If a device has a power factor of 0.8 and
above, it is said to be using power efficiently. Incorporating a PFC ensures the power
factor ranges from 0.95 to 0.99.
Power factor controllers are mainly in industrial equipment to minimize reactive power
generated by fluorescent lighting and electric motors. To ensure power factor is
improved without causing harmonic distortion, the conventional capacitors should not
be used. Instead, filters (combination of capacitors and reactors) for harmonic
suppression are used. The figure below shows a harmonic filter.
 Fig.5.12. Harmonic filter.
The above type of harmonic filter is referred to as a single tuned filter. A quality
factor Q of this filter is defined as quality factor of its reactance (XL) at Q (tuning
frequency) where Q is given by (nXL/R).
5.11 Multistage sequence control

When two or more sequence control stages are connected, it is possible to have
an improvement in power factor and further reduction in THD (total harmonic
distortion). An n-stage sequence control converter has n windings in the
transformer secondary part with each rated es/n (the source voltage).
5.11.1 Two stage sequence control of AC voltage regulators
Sequence control of ac voltage regulators are used for reduction of harmonics and
the improvement of system power factor in the input current & the output voltage.
Sequence control of ac regulators means the use of two or more stages of voltage
controllers in parallel for the regulation of output voltage. The sequence control of
ac voltage controllers can be used as voltage controllers in supply systems & for
the speed control of induction motors. These types of controllers are known as
synchronous tap changers or transformer tap changers.

Fig.5.13.a,b,c Two stage sequence controlled ac voltage controller with R load and
RL load
 Thyristors are used as static switches for on load changing of transformer
connections. Static connections changers have the advantage of very fast switching
action the change over can be controlled to cope with the load condition & is
smooth. The turns ratio of the input transformer are such that if the primary
instantaneous voltage is 𝑣𝑝 = 2𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 and Secondary
instantaneous voltages are, 𝑣𝑠 = 2𝑉1 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑉2 sin 𝜔𝑡.

When thyristors T3 & T4 are alternately fired with delay angle of α=0, the load
voltage is Vo=V1. If full output voltage is required, thyristors T1 & T2 are
alternately fired with delay angle of α=0 and full vltage I Vo=V1+V2. The gating
pulse of thyristors can be controlled to vary the load voltage. The RMS value of
load voltage Vo can be varied within three possible ranges 0 < Vo < V1, 0 < Vo <
(V1+V2), V1 < Vo < (V1+V2)

Case1: 0 < Vo < V1

To vary the RMS voltage within this range, T1 & T2 are turned off. T3 & T4 can be
operated as a single phase ac voltage regulator. The RMS load voltage is given by,
Vo=V1[1/π(π-α+(sin2α/2))]1/2 and the firing angle range is 0<α< Vo < (V1+V2)
T3 & T4 are turned off. T1 & T2 operate as a single phase ac voltage regulator, the
load voltage is Vo=(V1+V2)[1/π(π-α+(sin2α/2))]1/2 .

Case2: V1 < Vo < (V1+V2)

• T3 is turned on at ωt=0 and the secondary voltage V1 appears across the load. If
T1 is turned on at ωt=α, T3 is reverse biased due to secondary voltage V2 & T3 is
turned off. The voltage across the load is (V1+V2). At ωt=π, T1 is self commutated
& T4 is turned on. The secondary voltage V1 appears across the load until T1 is
fired ωt=π+α, t4 is turned off due to reverse voltage V2 and the load voltage is
(V1+V2). At ωt=2π, T2 is self commutated, T3 is turned on again the cycle is
repeated. This type of controller is also called as synchronous tap changer.
• The number of stages used in 2 stage control can be increased for harmonic and power
factor improvement.

Figure 5.

Fig.5.14.a,b,c Multi stage sequence controlled ac voltage controller

The transformer has n secondary windings. Each secondary is rated for Vs/n, where Vs is
the source voltage. The voltage of node p with respect to K is Vs.the load voltage at
terminal Q is (n-1)V3/n and so on. If voltage control from Vsk=(n- 3)Vs/n to Vrk=(n-
2)Vs/n is required, then SCR pair $ is triggerer at α=0 and firing angle of SCR pair3 is
controlled from α= 0 to 180 and all other SCRs are kept off. Similarly for controlling the
voltage from Vqk=(n-1)Vs/n to Vpk=Vs, SCR pair 2 is triggered at α=0, whereas for SCR
pair 1, firing angle is varied from 0 to 180 keeping the remaining (n-2) SCR pairs off. Thus
the load voltage can be varied from Vs/n to Vs by an appropriate control of triggering the
adjacent SCR pairs. The presence of harmonics in the output voltage depends upon the
voltage variation. If this voltage variation is a small fraction of the total output voltage, the
harmonic content in the output voltage is also small.
5.12 CYCLO CONVERTERS

Cyclo converters are frequency changers that convert AC power of specific frequency
and voltage to different frequency and voltage of AC power without any intermediate
DC link. (usually lower frequency).

