COMP232

Introduction to Discrete Mathematics

W7b: Composition of functions

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Composition of functions
g : A → B and f : B → C

A 1 B C
a
g f w
2 b
x
3 c
y
d
4 z
e

g(2) = e f(e) =w
Thus, f(g(2)) = f(e) = w

A 1 C
f O g w
2
x

3
y

4 z

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Composition of functions
Definition
Let g : A → B and f : B → C
The composition of the functions f and g, denoted

f ◦g

is defined by

(f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a))

f ◦g : A→C
Important:
To get f ◦ g we need
codomain of g = domain of f
Generally, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f
and sometimes one or both may not exist at all.

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Example 1:

g : set of items → N assigns to each item its bar code

f : N→R assigns to each bar code a price
f ◦g exists, function that assigns to each item a price

g◦f does not exist, since codomain of f 6= domain of g

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Example 2:

g:Z→Z g(x) = 2x + 3
f :Z→Z f (x) = (x + 1)2

codomain of g = domain of f =⇒ f ◦ g exists.

(f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (2x +3) = (2x +3+1)2 = 4x 2 +16x +16

codomain of f = domain of g =⇒ g ◦ f exists.

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g((x + 1)2 ) = g(x 2 + 2x + 1) =
2(x 2 + 2x + 1) + 3 = 2x 2 + 4x + 5

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Exercise: Let
f :Z→Z f (x) = x 2 + 1
g :Z→Z g(x) = x + 2.

Find:
1. f + g
2. fg
3. f ◦ g
4. g ◦ f

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Exercise: Let
f :Z→Z f (x) = x 2 + 1
g :Z→Z g(x) = x + 2.

Find:
1. f + g : Z → Z f + g(x) = x 2 + x + 3
2. fg : Z → Z fg(x) = x 3 + 2x 2 + x + 2
3. f ◦ g : Z → Z f ◦ g(x) = (x + 2)2 + 1
4. g ◦ f : Z → Z g ◦ f (x) = (x 2 + 1) + 2

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Inverse and composition

Let f : A → B be an invertible function, then f −1 : B → A

(f −1 ◦ f ) and (f ◦ f −1 ) exist.
(f −1 ◦ f ) : A → A
(f ◦ f −1 ) : B → B
f (a) = b ⇐⇒ f −1 (b) = a
(f −1 ◦ f )(a) = f −1 (f (a)) = f −1 (b) = a
(f ◦ f −1 )(b) = f (f −1 (b)) = f (a) = b
thus,
(f −1 ◦ f ) = iA , the identity function on A,
(f ◦ f −1 ) = iB , the identity function on B.

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Exercise

Let
g : A→B
f : B→C
be functions.

Show that
(a) If f is one-to-one and g is one-to-one, then f ◦ g is
one-to-one.
(b) If f is onto and g is onto, then f ◦ g is onto.

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Proof of injectivity

g : A → B and f : B → C
To show:
If f is one-to-one and g is one-to-one, then f ◦ g is one-to-one.
Assume f and g are injective.
Then x = y ⇒ (f (x) = f (y)) ∧ (g(y) = g(y))
Show that then f (g(x)) 6= f (g(y )) ⇒ x 6= y

Proof by contrapositive:
Assume that x = y
Then g(x) = g(y ) = k for some k. It follows that
f (g(x)) = f (g(y )) = f (k )
which proves by contrapositive that f (g(x)) 6= f (g(y )) ⇒ x 6= y

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Proof of surjectivity

g : A → B and f : B → C
To show:
If f is onto and g is onto, then f ◦ g is onto:
((f (B) = C) ∧ (g(A) = B)) → (f (g(A)) = C))
Proof by contrapositive:
f (g(A)) 6= C ⇒ ∃z∈C ∀x∈A : f (g(x)) 6= z
∃z∈C ∀x∈A : f (g(x)) 6= z
≡ (∃z∈C ∀y∈B f (y) 6= z) ∨ (∃y ∈B ∀x∈A g(x) 6= y )
≡ ¬((∀z∈C ∃y∈B f (y) = z) ∧ (∀y∈B ∃x∈A g(x) = y ))
6≡ (f (B) = C) ∧ (g(A) = B)
which concludes the proof that
((g(A) = B) ∧ (f (B) = C)) → (f (g(A)) = C)

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Floor function
Definition
For x ∈ R, m ∈ Z, the floor function bxc is defined by
bxc = max{m ∈ Z|m ≤ x}

b3.6c = 3 b12.1c = 12
b15c = 15 b−3.4c = −4

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4

-2

-3

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Ceiling function
Definition
For x ∈ R, n ∈ Z, the ceiling function dxe is defined by
dxe = min{n ∈ Z|n ≥ x}

d3.6e = 4 d12.1e = 13
d15e = 15 d−3.4e = −3

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-2

-3

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Problem 1:

Assume that in each word of computer memory we can store k

bytes.
Find a function w : N → N
that specifies the number of words needed to store n bytes.

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Problem 1:

Assume that in each word of computer memory we can store k

bytes.

