Chapter 1 1.

Glacial soils– formed by transportation and

SOIL FORMATION deposition of glaciers
The Rock Cycle and Origin Of Soil 2. Alluvial soils– transported by running water and
deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils– formed by deposition in quiet
lakes
4. Marine soils– formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils– transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils– formed by movement of soil
from its original place by gravity, such as during
landslides
Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called
residual soils.
IGNEOUS ROCK SEDIMENTARYROCK
Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed
molten magma ejected from deep within the earth’s by the deposition of gravel, sand, silt, and clay that
mantle. (andesite, basalt, tuff) may become compacted by overburden pressure and
WEATHERING cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite,
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks dolomite, and quartz.
by mechanical and chemical processes into smaller
pieces.
 Mechanical weathering may be caused by
the expansion and contraction of rocks from
the continuous gain and loss of heat, which
results in ultimate disintegration. Frequently,
water seeps into the pores and existing
cracks in rocks. As the temperature drops,
the water freezes and expands. The pressure
exerted by ice because of volume expansion
is strong enough to break down even large
rocks. Other physical agents that help METAMORPHIC ROCK
disintegrate rocks are glacier ice, wind, the Metamorphic rock is a result of a transformation of
running water of streams and rivers, and a pre-existing rock.
ocean waves. The original rock is subjected to very high heat and
 In chemical weathering, the original rock pressure which cause obvious physical and/or
minerals are transformed into new minerals chemical change.
by chemical reaction. Water and carbon  Gneiss is a metamorphic rock derived from
dioxide from the atmosphere form carbonic high-grade regional metamorphism of
acid, which reacts with the existing rock igneous rocks, such as granite, gab-bro, and
minerals to form new minerals and soluble diorite.
salts. An example of the chemical  Low-grade metamorphism of shale’s and
weathering of orthoclase to form clay mudstones results in slate. The clay
minerals, silica, and soluble potassium minerals in the shale become chlorite and
carbonate follows. mica by heat; hence, slate is composed
primarily of mica flakes and chlorite.
 Phyllite is a metamorphic rock, which is
derived from slate with further
TRANSPORTATION OF WEATHERING metamorphism being subjected to heat
PRODUCTS greater than 250 to 300°C.
The products of weathering may stay in the same  Schist is a type of metamorphic rock
place or may be moved to other places by ice, derived from several igneous, sedimentary,
water, wind, and gravity. Classification of soil and low-grade metamorphic rocks with a
based on their mode of transportation and well-foliated texture and visible flakes of
deposition: platy and micaceous minerals.
CATEGORIES OF SOIL
 COARSE-GRAINEDSOILS
Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard. Sand and
gravel are grouped together as coarse grained soils.
The coarseness of soils is determined by knowing
the distribution of particle sizes thru sieve analysis.
 FINE-GRAINEDSOILS
Fine-grained soils feel smooth. Clays and silts are
grouped into fine-grained soils. To characterize
fine-grained soils, we need further information on
the types of minerals present and their contents. The
response of fine grained soils to loads, known as
mechanical behavior, depends on the predominant
minerals present.
 Chapter 2
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
 CHAPTER 3
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis is suitable for coarse-grained soil. It

consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of
sieves that have progressively smaller openings. To
conduct a sieve analysis, the soil is first oven-dried
and then all lumps must be broken into small
particles. The soil is then shaken through a stack of
sieves with opening of decreasing size from top to
bottom. A pan is placed below the stack.

Particle Size Distribution Curve

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

The Hydrometer analysis is the most

common laboratory method used to determine the
grain size distribution of fine-grained soils.

Hydrometer analysis is based on the

principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. It
is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres and
that the velocity of soil particles can be expressed
by Stokes’ law.