A cyclo converter is a naturally commutated converter in which the output frequency

and voltage can be controlled independently and continuously using a control circuit.
Therefore, unlike other converters, it is a single stage frequency converter.

Fig.5.15 Block diagram of cyclo converter

Mainly there are two types according to the output frequency which are

(1) Step-up cyclo converters (2) Step-down cyclo converters

Step Up cyclo converter − These types use natural commutation and give an output
at higher frequency than that of the input.

Step Down cyclo converter − This type uses forced commutation and results in an
output with a frequency lower than that of the input.

•Cyclo converters are further classified into three categories −

1. Single phase to single-phase − This type of cyclo converter has two full wave
converters connected back to back. If one converter is operating the other one is
disabled, no current passes through it.

2. Three-phase to single-phase − This cyclo converter operates in four quadrants

that is (+V, +I) and (−V, −I) being the rectification modes and (+V, −I) and (−V,
+I) being the inversion modes.

3. Three-phase to three-phase − This type of cyclo converter is majorly used in AC

machine systems that are operating on three phase induction and synchronous
machines.
 In case of step-down cyclo-converter, the output frequency is limited to a fraction of
input frequency, typically it is below 20Hz in case 50Hz supply frequency. In this
case, no separate commutation circuits are needed as SCRs are line commutated
devices.

Figure 5.16 Voltage waveforms of step down cyclo converter

Step-down cyclo-converter circuits can be further classified into following types.

1. Single-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters
2. Three-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters
3. Three-phase to three-phase cyclo-converters

5.12.1 Single phase to Single phase Cyclo converter

It consists of back to back connected controlled rectifiers whose output voltage and
frequency can be controlled by tuning firing angles of rectifiers. With respect to the
connection of rectifiers, its structure can comprise of half-wave or full-wave bridge.

It consists of two full-wave, fully controlled bridge thyristors, where each bridge has
4 thyristors, and each bridge is connected in opposite direction (back to back) such
that both positive and negative voltages can be obtained as shown in figure below.
Both these bridges are excited by single phase, 50 Hz AC supply.

Bridge 1- +ve group converter supplies load current in the +ve half of the output
cycle and bridge 2 -ve group converter supplies load current in the negative half of
the output cycle.

The two bridges should not conduct together as this will produce a short circuit at
the output.
 Figure 5.17 single phase bridge type cyclo converter

5.12.1 OPERATION

MODE-1 : To get Positive half cycle of Output Voltage

During positive half cycle of the input voltage, positive converter (bridge-1) is turned ON
and it supplies the load current. During the +ve half cycle, 0 to π ,SCR P1 & P3 are
forward biased and are triggered at ωt=α. Then P1 & P3 are on state & the output is
positive. The current flows from V+-P1-R-P3-V-. at ωt=π, P1 & P2 are turned off. It
rectifies the input voltage and produce unidirectional output voltage as we can observe
four positive half cycles .

During negative half cycle of the input, negative bridge is turned ON and it supplies load
current. During –ve half of the cycle, π to 2π, SCR P3 & P4 are forward biased and is
triggered at ωt=π+α. Then P2 & P4 are in on state. Again the output voltage & current is
positive. Current flow is through V+-P3-R-P4-V-. at ωt=2π , SCR P2 & P4 are turned off
due to natural commutation.

Both converters should not conduct together that cause short circuit at the input.To
avoid this, triggering to thyristors of bridge-2 is inhibited during positive half cycle of load
current, while triggering is applied to the thyristors of bridge-1 at their gates. During
negative half cycle of load current, triggering to positive bridge is inhibited while applying
triggering to negative bridge.

