Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical

journa l h ome pa ge : www .e ls e vi er .c om /l oc at e/ sn a

Review

An overview of micro-force sensing techniques

Yuzhang Wei, Qingsong Xu ∗
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Tapia, Macau, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to the trend of miniaturization of devices, micromanipulation has been a hot topic in the last two
Received 2 February 2015 decades. Unlike the macro world, the micro object is easy to be damaged if the contact force is not reli-
Received in revised form 9 August 2015 ably detected and controlled. Hence, micro-force sensing is of great importance in micromanipulation,
Accepted 19 September 2015
microassembly, medical applications, biomedical applications, materials science, dimension measure-
Available online 25 September 2015
ments and MEMS/NEMS for protecting micro-parts and micro-gripper from being damaged and ensuring
the success of the manipulation process. This paper presents a survey of the recent methods of micro-
Keywords:
force sensing. The working principle, detection accuracy, advantage and disadvantage of seven widely
Micro-force sensing
Force sensors
used force sensing methods are presented. Typical applications of each method in micro-assembly and
Micro-assembly micromanipulation are discussed. In addition, the comparisons among different kinds of force sensing
Micromanipulation approaches have been addressed. Moreover, another five promising micro-force sensing methods, which
are confined to special component measurements or not widely used, are briefly introduced. Furthermore,
two popular types of commercial micro-force sensors are listed to provide a guideline of selection for a
specific application. The presented state-of-the-art overview is helpful to those engaged in micro-force
sensing area to know the recent development and research tendency on micro-force sensing.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
2. Force-sensing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
2.1. Strain gauge-based force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
2.2. Piezoresistive force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
2.3. Capacitive force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
2.4. Piezomagnetic force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
2.5. Optical force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
2.6. Vision-based force sensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
2.7. Electroactive force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
2.7.1. PZT force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
2.7.2. PVDF force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
2.7.3. Comparison between PZT and PVDF force sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
2.8. Other techniques for micro-force sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
2.8.1. IPMC force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
2.8.2. Inductive micro-force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
2.8.3. Electrodynamic force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
2.8.4. Microresonator force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
2.8.5. Acoustic force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3. Commercial micro-force sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3.1. FT-S micro-force sensing probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
3.2. The AE801 series sensor element produced by Kronex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

∗ Corresponding author. Fax: +853 8822 2426.

E-mail address: [email protected] (Q. Xu).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2015.09.028
0924-4247/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
360 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

1. Introduction another five micro-force sensing methods confined to special com-

ponent measurements, which are not widely used but promising,
Micromanipulation and micro-assembly have attracted great are also briefly introduced. Furthermore, two types of commercial
attention in the past 20 years. Due to miniaturization in devices, micro-force sensors, which are popular in use, are listed to provide
MEMS (Micro-Electromechanical Systems) have been character- a guideline of selecting suitable sensors for specific applications.
ized by low power consumption, light, high performance, easy Moreover, this paper puts an emphasis on one most promising
mass-production and integration, and have many crucial applica- method—electroactive force sensor, which is expected to promote
tions, such as microrobotics, medical device, and smart portable the development of this kind of excellent force sensor.
electronics [1].
In contrast with the macro world, the micro objects in manipu- 2. Force-sensing method
lation are easy to be destroyed if the contact force is not reliably
detected and controlled. For example, in the process of micro- This section introduces seven kinds of micro-force sensors,
assembly, force feedback in every step is required to ensure the i.e., strain gauge-based force sensors, piezoresistive force sensors,
success of assembly [2]. In microrobotics, achieving efficient and capacitive force sensors, piezomagnetic force sensors, optical force
secure grasping tasks at micro-scales needs the use of a microma- sensors, vision-based force sensors, and electroactive force sen-
nipulation system with force sensing, which should be suitable for sors. Based on the analysis and applications of these techniques,
handling micro-scale objects [3]. Although the force sensing meth- a synoptic comparison among these force sensors is provided.
ods in macro world has been well developed, these methods are
not all suitable in micro world for detecting micro-newton forces. 2.1. Strain gauge-based force sensor
Consequently, there is a need for improvement on the perception of
forces in micro world, because people cannot feel the force when Strain gauge-based force sensing is one of the most common
using tools to manipulate micro objects. For instance, tiny blood methods to measure micro force [7–9]. Strain gauge-based force
vessels are too delicate to be felt by the hand of the surgeon. sensor is widely used in detecting contact force. Strain gauges
Another important application of micro force sensing is the are often attached to the substrate using special glues, depend-
ophthalmological surgery, in which scientists apply image-guided ing on their required lifetime [10]. Strain means the deformation
intervention using optical coherence tomography. A sense of touch of conductor or semiconductor under external mechanical stress,
in such applications is needed to improve the outcome and increase typically measured by a change in resistance. In order to maxi-
the safety [4]. Moreover, microparts and microgrippers in micro- mize the change in resistance due to the applied mechanical stress,
assembly processes are easy to be destroyed by excessive forces, strain gauges are usually long winding snake like structures [11].
and therefore, force sensing is greatly important in these processes. In this way, the cross-section of the strain gauge decreases while
Micro-force sensing is also essential when manipulating biologi- the conduction length increases under external mechanical stress
cal objects. The information of gripping force and displacement is [11].
necessary to grasp an object to obtain its mechanical properties. According to Hooke’s law, when a force F acts on the object, the
There are many factors influencing micro gripping force, such as stress can be expressed by:
the contact material, contact surfaces, scale and operational condi-
tions of the procedure. Consequently, an analytical or experimental F I
= =E =E (1)
model is practically impossible to make accurate predictions [5]. A I
Moreover, in MEMS/NEMS and nanotechnology, micro-force mea- The working principle of strain gauge-based force sensors can be
surement is of great importance for manipulating micro objects. explained by Eq. (1), where is mechanical stress; A is cross-
For example, the main component of optical communication net- sectional area; E is Young’s modulus of the material; is the strain.
work system is micro-lens, which is easily broken when the force As shown in Fig. 1(a), the strain is defined as the ratio of the
of micro-Newton (mN) level acts on it. Nowadays, the MEMS/NEMS deformation and the length.
also needs to detect micro contact force in the assembly process to The strain-gauge sensors have many distinguished advantages.
avoid the damage of devices caused by uncontrollable micro-force First of all, they exhibit good linearity, low hysteresis, low cost, good
[6]. Furthermore, some micro-assembly tasks need nanometric sensitivity and a high signal-to-noise ratio at sub-newton force
positioning repeatability, e.g., the alignment of micro-optic com- levels, and their operations do not necessitate additional hard-
ponents, which cannot be achieved without sensory system. ware. What more, the detecting accuracy of strain-gauge sensors
It is commonly acknowledged that the size of sensors should be is generally on the milli-newton (mN) or sub-milli-newton (sub-
compatible to that of the sensing elements, e.g., micro grippers and mN) level. Furthermore, the structures of some strain-gauge force
probes, because sensors must be mounted on them. Consequently, sensors, e.g., the silicon strain gauge-based force sensor (AE801,
macro-force sensors are generally not suitable for detecting micro Kronex, Oakland, USA) [4], can be more compact than other force
force. Therefore, reliable, high-precision micro contact force detec- sensors. Moreover, the methods of using strain-gauge force sen-
tion is of great significance for production, assembly and equipment sor are mature and simple, and they have a wide measuring range.
protection. Design and realization of micro contact force sensors However, the use of glue makes strain-gauge force sensors have the
are currently one of the most important research objectives. In this problems of drift and signal loss due to signal transfer through the
paper, seven kinds of widely used and promising micro-force sens- structural layers. In addition, their manufacturing is process inten-
ing methods are reviewed and compared in detail. Furthermore, sive, which should be avoided in use. Furthermore, the noise effect
the working principle, measurement accuracy, advantages, disad- needs to be considered [12]. Strain gauges are sensitive to humidity
vantages and practical applications are also discussed. In addition, and temperature changes [13]. Consequently, Wheatstone bridge
 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374 361