The hydrometer test involves mixing a

small amount soil into a suspension and observing
how the suspension settles with time. Larger
particles will settle quickly, followed by smaller
particles. When the hydrometer is lowered into the
suspension, it will sink into the suspension until the
buoyancy force is sufficient to balance the weight of
the hydrometer.
 CHAPTER 4

PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX

PROPERTIES OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL
FALL CONE TEST

BS1377

The fall cone apparatus consists of a cone

with an apex angle of 30o and a total mass of 80
grams. The cone was suspended above just in
contact with the soil sample in the cup. The cone
was allowed to fall freely for a period of about 5
seconds. The depth of penetration was measured
and a small portion of the soil specimen was
obtained from the cup for determination of its
moisture content. At least four (4) test trials were
performed on a soil sample with varying amount of
moisture content. The depth of penetration was
plotted against its corresponding moisture content in
semi-logarithmic scale. The best-fit line linking the
data points was then drawn. The moisture content
on the liquid state line corresponding to depth
penetration of 20mm represented the liquid limit.

Its plastic limit was obtained by repeating

the test with a bigger cone of similar geometry, but
with a mass of 240 grams. The liquid state line of
the 240 grams cone was below the liquid state line
for the 80 grams cone and was almost parallel to it.
The moisture content on the liquid state line
corresponding to depth penetration of 20mm
represented the liquid limit
 CHAPTER 5

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

1. Grainsize
Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm (3-in.)
sieve and retained on the No. 10(2-
mm)U.S.sieve
Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm)
U.S. sieve and retained on the No.
200(0.075-mm)U.S.sieve
Silt and clay: fraction passing the No.
200U.S. sieve
2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the
fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity
index of 10 or less. The term clayey is
applied when the fine fractions have a
plasticity index of 11 or more.
Note: If cobbles and boulders (size larger
than 75 mm) are encountered, they are
excluded from the portion of the soil sample
from which classification is made. However,
the percentage of such material is recorded.
 CHAPTER 6  Vibrators can be attached to smooth-
wheel, pneumatic rubber-tired or
SOIL COMPACTION sheepsfoot. vibration is produced by
COMPACTION- It is a process of soil densification rotating off-center weights.
through expulsion of air and rearrangement of soil FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION
particles using mechanical equipment. 1. Type of soil
Less expensive method of ground 2. Moisture content
improvement. 3. Method of compaction
Water acts as a softening agent on the soil 4. Amount of compaction effort
[particles. The soil particles slip over each other and 5. Lift or thickness of the soil layer to be
move into a densely packed position. compacted.
Compaction of soil is measured in terms of LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST
its dry unit weight Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D-698)
BENEFITS OF COMPACTION Purpose: To find the optimum moisture content at
 Increases the soil strength which the maximum dry unit weight is attained.
 Increases the bearing capacity of Equipment: 944 cm3(1/30 ft3) mold 2.5 kg (5.5 lb)
foundation hammer.
 Decreases the amount of undesirable
settlement of structures
 Increases the stability of slopes of
embankments
 Reduces water seepage, swelling,
and contraction Reduces frost
damage
IMPROPER COMPACTION
1. Structural distress from excessive total and
differential settlement.
2. Cracking of pavements, floors and
basements.
3. Structural damage to buried structures, water
and sewer pipes, and utility conduits.
4. Soil Erosion
FIELD COMPACTION
Common Types of Road Rollers
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum
rollers)- For proof rolling subgrades and for
finishing operation of fills with sandy and
clayey soils.
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
 Better than the smooth-wheel rollers
 It is heavily loaded with several rows
of tires
 For asphalt pavement, sandy and
clayey soil compaction
 Compaction is achieved by a
combination of pressure and
kneading action.
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
 Effective in compacting clayey soils
 Drums are provided with much
larger number of projects
4. Vibratory rollers
 Efficient in compacting granular
soils
SAND CONE METHOD (ASTM D1556)
Purpose: To determine the field dry density.
Equipment: Sand cone apparatus and Ottawa sand
 CHAPTER 7
PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE
Permeability of soil refers to the ability of soil to
transmit water through its pore spaces or voids. It is
essentially a measure of the soil's "openness" or
interconnectedness of its pores.

Seepage is the gradual and often unnoticed

movement of liquid through a porous material.
NAME:

SUBJECT:
 CHAPTER 8

IN SITU STRESSES