Find a function w : N → N
that specifies the number of words needed to store n bytes.
Solution: w(n) = d kn e

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Problem 2:

A bank must round the calculations involving money to cents.

i.e., 5.33453 is rounded to 5.33 and
5.13618 is rounded to 5.14
Give a function round : R → R that rounds any real number to
2 decimal points.

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Problem 2:

A bank must round the calculations involving money to cents.

i.e., 5.33453 is rounded to 5.33 and
5.13618 is rounded to 5.14
Give a function round : R → R that rounds any real number to
2 decimal points.

Solution: round(x) = (b(x ∗ 100 + 0.5)c)/100

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Exercise:

True or false?
b2xc = 2bxc

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Exercise:

True or false?
b2xc = 2bxc

Depends on domain for x! Without domain specified:

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Exercise:

True or false?
b2xc = 2bxc : false (2 = b2 12 c =
6 2b0.5c = 0)

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Exercise:

True or false?
dbxce = bxc

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Exercise:

True or false?
dbxce = bxc : true, dze = z for z ∈ Z

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Exercise:

True or false?
bx + y c = dxe + by c

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Exercise:

True or false?
bx + y c = dxe + by c : no, 0 = b.1 + .1c =
6 d.1e + b.1c = 1

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Properties of floor and ceiling functions

For all real numbers x and integers m

1. x − 1 ≤ bxc ≤ x ≤ dxe ≤ x + 1
2. d−xe = −bxc
3. b−xc = −dxe
4. bx + mc = bxc + m
5. dx + me = dxe + m

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Cardinality of sets

Definition
Sets A and B have the same cardinality iff there exists a
bijection from A to B; we write |A| = |B|.

Definition
If there exists a surjective function from A to B, the cardinality of
A is greater than or equal to the cardinality of B: |A| ≥ |B|. If
|A| ≥ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we say that
|A| =6 |B|.

Definition
A set that is either finite or has the same cardinality as the set
of positive integers is called countable. A set that is not
countable is called uncountable. When an infinite set S is
countable, we denote the cardinality of S by ℵ0 , we say “S has
aleph null” and write |S| = ℵ0 .

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Proving that a set is countable
Show that the set of odd positive integers is a countable set.

Proof by showing that f (n) : Z+ → O f (n) = 2n − 1

(definition of odd integers) is a bijection, where
O = {x|x is an odd positive integer}.
I Proof by contrapositive that f (n) is injective:
Assume that f (n) = f (m). Then 2n − 1 = 2m − 1 and
m = n.
I Direct proof that f (n) is surjective
(showing a unique preimage of each positive odd integer):
Let t ∈ O. successor (t) = s is a positive, even integer:
s = 2k = t + 1 for k ∈ Z+ .
Since for every t ∈ O there exists a k ∈ Z+ with
k = t+1
2 =f
−1 (t), this is a well defined injective function

that maps a unique positive integer k to each odd positive

integer t such that f (k ) = t, f (n) is surjective.

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Z is countable

We prove that Z is countable by mapping all positive integers

into successive odd positive integers and every negative
integer into successive even positive integers :
0 → 2, 1 → 1, −1 → 4, 2→ 3, −2 → 6, 3 → 5, −3 → 8, . . .
2(n − 1) + 1 if n is positive,
f (n) : Z → Z+ , f (n) =
2(−n + 1) if n is not positive
Prove that f (n) is a bijection by cases:
I (O = {x|x is an odd integer},
E = {x|x is an even integer}, {0}) form a partition on Z+.
I n is not positive: show
f (n) : Z− ∪ {0} → E f (n) = 2(−n + 1) is a bijection
I n is positive: show
f (n) : Z+ → O f (n) = 2n − 1 is a bijection

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Hilbert’s Grand Hotel

Hilbert’s Grand Hotel is a paradox. The Grand Hotel has a

countably infinite number of rooms, each occupied by a guest.
A new guest is accommodated by moving each current guest in
a room with number n to room number n + 1 and lodge the new
guest in room 1.

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Q+ is countable

Solution idea:
j
I align all fractions in a 2-dimensional table with mij = i
I traverse the cells of this table starting at 11 , continuing to 12 ,
sweeping up diagonally to 21 , sweeping diagonally from 13
to 13 etc.
I with sufficient time, each fraction can be reached, implying
an ordering of fractions that can be mapped to the positive
integers.

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R is uncountable

Proof by contradiction due to Cantor:

I Assume R is countable. Then the reals r with 0 ≤ r ≤ 1
are also countable.
I order the reals with 0 ≤ r ≤ 1
I construct a new real with decimal di = 4 if the ith decimal
of the ith real in our set is not equal to 4, 5 if it was indeed
equal to 4.
I this new real is not equal to any of the reals listed, thus our
assumption that the reals are countable is false.

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Everybody should know

I The definition of a function

I The definition of
domain, codomain, range, image, preimage,
one-to-one, onto function,
one-to-one correspondence (bijection),
inverse function, composition of functions.
I Given a function, determine its type.
I Given two functions, find their composition.
I Properties of floor and ceiling functions.

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