CHAPTER ONE : Introduction to Database System

CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction to Database System
1.1 What is database?
 A database is a collection of related data.
 This collection of related data with an implicit meaning is a database.
The preceding definition of database is quite general, however, the common use of the term
database is usually more restricted.
A database has the following implicit properties:
 A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the
miniworld or the universe of discourse (UoD).
 Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.
 A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning.
A random collection of data cannot correctly be referred to as a database.
 A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose.

Database systems are designed to manage large data set in an organization. The data
management involves both definition and the manipulation of the data which ranges from simple
representation of the data to considerations of structures for the storage of information. The data
management also consider the provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information.
Today, Databases are essential to every business. They are used to maintain internal records, to
present data to customers and clients on the World-WideWeb, and to support many other
commercial processes. Databases are likewise found at the core of many modern organizations.
The power of databases comes from a body of knowledge and technology that has developed
over several decades and is embodied in specialized software called a database management
system, or DBMS. A DBMS is a powerful tool for creating and managing large amounts of data
efficiently and allowing it to persist over long periods of time, safely. These systems are among
the most complex types of software available.
Thus, for our question: What is a database? In essence a database is nothing more than a
collection of shared information that exists over a long period of time, often many years. In
common dialect, the term database refers to a collection of data that is managed by a DBMS.

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DBMS database + management system

Collection of data is a set of program to store and retrieve the data.

 DBMS is a collection of data and set of programs to access and store those data in easy
and efficient manner.
 Is a software which is used to manage database. e.g MYSQL oracle

Purpose of database system

Previously data is stored in file system. Drawbacks of using file system to store data
Data redundancy and inconsistency:-multiple file formats and duplication of information in
different files.
Difficulty in accessing data:- need to write a new program to carry out each new task.
Data isolation:-multiple files and formats.
Data security and Transaction problems so, db system offer solutions to all these problems.

Thus the DB course is about:

 How to organize data
 Supporting multiple users
 Efficient and effective data retrieval
 Secured and reliable storage of data
 Maintaining consistent data
 Making information useful for decision making
Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the
development in technology and services. These levels could best be described by categorizing
the levels into three levels of development. Even though there is an advantage and a problem
overcome at each new level, all methods of data handling are in use to some extent. The major
three levels are;
1. Manual Approach
2. Traditional File Based Approach
3. Database Approach

1. Manual Approach
In the manual approach, data storage and retrieval follows the primitive and traditional way of
information handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose. The data storage and
retrieval will be performed using human labour.

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 Files for as many event and objects as the organization has are used to store information.
 Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labelled and stored in one ore
more cabinets.
 The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on the sensitivity of
the information contained in it.
 Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right cabinet then for the right the
file then the information.
 One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data

Limitations of the Manual approach

 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
 You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
 Limited to small size information
 Cross referencing is difficult
An alternative approach of data handling is a computerized way of dealing with the information.
The computerized approach could also be either decentralized or centralized base on where the
data resides in the system

2. Traditional File Based Approach

After the introduction of Computer for data processing to the business community, the need to
use the device for data storage and processing increase. There were, and still are, several
computer applications with file based processing used for the purpose of data handling. Even
though the approach evolved over time, the basic structure is still similar if not identical.
 File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
 This approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.
 A collection of application programs perform services for the end-users. In such systems,
every application program that provides service to end users define and manage its own
data
 Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in the
organization.
 Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to
serious data duplication problem.
 File, in traditional file based approach, is a collection of records which contains logically
related data

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Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach

As business application become more complex demanding more flexible and reliable data
handling methods, the shortcomings of the file based system became evident. These
shortcomings include, but not limited to:
 Separation or Isolation of Data: Available information in one application may not be
known.
 Limited data sharing
 Lengthy development and maintenance time
 Duplication or redundancy of data
 Data dependency on the application
 Incompatible file formats between different applications and programs creating
inconsistency.

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 Fixed query processing which is defined during application development

The limitations for the traditional file based data handling approach arise from two basic reasons.
1. Definition of the data is embedded in the application program which makes it difficult to
modify the database definition easily.
2. No control over the access and manipulation of the data beyond that imposed by the
application programs. The most significant problem experienced by the traditional file based
approach of data handling is the “update anomalies”. We have three types of update anomalies;
1. Modification Anomalies: a problem experienced when one ore more data value is modified on
one application program but not on others containing the same data set.
2. Deletion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one record set is deleted from one
application but remain untouched in other application programs.
3. Insertion Anomalies: a problem experienced when ever there is new data item to be recorded,
and the recording is not made in all the applications. And when same data item is inserted at
different applications, there could be errors in encoding which makes the new data item to be
considered as a totally different object.