Fig. 1. Working principle of strain-gauge based force sensors. (a) Schematic diagram of strain [6], (b) stress and strain curves [6].

Fig. 3. An application of strain gauge-based force sensors [21].

Fig. 2. A simple example of strain gauges bonded on a cantilever beam [14].

based sensors present drift problems and their manufacturing is
process intensive (i.e., severe and precise requirements on the
working, assembly and calibration of the integrated structure are
configurations are often used to overcome these problems in strain
needed). In order to solve these problems, Castano-cano et al. [20]
gauges. If overloaded, strain gauges cannot be recovered [14]. They
designed an attractive alternative to strain-gauge technology for
also have high hysteresis and often are non-linear in response
force measurement (i.e., resonant-based sensors), which is based
because of their mechanical nature [15]. These limitations can be
on pre-stress and piezoelectric theories, measuring the three com-
overcome by using a thin film strain gauge, which consists of a thin
ponents of an externally applied force. Payne et al. [4] designed a
piezoresistive material deposited directly on an insulating surface
silicon strain force sensor for a hand-held microsurgical forceps,
of the strainable device [16].
which is compact and can measure a maximum force of 120 mN,
The object in elastic region experiences an elastic strain, as
leading to good sensitivity and a high signal-to-noise ratio at
shown in Fig. 1(b). After getting rid of mechanical stress, the
sub-newton force levels. In addition, an application of strain gauge-
stressed object can completely return to its original size and shape.
based force sensors is shown in Fig. 3. When a force is applied on
Under such condition, mechanical stress is in proportional to strain,
the surface of bump, the strain gauges will deform. The deformation
i.e., = E . The measurement principle of strain-gauge sensors is
can be used to measure both normal and shear forces depending
based on the above relation. As shown in Fig. 2, two strain gauges
on some particular situation [21].
on a cantilever beam are connected in a half-Wheatstone bridge
[14]. When the cantilever is bended by a force F, the resistance of
the upper strain gauge (R1 ) will increase. Simultaneously, the resis- 2.2. Piezoresistive force sensor
tance of the lower strain gauge (R2 ) will decrease. The Gauge factor
k, which is also named strain coefficient of resistance, means the Piezoresistive force sensors are the most common technique
scale between the variation of resistance and the variation of length. used for micro force measurement, providing a direct transduction
Commercial foil strain gauges made of constantan (copper–nickel between the mechanical deformations and the electrical signals
alloy) have k = 2 in general. Based on strain-gauge detecting princi- [22–26]. Piezoresisitive force sensors are based on piezoresistive
ple, micro-force detecting sensors have attracted many researchers. effect, that is, when a metal or semiconductor material is under
For example, Berkelman et al. [17] designed a miniature silicon stress, its resistance will change proportionally to its deformation
strain gauge-based force sensor, which is mounted inside a hand- [27]. Its working principle can be known from Eq. (2).
held instrument to measure the force of tip of the instrument in
Rs L
all axes with sub-mN resolution. Yu et al. [18] designed a strain- = Gf (2)
Rs L
deformation expansion mechanism for 3-axis force sensing with
high sensitivity, however, the sensor stiffness will be heightened where, Gf is strain factor, Rs and L are the resistance and length of
rather than being reduced. Kim et al. [19] optimized the strain the strain gauge before deformation, respectively. Rs and L are
gauge sensor by using Kalman filtering, and the sensor structure the resistance variation and the length variation of the strain gauge
uses a notch to concentrate the strain, obtaining precise measurable because of its deformation [16]. Moreover, one can understand the
micro-level data and achieving high-resolution data. Strain-gauge- working principle of piezoresisitive force sensors from Fig. 4 vividly.
362 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

Fig. 4. (a) Working principle of piezoresisitive force sensors. (b) Schematic of a piezoresistive pressure sensor [32].