By controlling the switching period of thyristors, time periods of both positive and
negative half cycles are changed and hence the frequency. This frequency of
fundamental output voltage can be easily reduced in steps, i.e., 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 and so on.
MODE-2: To get Negative half cycle of Output Voltage

Now bridge 2 can be operated and the output is negative. During +ve half cycle 2π
to 3π, SCR N1 & N3 are forward biased. It is triggered at ωt=2π+ α. Then it comes
to on state. The current flows through B-N1-R-N3-C. the output voltage & current is
negative. At ωt=3π SCR N1 & N3 are turned off due to natural commutation.

During negative half cycle 3π to 4π, SCR N2 & N4 are forward biased. It is triggered
at ωt=3π+α. Then it comes to on state. The current flows through C-N3-R-N4-B.
now negative voltage & current is got as the output. At ωt=4π, SCR N2 & N4 are
turned off due to natural commutation.

Now bridge 1 can be operated to get the positive output voltage. This cycle is
repeated. The below figure shows the output waveform for fo=fs/3 and fs/4

Figure 5.18 wave forms of cyclo converter

5.12.2 Three-Phase to Single-Phase Cyclo converters

A three-phase to single phase cyclo converter also consists of positive and negative
group thyristors. Positive converters will provide positive current and negative
converters will provide negative current to the load.

.These cyclo-converters can be half-wave or full bridge converters as shown in

figure. Like single phase cyclo-converters, these also produce a rectified voltage at
the load terminals by each group of thyristors.

At any time, one converter will operate. The circuit of half wave and full wave cyclo
converters are shown below.

Figure 5.20 schematic and circuit diagram of 3phase to single phase cyclo converter
During positive half cycle of the input, conduction of the positive group thyristors
is controlled and during negative half-cycle, conduction of negative group of
thyristors is controlled in order to produce an output voltage at desired frequency.

OPERATION

The firing angle (α) of two converters is first decreased starting from the initial
value of 90° to the final value of 0°, and then again increased to the final value of
90° , as shown in Fig. below Also, for positive half cycle of the output voltage
waveforrn, bridge 1 is used, while bridge 2 is used for negative half cycle. The
two half cycles are combined to form one complete cycle of the output voltage,
the frequency being decided by the number of half cycles of input voltage
waveform used for each half cycle of the output. As more no. of segments of near
60°(π/6} is used, the output voltage waveform becomes near sinusoidal, with its
frequency also being reduced.

The initial value of firing angle delay is kept at α1≈ 90° , such the average value
(dc) of the output voltage in this interval of near 60°( π/6) [Vav= cos α1 = cos 90°
= 0, is zero. It may be noted that the next thyristor in sequence is triggered at
α2<90°, as the firing angle is decreased for each segment, to obtain higher
voltage Vavα cos α2 = +ve , to form the sine waveat the output. This can be
observed from the points, M, N, O, P, Q, R & S, shown in Fig.

From these segments, the first quarter cycle of the output voltage waveform from
0° to 90°, is obtained. The second quarter cycle of the above waveform from 90°
to180° , is obtained, using the segments starting from the points, T, U, V, W, X &Y
. lt may be noted that the firing angle delay at the point, Y is α = 90° , and also
the firing angle is increased from 0° (T) to 90° (Y) in this interval. When the firing
angle delay is 0° , the average value of the segment is Vav α cos α= cos 0° = 1.0.
The two quarter cycles form the positive half cycle of the output voltage
waveform. In this region, the bridge l (positive) is used.
 To obtain the negative half cycle of the output voltage waveform (180° - 360°),
the other bridge converter (#2) termed negative (B) is used in the same manner
as given earlier, i.e. its firing angle delay ((1) is first decreased starting from the
initial value of 90° to the final value of 0° , and then again increased to the
finalvalue of 90°.the two half cycles together form the complete cycle of the output
voltage waveform.

In a bridge type of cyclo-converter, both positive and negative converters can

generate voltages at either polarity, but negative converter only supplies negative
current while positive converter supply positive current.

Therefore, the cyclo-converter can operate in four quadrants, i.e., rectification

modes of (+V, +i) and (-V, -i) and inversion modes of (+V, -i) and (-V, +i)

Figure 5.21 Output Voltage form

The above figure shows the conversion of three phase supply at one
frequency to single phase supply of lower frequency. In this, the firing angle to a
positive group of thyristors is varied progressively to produce single phase output
voltage.

At point M, the firing angle is 90 degrees and it is reduced till point S where it is
zero. Again from point T to Y, the delay angle is progressively increased.

