LECTURE 17

Polynomial Arithmetic and the Division Algorithm

Definition 17.1. Let R be any ring. A polynomial with coefficients in R is an expression of the form
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · + an xn
where each ai is an element of R. The ai are called the coefficients of the polynomial and the element x
is called an indeterminant.
Definition 17.2. Let R be any ring. The polynomial ring R[x] is the set of all polynomials with coeffi-
cients in R with an operation of addition defined by
(a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) + (b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn ) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · ·
n
· · · + (an + bn )x
(although, it appears that we are assuming the same powers of x to appear in each of the polynomials above;
we can do this without loss of generality by inserting zero coefficients whereever necessary) and an operation
of multiplication defined by
(a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn )(b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm ) = a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + · · ·
k
!
X
··· + ai bk−i xk + · · ·
i=0
· · · + an bm xn+m .
n
Definition 17.3. Let R be a ring and let f = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x be a polynomial in R[x] such that
an 6= 0R . Then an is called the leading coefficient of f . The degree of f is the integer n.

Because we seem to be on familiar ground, it is important to point out that strange things can sometimes
happen. Consider the ring of polynomials over Z4 . Then
2
([2]x + [1]) = [2][2]x2 + [2][1]x + [1][2]x + [1][1]
= [4]x2 + [4]x + [1]
= [0]x2 + [0]x + [1]
= [1]
Such peculiar circumstances can be avoided if we restrict our attention to polynomials over integral domains.
Theorem 17.4. If R is an integral domain and f, g are nonzero polynomials in R[x], then
deg (f g) = deg (f ) + deg (g) .

Proof. Suppose
f = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
g = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm
are polynomials of degree n and m, respectively. Then the highest possible degree of f g is n + m, and the
coefficient of xn+m in f g is an bm . Since R is an integral domain, an bm = 0R if and only if an = 0R or
bn = 0R . But since f and g are nonzero polynomials, an and bm cannot equal 0R . Thus, an bm 6= 0R and so
the degree of f g is n + m = deg (f ) + deg (g). 
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 17. POLYNOMIAL ARITHMETIC AND THE DIVISION ALGORITHM 63

Corollary 17.5. If R is an integral domain, then so is R[x].

Proof. Since R is an integral domain, it is in particular a commutative ring with identity. From the definition
of multiplication in R[x], it follows very easily that R[x] is also a commutative with identity 1R[x] = 1R .
The proof of Theorem 4.1 shows that the product of nonzero polynomials in R[x] is non-zero. Therefore,
R[x] is an integral domain. 
Theorem 17.6. The Division Algorithm in F [x] Let F be a field and f, g ∈ F [x] with g 6= 0F . Then there
exists unique polynomials q and r in F [x] such that
(i) f = gq + r
(ii) either r = 0F or deg (r) < deg (g)

Proof. We first prove the existence of the polynomials q and r.

Case 1: Suppose f = 0, then the proposition is true with q and r = 0R .

Case 2: Suppose deg (f ) < deg (g). Then the proposition is true with q = 0F and r = f .

Case 3: If deg (f ≥ deg (g)), then the proof of existence is by induction on the degree of f .

(i) If deg (f ) = 0, then deg (g) = 0 also. Hence f = a and g = b for some nonzero a and b in F . Since
F is a field, b is a unit and
a = b(b−1 a) .
Thus, the theorem is true with q = b−1 a and r = 0F .
(ii) Now assume that the proposition is true whenever deg (f ) < n. We must show that it is true when
f has degree n; say
f = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
with an 6= 0F . The divisor g must have the form
g = bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0
with bm 6= 0F and m ≤ n. Since F is a field and bm 6= 0F , bm is a unit. Multiply the divisor g by
an b−1
m x
n−m
to obtain
an b−1
m x
n−m
g = an b−1
m x
n−m
(bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0 )
= an xn + an b−1
m bm−1 x
m−1
+ · · · + an b−1
m b0 x
n−m
.
Since the leading term of this polynomial is identical to that of f , the difference
f − an b−1
m x
n−m
g
is a polynomial of degree less than n. We now apply the induction hypothesis with g as divisor
and f − an b−1
m x
n−m
g as the dividend (or use Case 1 if f − an b−1
m x
n−m
g = 0F ). There thus exists
polynomials q1 and r such that
f − an b−1
m x
n−m
g = q1 g + r
and
r = 0F or deg (r) < deg (g) .
Therefore,
f = an b−1 n−m


m x + q1 g + r
and
r = 0F or deg (r) < deg (g) .
Hence, the proposition is true with q = an b−1
m x
n−m
+ q1 when deg (f ) = n. This completes the
induction and shows that q and r exist for any dividend f and any divisor g.
 17. POLYNOMIAL ARITHMETIC AND THE DIVISION ALGORITHM 64

To prove that q and r are unique, suppose that q 0 and r0 are polynomials satisfying
f = q0 g + r0
and
r0 = 0F or deg (r0 ) < deg (g) .
Then we would have
qg + r = f = q 0 g + r0
or
(1) g (q − q 0 ) = r0 − r .
0
If q − q 6= 0F , then, by Theorem 4.1, the degree of the polynomial on the left hand side of (1) is greater
than or equal to the degree of g. But since the polynomials r0 and r are either zero or have degree strictly
less than that of g, the right hand side of (1) must have degree strictly less than that of g. Thus, unless
q − q 0 = 0F the degrees of the two sides of (1) can not be the same; i.e., we have a contradiction. Therefore,
q − q 0 = 0F , or equivalently, q1 = q. But then the left hand side of (1) is zero; so we must have r0 − r = 0F
or r0 = r. Thus, the polynomials q and r are unique.