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of a micro tri-axial piezoresistive force sensor. (a) Piezoresistor arrangement on the crossbeam. (b) Wheatstone bridge connection mode [33].

Usually, a Wheatstone bridge is used for translating the variation in general. However, the resistance variation is not easily directly
of resistance into an analog voltage. detected and is delicate to the variation of temperature. Further-
Strain gauges are usually glued on the part where the defor- more, the gluing quality of strain gauge greatly affects the accuracy
mation is the most important [28]. Piezoresistive force sensors of the measurement [31]. It also has certain limitation in miniatur-
generally have smaller lateral dimensions and can reach a higher ization for micromanipulation and micro-assembly tasks.
output per area than metal strain gauges. Silicon and other semi- As shown in Fig. 5, a schematic diagram of a micro tri-axial
conductor materials have high piezoresistive responses while they piezoresistive force sensor is introduced. The piezoresistors could
are brittle and fragile [29]. To achieve mechanical flexibility, the be developed using deposited polysilicon or metal layers [33]. In
piezoresistive force sensor can be embedded into an elastomer order to measure these forces individually, these piezoresistors are
while its sensitivity decreases and ambiguity is introduced. Piezore- linked to three Wheatstone bridge circuit configurations to gain the
sisitive force sensors are highly sensitive correspondingly and the resistance changes, which is similar to strain gauge force sensor.
noise characteristics have been well studied [30]. The methods of Moreover, the temperature compensation is also necessary.
measuring resistance variation with piezoresisitive force sensors In the literature, Peiner et al. [34] integrated a piezoresistive
are simple, mature and have wide measuring range. The detecting amorphous carbon (a-C) strain-gauge into a silicon micro cantilever
accuracy of piezoresistive sensor is on the level of mN or sub-mN force sensor successfully. Amorphous carbon combines favorable
mechanical properties like wear resistance and hardness with a
large piezoresistive effect, which is very promising. They stud-
ied the linear characteristics of the strain gauge resistance versus
the applied force, finding the piezoresistive gauge factor of a-
C nearly 70, which is a high sensitivity. Mohammed et al. [35]
designed a MEMS-based strain sensor, which has high sensitivity,
low power consumption and high absolute resolution. What more,
these characters maintain a high stability during a wide tempera-
ture range. Yuan et al. [36] designed a micro-pressure sensor with
two island beam structures, which has high sensitivity, good linear-
ity and high ability of anti-overload. Gnerlich et al. [37] designed a
piezoresistive force sensor integrated into a microelectromechan-
ical system (MEMS) on a 4 mm by 4 mm chip for the fast study of
some important characters of cell, which is highly sensitive and can
be submerged directly in cell medium. More importantly, the force
sensor can be used in mass production, which is of great meaningful
for detecting the cell, despite of self-heating problem, resulting sub-
sequent measurement drift. The structure is shown in Fig. 6. Payne
et al. [38] designed a hand-held force-amplifying device using a
piezoresistive force sensor, considering it’s immune to magnetic.
Fig. 6. The structure of a piezoresistive force sensor integrated into a microelec- Rathore et al. [39] designed a CMOS-MEMS integrated pressure
tromechanical system (MEMS) on a 4 mm by 4 mm chip [37].
 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374 363

Fig. 9. The structure of the capacitive force sensor measuring force and displace-
ment simultaneously [50].

Fig. 7. Schematic representation of a two-axial MEMS capacitive F/M sensor [33].

sensor using ring channel shaped MOSFET embedded sensing tech-

nique, which is an optimization of a current mirror sensing based
MOSFET embedded pressure sensor and enhances the sensor sen-
sitivity. Moreover, the sensor can be used for the blood pressure
measurement.

2.3. Capacitive force sensor

Capacitive force sensors provide an effective method in measur- Fig. 10. The structure of the capacitive force sensor with a displacement reduction
mechanism [51].
ing micro forces, due to their ability to measure forces from mN to
pN level [40–45]. It has been stated that more than 30% of modern
sensors are direct or indirect applications of the RC (Resistive and
Capacitive) sensing principles [44]. Capacitive force sensors mea- MEMS capacitive force sensors usually employ the parallel-flat
sure the force by changing the distance d between the plates in configurations (single or dual-plate). Moreover, the capacitance
the capacitor, which can be seen from the Fig. 8. Capacitance-to- varies through the variable distance between plates (or other
frequency converters (oscillators), switched-capacitor circuits, or parameters altering the electric field) caused by a mechanical force,
capacitive ac-bridges can be used to detect the output of capaci- which can be obtained easily. As shown in Fig. 7 [33], a schematic
tive force sensors [46]. As compared with piezoresistive sensors, diagram of a two-axial MEMS capacitive force sensor design is
capacitive sensors have low energy consumption, higher sensi- realized. In addition, differential comb is utilized to attain a high
tivity, a good frequency response, high spatial resolution, and sensitivity and linear input-output relation.
large dynamic range, and they are not sensitive to the changes of In the literature, Chu et al. [50] designed a capacitive force sensor
environment, etc. Moreover, capacitive force sensors are famous with a displacement reduction mechanism to improve the sensi-
for their fantastically large bandwidth, robustness and drift-free tivity, considering that the sensitivity of capacitive sensor tends to
measurement capability. Its detection accuracy can be achieved decrease as the magnitude of the force or displacement increases.
in micro-newton or sub-micro-newton [47]. Moreover, capacitive The structure is shown in Fig. 9. Zhang et al. [51] designed a single-
force sensors could be inserted into MEMS—based microgrippers, axis active probing device actuated by linear comb drives, which
which enables the mass production [48]. However, capacitive force generates the motion in the probing direction and also senses the
sensors are more sensitive to noise and require complex electronics displacement and force as the probe moves. The structure is shown
to filter out the noise [49]. in Fig. 10.