This varied triggering signals to the thyristors, varies its conduction time periods
and hence the frequency of the output voltage.
 Figure 5. 22 (a) Voltage (b) Current waveforms of a 3 phase to single
phase cyclo converter

5.12.3 Three Phase to Three Phase Cyclo converters

These are obtained by connecting 3 three-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters to
the load. These converters can be connected in star or delta. Output of these
converters can be connected in wye and delta.

These are used in ac machine drive systems running three phase synchronous and
induction machines

A cyclo converter can supply lagging, leading, or unity power factor loads while its
input is always lagging

Cyclo converters are used in Scherbius drives for speed control purposes driving
wound rotor induction motors.
 The phase of output voltages are 120o shifted from each other. The circuit diagram is shown
below.

Figure 5.22 a, b schematic and circuit diagram of 3phase to 3phase Cyclo converter

This converter consists of six groups of converter circuits where three groups are called as
positive group while other three are negative group.

Mainly there are two types according to the mode of operation which are showing
below.

1. Blocking mode Cycloconverters

2. Circulating current Cycloconverters

I. Blocking Mode Cycloconverter

• Here, the positive converter will provide the necessary voltage when there is positive
load current. At that time, the negative converter will be in the blocked condition.
During the negative load current, the negative converter will provide the necessary
voltage and at that time, the negative converter will be in the blocked condition. This
type of operation is known as blocking mode operation and the converters which use
this method of operation are termed as blocking mode cycloconverters. There is no
need of intergroup reactors because only one converter is working at a time. Cost
and size of these converters are low. These converters are most commonly used.
 Figure 5.23 circuit diagram of 3phase to 3phase Cyclo converter

Types

1)The Half wave converter model: also called as 18-thyristor Cyclo converters or 3-pulse
Cyclo converters.

2) The full wave converter: called as 6-pulse Cyclo converters or 36-thyristor Cyclo
converters.

Figure 5.23 a, b Modes of 3phase to 3phase Cyclo converter

5.13 Equation of Output Voltage of a Cyclo converter

2𝜋
• In 3 phase converter, each phase conducts for radians
3
2𝜋
• In m phase converter each phase conducts for radians
𝑚

Figure 5.24 Cyclo converter with conduction angle

 5.14 Application

1. Grinding Mills

2. Heavy Washing Machines

3. Mine Winders

4. HVDC Power lines

5. Aircraft Power supply

6. SVG (Static VAR Generators)

7. Ship Propulsion system

5.15 MATRIX CONVERTER

Features
Direct AC / AC Conversion.

No DC Link

Less bulky (compact motor drives) – Safer (hostile environments: aircraft,

submarine…)

• Bidirectional power flow. 4 quadrant converter

• No restriction on input and output frequency within limits imposed by switching

frequency

• Sinusoidal input and output currents waveforms • 9 bidirectional switches.

Standard: – Wind/Water Force Machines (blowers, boilers, incinerators), pumps,

and general Industrial Machines.

• Specific Applications: – Compact or Integrated Motor Drives – Motor Drives for

hostile environments (aircrafts, submarines) – AC/AC Power Conversions: wind
energy, variable speed drives...

• Still a topic of research

 Figure 5.26 Matrix converter-circuit diagram

AC / AC direct electrical power conversion

• MXN , inputs & outputs. Figure corresponds to the 3 X 3
• Variable frequency and variable voltage

5.15.1 Fundamental operation

5.15.1 Model
5.16 WELDING

Power sources will require either a single or three phase supply at the voltage of
the country in which it is intended to be used. Most equipment is provided with a
series of voltage tappings and these may need to be adjusted to match
the supply voltage. In the UK and the rest of Europe the supply voltages are
now 230V AC single phase and 400V AC three phase. In other parts of the world,
different supply voltages occur and may vary between regions. In some countries,
220V AC three phase may be encountered. Three phase supplies may be limited
to 30A, but higher power welding equipment may require a 45A or even a 60A
supply.

From 1999, equipment started to appear with an effective current rating on the
rating plate. This value should be used to determine the cable size and fusing
requirements. However, national wiring regulations should always be followed.