3. Database Approach
The database approach emphasizes the integration and sharing of data throughout the
organization.
Thus in Database Approach:
 Database is just a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing
cabinet.
 Database is a repository for collection of computerized data files.
 Database is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. Since it is a shared corporate resource, the database is
integrated with minimum amount of or no duplication.
 Database is a collection of logically related data where these logically related data
comprises entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an organization's
information.
 In addition to containing data required by an organization, database also contains a
description of the data which called as “Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems
Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
 Since a database contains information about the data (metadata), it is called a self
descriptive collection on integrated records.
 The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and update
that information on demand.

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 Database is deigned once and used simultaneously by many users.

 Unlike the traditional file based approach in database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the data definition from the application. Thus the
application is not affected by changes made in the data structure and file organization.
 Each database application will perform the combination of: Creating database, Reading,
Updating and Deleting data.

1.2 Characteristics of the Database Approach

• A number of characteristics distinguish the database approach from the much older
approach of programming with files.
• In traditional file processing, each user defines and implements the files needed for a
specific software application as part of programming the application.
– For example, one user, the grade reporting office, may keep files on students and
their grades.
– A second user, the accounting office, may keep track of students’ fees and their
payments.
– Although both users are interested in data about students, each user maintains
separate files and programs to manipulate these files because each requires some
data not available from the other user’s files.
– This redundancy in defining and storing data results in wasted storage space and
in redundant efforts to maintain common up-to-date data.
• In the database approach, a single repository maintains data that is defined once and then
accessed by various users
• The main characteristics of the database approach versus the file-processing approach are
the following:
– Self-describing nature of a database system
– Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction
– Support of multiple views of the data
– sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing.

Self-Describing Nature of a Database System

• A fundamental characteristic of the database approach is that the database system
contains not only the database itself but also a description of the database structure and
constraints.

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• This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog, which contains information such as the
structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and various
constraints on the data.
• The information stored in the catalog is called meta-data, and it describes the structure
of the primary database .
• The catalog is used by the DBMS software and also by database users who need
information about the database structure.
• A general-purpose DBMS software package is not written for a specific database
application.
• Therefore, it must refer to the catalog to know the structure of the files in a specific
database, such as the type and format of data it will access.
• DBMS catalog will store the definitions of all the files.
• These definitions are specified by the database designer prior to creating the actual
database and are stored in the catalog.
• Whenever a request is made to access, say, the Name of a STUDENT record, the DBMS
software refers to the catalog to determine the structure of the STUDENT file and the
position and size of the Name data item within a STUDENT record.

Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction

 In traditional file processing, the structure of data files is embedded in the application
programs, so any changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs
that access that file.
 By contrast, DBMS access programs do not require such changes in most cases.
 The structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the access
programs.
 We call this property program data independence.
 An operation (also called a function or method) is specified in two parts.
 The interface (or signature) of an operation includes the operation name and the data
types of its arguments (or parameters).
 The implementation (or method) of the operation is specified separately and can be
changed without affecting the interface.
 User application programs can operate on the data by invoking these operations through
their names and arguments, regardless of how the operations are implemented.
 This may be termed program-operation independence.

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 The characteristic that allows program-data independence and program-operation

independence is called data abstraction.
 A DBMS provides users with a conceptual representation of data that does not include
many of the details of how the data is stored or how the operations are implemented.
Informally, a data model is a type of data abstraction that is used to provide this
conceptual representation.
 The data model uses logical concepts, such as objects, their properties, and their
interrelationships, that may be easier for most users to understand than computer storage
concepts. Hence, the data model hides storage and implementation details that are not of
interest to most database users.

Support of Multiple Views of the Data

• A database typically has many users, each of whom may require a different perspective
or view of the database.
• A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is derived
from the database files but is not explicitly stored.
• Some users may not need to be aware of whether the data they refer to is stored .
• A multiuser DBMS whose users have a variety of distinct applications must provide
facilities for defining multiple views.
– For example, one user of the database may be interested only in accessing and
printing the transcript of each student; the view for this user.
– A second user, who is interested only in checking that students have taken all the
prerequisites of each course for which they register, may require the view.

Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

 A multiuser DBMS must allow multiple users to access the database at the same time.
 The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure that several users
trying to update the same data do so in a controlled manner.
– For example, when several reservation agents try to assign a seat on an airline
flight, the DBMS should ensure that each seat can be accessed by only one agent
at a time for assignment to a passenger called online transaction processing
(OLTP) applications.
 A fundamental role of multiuser DBMS software is to ensure that concurrent transactions
operate correctly and efficiently.
 A transaction is an executing program or process that includes one or more database
accesses, such as reading or updating of database records.