Fig. 8. (a) A capacitive force sensor can measure normal and shear stress [21]. (b) The simple structure of a capacitive force sensor.
364 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

Fig. 11. Working principle of the piezomagnetic force sensor.

2.4. Piezomagnetic force sensor

The working principle of piezomagnetic force sensors is based

on magnetoelastic effect. That is, when a ferromagnetic material
subjects to mechanical stress, its internal strain leads to the changes
in permeability [52], which can be seen from Fig. 11. By detecting
the magnetic permeability changes, the mechanical stress can be
measured. Piezomagnetic sensors have a lot of advantages. As com-
pared with strain-gauge sensors, this kind of sensors does not have
to be pasted and is able to be installed simply. Compared to piezo-
electric sensors, piezomagnetic sensors can measure a dynamic
force, and it also applies to the static force measurement. The sig- Fig. 12. (a) Full Wheatstone bridge with magnetoresistive sensors. (b) Magnetore-
nal amplification circuit is simple, without using a charge amplifier. sistive force transducer (MRFT) [16].

Piezomagnetic sensors have very good ability to resist overload and

strong anti-interference. In theory, the resolution of force sensors
based on magnetoelastic effect can reach nano-newton (nN). As the
technology is very sensitive to electromagnetic environment, the
accuracy may decrease to mN or below sub-mN level.
In the case of small values of the magnetic field, the variation
of the resistance is proportional to the square of the magnetic field
strength H [16]. Generally, four magnetoresistive strips composed
of permalloy are placed in a meander pattern in order to make the
arms of a Wheatstone bridge used for differential measurement
(see Fig. 12a [16]). The magnitude of the bridge imbalance DR is
used to indicate the magnetic field strength variation as a result of
the applied force. A magnetoresistive force transducer of one new-
ton is shown in Fig. 12b [16]. With an appropriate arrangement of
the magnetoresistive (MR) field plates and studs into a function-
ally designed transducer, a linear behavior and a high resolution of Fig. 13. Working principle of the optical force sensor.
2 nm is obtainable.
scale. The main application of this technique is the measurement
2.5. Optical force sensor of the piconewton forces [59–62]. This is because when the par-
ticle is in optical trap, the optical trap force F that points to the
At present, there are four main methods to detect the micro- trap center will always act on it. When the particle is influenced
force using optical technology [53–58]. The first one is laser Raman by other external force F and deviates from the trap center in a
spectrometer method. The theoretical accuracy of this method is new balanced positon, the optical trap force and external force are
up to 6.94 mN and the sensor is mainly used to realize non-contact balanced. Within a range of the trap center, the particle offset x
measurement. However, this method exhibits some disadvantages, from the trap center is in proportional to the optical trap force,
such as the slow detection speed and poor real-time capacity of which can be seen from Fig. 13. Resolution of optical tweezers can
measuring multidimensional information. The second one is using reach nN or sub-nN level. In this way, one can know the value of
precision Laser Interferometer to detect micro-force with an accu- the external force. The use of optical tweezers has advantages of
racy up to 66 mN. This method is primarily used for non-contact non-contact, no mechanical damage, etc. Because optical tweez-
measurement, accessing micro-force information and the relative ers manipulate micro-objects and also measure micro-forces over
position information in the meantime. But it is difficult to measure a wide range (0.01–1000 pN), which is especially useful in dealing
the force of multidimensional information. Third, some researchers with living cells and non-spherical partials [63,64]. However, the
use AFM to measure the micro-force. For example, Faucher used manufacturing costs are high [65].
AFM to measure micro-force and a detecting accuracy of 0.2 nN Optical force sensors usually contain a load transduction
was achieved. Finally, optical tweezers can be used to measure medium for accepting the applied force, a light source (light emit-
micro-force. The optical tweezers originate from the existence ting diode, laser or halogen lamp), a photo-detector (a photodiode
of momentum transfer between photons and material particles, or a CCD camera) to sense ranks of illumination, refractive index,
which make the light beams able to exert forces in the piconewton or the spectrum of the light source varying with the deformation of
 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374 365

Fig. 14. The system components of an optical force sensor [66].

the load transduction medium [33]. In addition, a circuitry is also

necessary for transferring the detected variation into an inductive
output signals.
The method of using optical tweezers is the most promising
way to measure the micro-force among these four methods. In
the literature, Farré et al. [66] designed a single-beam gradient-
trap system (see Fig. 14), which can trap non-spherical partial Fig. 15. The block diagram of the working process of a typical vision-based force
with arbitrary intensity profiles and measure the forces in homoge- sensor [69].
neous buffers with unknown viscosity and/or refractive index, and
it does not require continued recalibration. Moreover, this method
the force. As compared with other sensing methods, vision-based
is easy and economical to implement. Jannasch et al. [67] makes
force sensor can be easily implemented, as microscope is a nec-
single-beam optical trap produce an optical force more than a
essary device in micro manipulation, and it can measure the force
nanonewton by using anti-reflection coated, high-refractive-index
reliably. What more, it can be used along with existing elastic parts,
core–shell particles composed of titania, which increases the mea-
and it is different from strain gauge-based force sensor. The detect-
surable force range and broadens the scope of application of optical
ing accuracy is in milli-newton (mN) or sub-milli-newton (sub-mN)
trap. Montange et al. [68] reduces the force error in the process of
level. It can achieve a nano-Newton resolution in measuring static
measurement by optimizing bead size. What more, this method
forces. Visual feedback is able to detect most of the common fail-
might also improve the force accuracy.
ures. However, it does not always ensure a high reliability in terms
of efficacy or efficiency, because visual feedback usually cannot
2.6. Vision-based force sensor detect small movement of the object and give an immediate feed-
back. Furthermore, visual control may no longer be feasible in the
Vision-based force sensors are based on processing the images case that an obstacle blocks the view. It has a limitation which
acquired at different times and using some algorithm to calculate arises from the tradeoff between depth of focus and magnification.