Particular attention should be paid to the supply requirements for single phase
equipment. In many parts of Europe the 230V supply is 16A, but in the UK the
standard plug is only 13A. Therefore, the relatively low power output of this type
of equipment is further reduced if a 13A plug is fitted, so a dedicated circuit may
be required. In some parts of the world the single phase mains supply may be
further limited in current, but generally in these countries, three phase supplies
will be readily available. Another problem to be wary of is imbalance in the supply,
if high powered equipment is connected between two phases of a three phase
supply. If more than one power source is installed they should be connected
between different phases.

Apart from the obvious hazards of overloading a supply, e.g. overheating and
blowing fuses, problems with other equipment may be caused. If the supply has a
high impedance (commonly known as soft) as may be the case in overhead
cables, a high current draw may cause the voltage of the supply to fall below
levels which may cause problems with other equipment.
 AC-AC converter for Welding Application

• Welding is an integral and energy intensive part of the construction,

manufacturing, and maintenance industries

• To weld two plates ie work pieces, the melting energy is provided by establishing
an arc between two electrodes, where one of them is the metallic workpiece
being welded.

• There are several technologies for electric arc welding, each with their own
unique power quality requirements

• Welding technologies such as metal inert gas (MIG), Tungsten inert gas (TIG) and
submerged arc welding (SAW) requires constant voltage power supply.

Power Supplies for Electric Arc Welding

➢ power supplies for electric arc welding provide a CC/CV constant current/constant
voltage output that may be either AC or DC

➢ They are particularly well adapted for submerged arc welding.

➢ Constant voltage (CV) DC sources were used for the constant speed wire electrode
feeders

➢ DC power supplies pose arc blow issues. Arc blow is less of a problem when using
an AC power supply (because there is not a DC arc current). A sinusoidal output
does not always perform well in sub arc welding processes because the sinusoidal
wave exhibits a slow zero crossover which may result in arc rectification.

➢ For sub arc welding, an AC power source which receives a three phase input and
provides a single phase AC output, having relatively fast zero crossings, at a
frequency 1.5 times the input frequency. (step up CC)

➢ a welding power supply comprising a step-up cycloconverter having at

least one control input and a controller coupled to the control input.
ASSIGNMENT ON INVERTERS

Design a circuit to illuminate a 230v AC FED bulb and regulate the

illumination using single phase regulator.
Design a circuit to control a 230v AC FED fan and regulate the
speed using single phase regulator.
 PART A - Q & A

UNIT- V AC TO AC CONVERTERS
1. . What is meant by sequence control of ac voltage regulators?
It means that the stages of voltage controllers in parallel triggered in a proper
sequence one after the other so as to obtain a variable output with low harmonic
content.
2. What are the advantages of sequence control of ac voltage regulators?
a. System power factor is improved.
b. Harmonics are reduced in the source current and the load voltage.
3. What is meant by cyclo-converter?
It conv erts input power at one frequency to output power at another frequency
with one-stage conv ersion. Cycloconverter is also known as frequency changer.
4. What are the two types of cyclo-converters?
a. Step-up cyclo-conv erters
b. Step-down cyclo-converters
5. What is meant by step-up cyclo-converters?
In these converters, the output frequency is less than the supply frequency.
6. What is meant by step-down cyclo-converters?
In these converters, the output frequency is more than the supply frequency.
7. What are the applications of cyclo-converter?
a. Induction heating
b. Speed control of high power ac drives
c. Static VAR generation
d. Power supply in aircraft or ship boards
8. What is meant by positive converter group in a cyclo converter?
The part of the cyclo converter circuit that permits the flow of current during
positive half cycle of output current is called positive converter group.
8.What is meant by negative converter group in a cyclo converter?
The part of the cyclo converter circuit that permits the flow of current during negative
half cycle of output current is called negative converter group.
 PART-B
QUESTIONS
S PART-B QUESTIONS K CO
NO level level

1. Describe the operation of single phase full wave AC voltage K2 CO2

controller with the help of voltage and current waveform.