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Benefits of the database approach

 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same data instead of storing
data in redundant manner for each user.
 Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query languages, the users can easily
access data without programming experience.
 Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in database to decrease the
redundant data stored at different applications.
 Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity constraints in the database
approach will maintain the quality leading to better decision making
 Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data redundancy will avoid inconsistency of the
data in the database to some extent.
 Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems
are implanted in a full scale DBMS.
 Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications will be integrated together with
additional constraints to facilitate shared data resource.
 Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be secured by having different
levels of clearance and other data security mechanisms.
 Improved decision support: the database will provide information useful for decision
making.
 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using and dealing with data by different
unite of an organization can be balanced and standardized by using database approach.
 Compactness: since it is an electronic data handling method, the data is stored compactly
(no voluminous papers).
 Speed: data storage and retrieval is fast as it will be using the modern fast computer
systems.
 Less labour: unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not demand
much resource.
 Centralized information control: since relevant data in the organization will be stored at
one repository, it can be controlled and managed at the central level.

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Limitations and risk of Database Approach

 Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
 Complexity in designing and managing data
 The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
 High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
 Complex backup and recover services from the users perspective
 Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency
 High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central system.

1.3 Database Management System (DBMS)

 Database Management System (DBMS) is a Software package used for providing
EFFICIENT, CONVENIENT and SAFE MULTI-USER (many people/programs
accessing same database, or even same data, simultaneously) storage of and access to
MASSIVE amounts of PERSISTENT (data outlives programs that operate on it) data.
 A DBMS also provides a systematic method for creating, updating, storing, retrieving
data in a database. DBMS also provides the service of controlling data access, enforcing
data integrity, managing concurrency control, and recovery. Having this in mind, a full
scale DBMS should at least have the following services to provide to the user.

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1. Data storage, retrieval and update in the database

2. A user accessible catalogue
3. Transaction support service: ALL or NONE transaction, which minimize data inconsistency.
4. Concurrency Control Services: access and update on the database by different users
simultaneously should be implemented correctly.
5. Recovery Services: a mechanism for recovering the database after a failure must be available.
6. Authorization Services (Security): must support the implementation of access and
authorization service to database administrator and users.
7. Support for Data Communication: should provide the facility to integrate with data transfer
software or data communication managers.
8. Integrity Services: rules about data and the change that took place on the data, correctness and
consistency of stored data, and quality of data based on business constraints.
9. Services to promote data independency between the data and the application
10. Utility services: sets of utility service facilities like
 Importing data
 Statistical analysis support
 Index reorganization
 Garbage collection

The DBMS environment has five components. To design and use a database, there will
be the interaction or integration of Hardware, Software, Data, Procedure and People.

1. Hardware: are components that one can touch and feel. These components are
comprised of various types of personal computers, mainframe or any server computers to
be used in multi-user system, network infrastructure, and other peripherals required in the
system.

2. Software: are collection of commands and programs used to manipulate the hardware to
perform a function. These include components like the DBMS software, application
programs, operating systems, network software, language software and other relevant
software.

3. Data: since the goal of any database system is to have better control of the data and
making data useful, Data is the most important component to the user of the database.
There are two categories of data in any database system: that is Operational and
Metadata. Operational data is the data actually stored in the system to be used by the

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user. Metadata is the data that is used to store information about the database itself. The
structure of the data in the database is called the schema, which is composed of the
Entities, Properties of entities, and relationship between entities and business constraints.

4. Procedure: this is the rules and regulations on how to design and use a database. It
includes procedures like how to log on to the DBMS, how to use facilities, how to start
and stop transaction, how to make backup, how to treat hardware and software failure,
how to change the structure of the database.

5. People: this component is composed of the people in the organization that are
responsible or play a role in designing, implementing, managing, administering and using
the resources in the database. This component includes group of people with high level of
knowledge about the database and the design technology to other with no knowledge of
the system except using the data in the database.
1.4 Actors on the Scene:
A person who design, use, and administer a database, and whose jobs involve the day-to-day use
of a large database; we call them the "actors on the scene."
 Data Administrator
 Database Administrator
 Database Designer
 End Users
2.5 Workers behind the Scene
Persons those are associated with the design, development, and operation of the DBMS software
and system environment. These persons are typically not interested in the database itself. We call
them the "workers behind the scene," and they include the following categories.

 DBMS designers and implementers: who design and implement different DBMS
software.
 Tool Developers: experts who develop software packages that facilitates database
system designing and use. Prototype, simulation, code generator developers could
be an example. Independent software vendors could also be categorized in this
group.
 Operators and Maintenance Personnel: system administrators who are
responsible for actually running and maintaining the hardware and software of the
database system and the information technology facilities.

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