Fig. 16. (a) A system of an vision-based force sensor [69]. (b) Setup of the force sensor [69].
366 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

Fig. 18. The structure of the fluid-type tactile sensor [73].

Fig. 17. Vision-based force-sensing algorithm using ink dots [71].

this kind of EAPs possesses greater mechanical energy density and

Moreover, it needs time to process the image, making low speed can hold the displacement while actuated under DC supply. On the
sometimes. The vision-based force sensors use the camera to collect
other hand, ionic EAPs are materials that are composed of two elec-
information, such as position information, deflection, displacement trodes and electrolyte and have mobility or diffusion of ions. The
and contour data, to sense the force. Then, the manipulator can be ionic EAP can be activated by a relatively low voltage to induce a
operated according to the sensed force (see Fig. 15 [69]).
large bending displacement. Ionic EAPs include ionic polymer gels,
Greminger and Nelson [70] measured the force distribution of ionic polymer-metal composites, conductive polymers and carbon
a linearly elastic object by using the contour data of an image nanotubes. Ionic-based polymers need a small actuated voltage, but
and applying the Dirichlet to Neumann map. He used an energy
it is hard to maintain a constant position. They can be used as actu-
minimization method to match the deformed template (an elas- ators or sensors. As actuators, they can generate a large amount
tic object) to the contour data in the image, making the algorithm of deformations when they are activated. Similarly, they can be
feasible for real-time application. Han et al. [69] designed a real-
used as sensors by using its inverse effect. They will exhibit large
time vision guided micromanipulation system, which is able to strain when subjected to electrical stimulation, which is similar to
provide precise controlled stress to biological cells repeatability biological tissues according to achievable stress and force, making
(see Fig. 16). Ananthasuresh et al. [71] utilized ink dots placed on the
them be the best candidate for emulating natural muscles, namely
gripper to act as measurement points for force-sensing algorithm, “artificial muscles” [75].
as shown in the Fig. 17. This method can estimate not only the Piezoelectric force sensors perform well in dynamic mode, due
force acting on the grasped object but also the force on the gripper
to their small dimensions and high stiffness. However, they are
itself. Cappelleri et al. [72] designed a two-dimensional (2D), com- not able to measure static forces [3]. The input impedance of the
puter vision-based, force sensing device, which includes an elastic interface electronics significantly affects the response of the device,
mechanism with known force-deflection characteristics. The actual
which should be considered during the sensor design. Table 1
manipulation force can be obtained by observing the deformation [76] shows a comparison of the characteristics of electronic and
of a calibrated structure as it interacts with an object being manip- ionic EAP. The most extraordinary advantage of piezoelectric force
ulated. Ito et al. [73] used a novel vision-based fluid-type tactile
sensor is their range of measurement, extended from milli- to
sensor to measure multi-axis contact force. The proposed sensor mega-newtons. They have excellent amplification capability (up
can estimate the multimodal tactile information, such as the slip- to 105), high accuracy and fine resolution when measuring small
page, the shape, the contact region and the location of the contacted
force changes in the presence of a much larger background force.
object, which is based on the calculation of the tensional force of These sensors show a very good high-frequency response, making
the elastic membrane. In addition, it can also estimate the inner them be an ideal candidate for measuring vibrations. The sizes of
pressure of the fluid-type tactile sensor. The structure of the sensor
piezoelectric force sensors are smaller but they are more expensive.
can be seen from Fig. 18. Chang et al. [74] designed a polyurethane
microgripper system with force sensor for measuring the gripping
force in a vision-based system. In the computer-vision method, the 2.7.1. PZT force sensor
ERES (Extended Regional Edge Statistics) algorithm is employed to Piezoelectric force sensor utilizes the direct piezoelectric effect
track the motion of gripper. The method utilizes the position infor- to measures its strain or displacement. Brothers Pierre and Jacques
mation of the gripping point and the deflection of the force sensing Curie firstly demonstrated the direct piezoelectric effect in 1880
arm to sense the force. by finding electric dipole (developing potential difference) in
anisotropic natural crystals subjected to mechanical stress. When
2.7. Electroactive force sensor a stress is applied on a piezoelectric material, there will be
electric charge generation, which is called “direct piezoelectric
EAPs (electroactive polymers) are materials that can exhibit sig- effect”. Piezoelectric sensor detection accuracy can be achieved in
nificant shape and size change when electrical stimulation acts on micro-newton or sub-micro-newton level. Because of its excellent
them. According to the activation mechanism, they can be classi- resistance, flexibility, high mechanical strength, good plasticity,
fied into two major categories, electronic and ionic EAPs. Electronic high power density, high bandwidth, high efficiency, impact resis-
polymers need large activation voltage. They are well studied and tant and anti-aging, it is more suitable for installation in the
easy to control. Electrostatic, piezoelectric and ferroelectric belongs occasions with relatively high detection accuracy requirement. Its
to the electronic EAP, which is driven by coulomb forces. Typically, working principle can be observed from the Fig. 19.
 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374 367

Table 1
Properties of electronic and ionic EAPs [76].

Properties Electronic EAP Ionic EAP

Activation voltage Large Small

Controllability Easy Difficult
Energy density Good Poor
Mechanism Coulomb forces Mobility or Diffusion of ions
Electrolyte Absent (dry) Present (wet)
Displacement Changes shape or dimensions Bending
Examples Electrostrictive, Elastomers, Electrostatic, Piezoelectric, Ferroelectric, Polymers Ionic Polymer Gels (IPG), Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMC)

Fig. 19. Diagram of the direct piezoelectric effect [6].