Also derive the expression for average value of output
voltage. (13)

2. Discuss the working of a single phase AC voltage controller K2 CO2

with RL load when its firing angle is more than the load
power factor angle. Illustrate with waveforms. (13)

3. Discuss the working of 2 stage sequence control of AC K2 CO2

voltage controller. (13)

4. Explain the working of multistage sequential control of AC K2 CO2

voltage controller. (13)

5. Describe the working of 3Φ AC voltage controller with R load. K2 CO2

(13)

6. Draw the circuit diagram of 3Φ- 1Φ cyclo - converter and K2 CO3

explain its operation with waveforms (13)

 S PART-B QUESTIONS CO K
NO level level

7. Explain the operation of the 1Φ- 1Φ step down cyclo- K2 CO2

converter with both bridge and midpoint configuration with

necessary waveforms. (13)

8. Explain the operation of the 1Φ- 1Φ step up cyclo converter K2 CO2

with both bridge and midpoint configuration with necessary

waveforms. (13)

9. Write short note on the following K2 CO2

a.1Φ- 1Φ step up cycloconverter (7)
b. Matrix converter (6)

10. (i)Describe with the neat circuit diagram working single K2 CO2

phase cyclo- converter and also derive the average output

voltage in brief. (9)
(ii)Briefly discuss about Welding.(4)

11 A single phase full wave AC voltage controller has an input K3 CO2

voltage of 230V, 50 Hz and it is feeding a resistive load of 10

ohms. If firing angle of thyristors is 110 degree .find output
rms voltage, input power factor and average current of
thyristor.(15)
 ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES
SWAYAM
Power Electronics
By Prof. G.Bhuvaneshwari | IIT Delhi
SUMMARY
Course Status :Upcoming
Course Type :Core
Duration : 12 weeks
Start Date : 14 Sep 2020
End Date : 04 Dec 2020
Exam Date : 20 Dec 2020
Enrollment Ends :21 Sep 2020
Category :
Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Power Systems and Power Electronics
COURSE ERA
Enrolled from JULY 2020
•Introduction to power electronics
•Converter control
•Power electronics specialization
 REAL TIME APPLICATION IN DAY TO DAY LIFE
AND INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

• Lighting / Illumination control in ac power circuits.

• Induction heating.

• Industrial heating & Domestic heating.

• Transformer tap changing (on load transformer tap changing).

• Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac

induction motor control)

. • AC magnet controls.

What are the applications of cyclo converter?

A cycloconverter or a cycloinverter converts an AC waveform, such as the

mains supply, to another AC waveform of a lower frequency, synthesizing the
output waveform from segments of the AC supply without an intermediate
direct-current link. Cycloverters are used in very large variable frequency
drives, with ratings of several megawatts. They are used in the induction
heating, and in high power applications. A cycloconverter is a type of power
controlled in which an alternating voltage at supply frequency is converted
directly to an alternating voltage at load frequency without any intermediate
d.c stage. A cycloconverter is to controlled through the timing of its firing
pulses, so that it produces an alternating output voltage. By controlling the
frequency and depth of phase modulation of the firing angles of the
converters, it is possible to control the frequency and amplitude of the
output voltage.

The Power Quality Impact of Cycloconverter Control Strategies

Review of Isolated Matrix Inverters: Topologies, Modulation Methods and

Applications
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

S CONTENT DATE OF DELIVERY QUESTION OUT COME

No DELIVERY RELATED TO THE
DELIVERY
1. Power electronics 28.10.2020 to Topologies of Research ideas for
circuit simulation 29.10.2020 matrix converter projects
and its analysis
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE
BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. M.H. Rashid, ‘Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications’,
Pearson Education, ThirdEdition, New Delhi, 2004.
2. P.S.Bimbra “Power Electronics” Khanna Publishers, third Edition,
2003.
3. Ashfaq Ahmed ‘Power Electronics for Technology’, Pearson
Education, Indian reprint, 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Joseph Vithayathil,’ Power Electronics, Principles and Applications’,
McGraw Hill Series, 6th Reprint, 2013.
2. Philip T. Krein, “Elements of Power Electronics” Oxford University
Press, 2004 Edition.
3. L. Umanand, “Power Electronics Essentials and Applications”, Wiley,
2010.
4. Ned Mohan Tore. M. Undel and, William. P. Robbins, ‘Power
Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design’, John Wiley and sons,
third edition, 2003.
5. S.Rama Reddy, ‘Fundamentals of Power Electronics’, Narosa
Publications, 2014.
6. M.D. Singh and K.B. Khanchandani, “Power Electronics,” Mc Graw
Hill India, 2013.
7. JP Agarwal,” Power Electronic Systems: Theory and Design” 1e,
Pearson Education, 2002.
MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

❖High Power Car Voltage Regulator

❖12V Voltage Regulated Charger
❖12V to 6V Converter with 7805 or LM309
❖LM317 Adjustable Voltage Regulators Operation
 Thank you

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