Fig. 21. The structure of a 2-D PVDF force sensor [33].

workability, chemical stability, piezoelectric effect, and pyroelec-

Fig. 20. The structure of the compact piezoelectric force sensor [77].
tric effect. The PVDF film is extensively used in dynamic force
sensing, such as vibration sensing utilizing the fact that an output
In the literature, Kurita et al. [77] designed a compact and high- voltage of the film is proportional to the strain velocity [84]. It is
performance piezoelectric force sensor for a tweezers, which can impossible to detect a static force by the output voltage of the film
measure the force and displacement simultaneously. The tweez- alone. A schematic diagram of a 2-D PVDF force sensor is shown in
ers is actuated by serially connected piezoelectric stack actuators Fig. 21.
which are contained in the end effector and one of them acts as a Yuji et al. [85] designed a tactile sensor for measuring the static
force sensor. Moreover, in order to get larger stroke and tip force, contact force and contact temperature of an object by using a PVDF
the author designed a rhombus strain amplification mechanism. film and detecting the static force by using the capacitance change
The structure can be seen from Fig. 20. The results show that the of the special sponge. PVDF is widely used for measuring low
device has 1.0-N force and 8.8-mm displacement at the tip and dynamic forces due to its response to a wide range of frequencies,
has mean error of 0.086 N for force and 0.39 mm for displacement, relatively high mechanical strength, and high sensitivity. Qasaimeh
which are equivalent to 11% of their maximum measurable values, et al. [86] designed a miniaturized tactile sensor, which can mea-
respectively. sure the force and position in minimally invasive surgery (MIS).
The new tactile sensor is specially designed for MIS applications
2.7.2. PVDF force sensor because of its some excellent properties, such as low manufac-
Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) is one of the most popular turing costs, biocompatibility, and the portable ability to integrate
piezoelectric materials in micromanipulation and micro-assembly with the existing commercial endoscopic graspers. The structure is
due to its unexceptional properties [78–81]. It has many applica- shown in Fig. 22. Chen et al. [87] designed an integrated actuator
tions in biological and electric devices, such as artificial muscles, with sensor, where PVDF films are utilized to offer simultaneous
microgripper, and force sensor. PVDF film is a polymer with very feedback of bending and force outputs of the IPMC actuator. The
high piezoelectric voltage coefficient and has flexibility and batch design uses differential configurations for sensing, eliminating cor-
fabrication compatibility [82,83]. PVDF are thin, flexible, light and ruption of sensing signals by feedthrough of actuation signal or by
particularly appropriate to fabricate a portable sensing facility. thermal drift. The structure can be seen from Fig. 23. Liu et al. [88]
Moreover, PVDF film is one of the widely used tactile sensor presented the modeling method of a PVDF sensor and the trans-
materials due to its some excellent properties, such as flexibility, formation between the micro interactive force and the output of
368 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

Fig. 24. The structure of soft bending pneumatic actuator with PVDF force sensor
[75].

Fig. 22. The structure of teeth-like sensor [86].

Fig. 25. The structure of PVDF patch sensor [94].

with electric field on the nanotribological properties of PVDF films,

because it is significant to understand friction, adhesion, and wear
mechanisms of PVDF in microworld. They found that as the electric
field increases, the adhesion and friction of piezoelectric materials
increase because of the effect of their piezo-electricity with highly
piezoelectric materials.
Fig. 23. The structure of integrated IPMC/PVDF sensory actuator [87]. To reduce adhesion and friction, lubricant can be applied on
their surfaces. Shapiro et al. [75] measured the deformation of a soft
the sensor. According to the results of experiments, the sensor’s bending pneumatic actuator, Bi-bellows, by embedding Polyvinyli-
resolution is in sub-uN level. dene fluoride (PVDF) film sensors onto it, making easier to control
Piezoelectric polymers, the polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), and flexible actuators. The structure of PVDF is thinner, and there exits
its copolymer, the PVDF trifluoroethylene (PVDF-TrFE), are suit- the shear locking problems when analyzing force electric coupling.
able for tactile sensors due to their good mechanical flexibility, Han et al. [91] introduced an idea that makes a coupled modal
biocompatibility, and excellent sensitivity, particularly in harsh analysis on PVDF through finite element analysis with ANSYS by
and biological environments. Unfortunately, it is not compatible mainly considering the structure and the interaction of electric
with conventional microfabrication processes to induce piezoelec- field and the piezoelectric coupling interaction between the struc-
tric properties into this material, because it requires mechanical ture and the electric field which is highly nonlinear. So, it uses a
stretching. The presence of the PVDF-TrFE film introduces sig- direct coupling solution, which can also improve the accuracy of
nificant properties to the PVDF homopolymer, which can make the simulation calculation. Fujita et al. [92] proposed a novel sen-
up the deficiency of PVDF to some extent. First, it increases sor to monitor the heartbeat and respiration, which is made on a
the tendency to crystallize in the polarb-phase without requir- flexible thin film of P(VDF/TrFE) as a sensing material and PDMS
ing mechanical stretching. Additionally, the PVDF-TrFE presents (poly dimethyl siloxane) as a substrate material. The structure can
a higher level of piezoelectricity than its predecessor. Among be seen from Fig. 24. Krajewski et al. [93] designed a 2D flexible
the PVDF-TrFE copolymers, the copolymer at composition near sensors by integrating conductive fibrous electrodes and piezo-
75/25 mol.% demonstrates the highest ferroelectric responses. Li electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) fibers into a conventional
et al. [89] illustrated a new mold-transfer method to pattern piezo- plain woven polyester fabric. The surface area offered by piezo-
electric polymer and fabricated innovative dome and bump shape electric fibres is greater than that offered by a film in flexibility and
PVDF-TrFE films, which are utilized as sensing components for flex- wearable technologies.
ible tactile sensors, achieving a high sensitivity which can measure In addition, Tohluebaji et al. [95] designed a piezoelectric
as small as 40 mN force for bump shape sensors and 25 mN for dome polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) patch for detecting the movement
shape sensors. Lee et al. [90] studied the effect of piezoelectricity of the biceps brachii muscle. The structure is shown in Fig. 25.
 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374 369

Fig. 26. The different kinds of applications of IPMC [76].

Table 2
Physical properties of PZT and PVDF [96].

Properties Units PVDF PZT

Density 103 kg/m3 1.78 7.5

Relative permittivity / 0 12 1200
Piezo stress constant (10−3 ) Vm/N 216 10
Acoustic impedance (106 ) kg/m2 s 2.7 30

Fig. 27. A inductive force sensor with variable impedances [16].

2.7.3. Comparison between PZT and PVDF force sensors

The performance of typical PZT and PVDF force sensors are sum-
marized in Tables 2 and 3. It is found that both the piezoelectric
strain constants (d coefficients) and the pyroelectric coefficients of
the polymers are very low in contrast with those of PZT-4. How-
ever, the low permittivities of the polymers give rise to high values
of the piezoelectric voltage constants (d/ 0) and pyroelectric volt-
age figure-of-merit (proportional to p/ ). The acoustic impedances
of the polymers are much lower than those of ceramic materials
and much closer to those of water and air. The polymers have many
excellent properties, such as very thin, large area sheets, high sensi-
tivity, relatively inexpensive and wide range of frequency response.
After comparing the properties, it can be known that PVDF has bet- Fig. 28. Schematic diagram of electrodynamic force sensor’s compensation princi-
ter performance that PZT. For instance, the piezoelectric constant ple.
of PVDF is ten times more than that of PZT, which means that PVDF
sensor is able to generate ten times of output voltage more than
that of PZT under the same force.

2.8. Other techniques for micro-force sensing

In addition to the above-mentioned force sensors, available

micro-force sensors also include IPMC force sensor, inductive micro Fig. 29. An application of resonant force sensors [16].
force sensor, electrodynamic force sensor, microresonator force
sensor, and acoustic force sensor. At present, these micro-force bending deformation under low driving voltages, which transforms
sensors are confined to special component measurements. How- electrical energy to mechanical energy. Consequently, they can be
ever, they are likely to be applied in other aspects because of their used in various fields as illustrated in Fig. 26. They perform best in a
particular advantages. Here, these sensing methods are introduced humid environment and also can be made as self-contained encap-
briefly. sulated actuators to work in dry environments. Generally, IPMC is
capable of sensing and actuating in harsh conditions. Moreover,
2.8.1. IPMC force sensor IPMC materials have other excellent properties, such as insensitiv-
IPMCs are regarded as one of the most promising materials ity to magnetic fields, simple fabrication processes, and properties
because of the fact that they have light weight and can make large to be used as bidirectional material because of their biocompati-
370 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

Table 3
Physical properties of polymers and a ferroelectric [88].

Property Units PVDF P(VDF/TrEE) PZT-4

−1
Piezoelectric coefficient (d31 ) p CN 16.5 7 −123
−1
Piezoelectric coefficient (d33 ) p CN −33 −38 289
−1
Piezoelectric coefficient (d15 ) p CN −15.7 −31 −496
Elastic coefficient(c33 ) GPa 10 11 115
Relative permittivity( 3 ) – 9 7 1300
−2 −1
Pyroelectric coefficient(p3 ) u Cm K 25 31 289
Acoustic impedance(Z3 ) Pasm−1 4.2 × 106 4.4 × 106 3.0 × 107

Fig. 30. SAW transducer with two banks of four OFC reflectors and antenna [16].

bility. Furthermore, it can be used as either actuators or sensors. Some micromechanical resonators are manufactured utilizing
Yet, controlling a somewhat complicated material as mechanical, the “epi-seal” process in single crystal silicon and encapsulated
electrical and chemical properties interacting with each other in with epitaxially deposited polysilicon [99], which show a high per-
the ionic polymer remains a challenging issue [76]. What more, formance (Fig. 29).
disadvantages of their time-varying performance and mechanical
hysteresis in IPMC materials cannot be neglected.
2.8.5. Acoustic force sensor
2.8.2. Inductive micro-force sensor An acoustic force sensor is a facility in which an (ultra) sonic
Inductive force sensors are based on variable inductance, which signal is utilized as an intermediate media between its input (force)
can be caused by different factors, such as variation of transformer, and output. There are many acoustic methods to measure the force.
reluctance, impedance and mutual inductance [97]. Moreover, a And the surface acoustic wave (SAW) method is very primary.
special inductive force sensor turns to integrate a position sensor As shown in Fig. 30, A SAW force sensor that uses four orthogonal
with a force-to-displacement converter to measure the force [97]. frequency coded (OFC) reflectors in two same banks [16]. The radio
The detect accuracy of inductive force sensors are in mN level [16] frequency (RF) energy is gathered by the antenna and then turned
(Fig. 27). into mechanical waves from electrical energy by the interdigital
transducer (IDT) on the surface of the material. The IDT is bidirec-
tional and hence produces waves in two directions. The waves go
2.8.3. Electrodynamic force sensor across the substrate and meet the four reflector gratings contained
Electrodynamic force sensor relies on the principle of electro- in each reflector bank. The waves are reflected back to the IDT in
magnetic force compensation (EMFC) (see Fig. 28). It is universally different time delays (sD1 and sD2) and then turned into electri-
acknowledged that a force will be generated when current flow in cal energy. And the electrical energy is radiated out of the antenna
a magnetic field. The generated force will be proportional to the as RF energy [16]. This variation in the SAW transducer frequency
current if the magnetic field B and the path length L are constant, is proportional to the force applied on the surface. The detecting
which can be utilized to sense the force. Lorentz force induced by accuracy of inductive force sensors are in mN level.
a current in a coil and a magnetic field of a permanent magnet are
used to compensate for the applied force. The detecting accuracy
of inductive force sensors are in uN level [16]. 3. Commercial micro-force sensors

2.8.4. Microresonator force sensor In order to help readers engaged in the area of micro-force sens-
The resonant force sensors rely on measuring the change in ing to know the existing commercial micro-force sensors, two kinds
the resonant frequency of an elastic element, according to the fact of widely adopted micro-force sensors are listed below.
that the resonant frequency of a vibrating micromechanical struc-
ture is greatly sensitive to some specific parameters, e.g. resonator
stiffness or geometry. 3.1. FT-S micro-force sensing probe
Electromechanical resonators possess wonderful stability and
potentially low hysteresis [98]. These digital force sensors have As show in Fig. 31, the FemtoTools FT-S Microforce Sensing
some outstanding advantages—the output can be measured pre- Probes are micro-force sensors capable of measuring compres-
cisely without the necessity of expensive frequency counters; high sion and tension forces. And its measurement range is from 100
immunity to the change in electrical characteristics with time; high millinewtons (0.1 N) down to several nanonewtons (10 −9 N) along
immunity to degradation of transmitted signals by electrical inter- the sensor’s probe axis, as tabulated in Table 4. These force sensors
ference. The detecting accuracy of inductive force sensors are in have outstanding long-term stability and low signal drift guaran-
mN and sub-mN levels. tees.
 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374 371

Table 4
Commercial micro-force sensors produced by FemtoTools.

Sensor Force range Sensitivity Resolution Sensing method

FT-S100 ±100 mN 50 mN/V 0.005 mN Capacitive

FT-S1000 ±1’000 mN 500 mN/V 0.05 mN Capacitive
FT-S10000 ±10’000 mN 5000 mN/V 0.5 mN Capacitive
FT-S100000 ±100’000 mN 50000 mN/V 5 mN Capacitive

Table 5
Properties of seven widely used micro-force sensors.

Sensor type Working principle Resolution Advantages Disadvantages

Strain gauge-based change in resistance mN or sub-mN • good sensitivity • temperature dependence

force sensor • high signal-to-noise ratio at • signal loss
sub-newton force levels • susceptible to noise and humidity
• compact • hysteresis
• methods are mature, • non-linearity
• simple and with wide measuring • need calibration
range
• low cost

Piezoresisitive force change in resistance mN or sub-mN • simple and easy to use • sensitive to temperature
sensor • wide measuring range • rigid and fragile
• methods are mature • higher power consumption
• wide measurement range • hysteresis
• maintenance-free • lower repeatability
• high spatial resolution • limitation in miniaturization

Capacitive force sensor change in capacitance mN or sub-mN • low energy consumption • complicated circuit
• high sensitivity • susceptible to noise
• good spatial resolution
• flexibility to environment
• embedded monolithically
• large bandwidth
• robustness
• drift-free

Piezoelectric force direct piezoelectric mN or sub-mN • excellent resistance • charge leakages

sensor effect • flexibility • poor spatial resolution
• high mechanical strength • not suitable for static force
• good plasticity measurement
• impact resistant
• anti-aging
• relatively high accuracy
• high power density
• high bandwidth
• high efficiency
• reliability
• small size
• high frequency response

Piezomagnetic force magnetoelastic effect mN or sub-mN • simple to install • relatively low amplitude of output
sensor • suitable for both dynamic force and voltage
static force
• simple amplification circuit
• good ability to resist overload
• strong anti-interference ability.

Optical force sensor light intensity or 0.01 to 1000 pN • high spatial resolution for static and • high cost
spectrum change dynamic measurements • bulky
• good reliability • low measurement range
• high repeatability

Vision-based force compare images of mN or sub-mN • easy to implement • low depth of focus
sensor putting stress and not • measure static force reliably • small dynamics range
• adaptability with existing elastic • bad flexibility
parts • expensive
• high measurement range • bulky

3.2. The AE801 series sensor element produced by Kronex (see Fig. 32). It is easy to mount, reliable, and greatly accurate. The
sensor element has many applications, such as R&D, medical, indus-
The AE801 series sensor element is designed to measure trial control, and instrumentation. The AE801 is most often used to
mechanical properties such as position, force, and acceleration. The measure small forces, and it works well when measuring forces as
sensor is composed of a silicon strain gauge with one ion implanted small as 1 micro-newton.
resister on each side and is mounted in a special miniature header
372 Y. Wei, Q. Xu / Sensors and Actuators A 234 (2015) 359–374

micro-force sensors, the piezoelectric force sensor is able to mea-

sure the micro-force in the range of nN responsibly and accurately.
Among lots of piezoelectric materials, the lead zirconate-titanate
piezoelectric ceramics (PZT) is widely used. As compared to PZT,
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) has better performance because
of its high sensitivity, compliance, and wide range of frequency
response. The performance of the seven types of micro-force sen-
sors are compared in terms of their working principles, resolutions,
advantages and disadvantages, as summarized in Table 5.
In this paper, seven widely used micro-force sensing methods
are presented in detail, covering the working principle analysis,
resolution, different applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Another five kinds of not widely used or confined to measure
special components are briefly introduced, including the working
principle, resolution and some applications. Moreover, two kinds
Fig. 31. The outlook of a FT-S Micro-force Sensing Probe using capacitive
of widely adopted commercial micro-force sensors are also intro-
force sensor (http://www.femtotools.com/products/accessories/ft-s-microforce- duced to provide a guideline of selecting the right type of sensors
sensing-probe/). for a specific application raised by the user.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Macao Science and Technol-

ogy Development Fund under Grant No.: 052/2014/A1 and the
Research Committee of the University of Macau under Grant Nos.:
MYRG083(L1-Y2)-FST12-XQS and MYRG078(Y1-L2)-FST13-XQS.

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