Revision Notes: History Class

Chapter 8: The Great Civilization of the Persians

The Persians ruled the greatest pre-Islamic empire which stretched from Egypt to the River Indus. Cyrus
the Great created the empire and he was succeeded by his son, Cambyses. Cambyses’ son-in-law, Darius
I, succeeded him and was known for his efficient government and his innovations: he built the Royal
Road, introduced a monetary system, divided his empire into twenty-three provinces, and the Behistun
Inscription details his conquests and accession in three languages. The Persians also developed a system
of transporting water, called ‘qanat’, which is still in use in Iran and Balochistan in Pakistan.

Key points
• Nomadic tribesmen entered Western Asia, settled in south Iran, defeated the Medes and went
on to carve out a huge Persian Empire.
• Cyrus the Great founded the Persian Empire and it became known for its learning and advanced
engineering techniques.
• The religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, based on belief in one God called Ahura-
Mazda.
• The great reign of Darius I whose administration and innovations are worthy of note
• The Persians were in conflict with the Greeks till Alexander conquered Persia in 331 BCE.
• The advanced water system and the Royal Road of the Persians

Chapter 9: The Ancient Greek Civilization and Learning

The influence of the Ancient Greek Civilization has been wide and long-lasting, and can be seen in many
parts of the world. The Greek system of government i.e. democracy, classical learning in literature and
mythology, philosophy and the sciences, architectural style, and the life of Alexander of Macedon who
conquered a large part of the then known world and left Greek influence there are some factors.

Key points
• The Ancient Greek civilization has given a lot to the world then and now.
• The Greek culture grew around their coastal towns which became city-states.
• The two best-known city-states are Athens and Sparta. Athenians were cultured and educated,
while Spartans were experts in the martial arts.
• The religion of the Greeks is recorded in Greek mythology which is often quoted in Western
literature.
• The Greek system of government–democracy–has been a legacy to the western world and other
countries.
• Drama, theatre, architecture, the Olympic Games, and Greek learning in mathematics, history,
and philosophy are legacies of this civilization.
• The history of Alexander of Macedon and his ambition to conquer the world have inspired
others
Chapter 10: Rome: From Republic to Empire

The Roman Civilization has left a lasting impression on world history, and its power and glory has been
the subject of books since then. The Roman Civilization grew around the River Tiber in Italy and became
prosperous because of the fertile agricultural land around it. The Roman army soon conquered other
lands and expanded Rome’s influence over Europe, North Africa and Asia Minor (Syria and Palestine).
Roman government was exceptional in its systems and enabled the Romans to control their large
empire.

Key points

• The growth of the Roman Empire was dependent on its well-trained army.
• Romans were road builders; the roads enabled their armies to move quickly and easily for
conquest.
• The system of government changed from kingship to a republic with elections to the Senate.
• The Roman administration of its state and the empire it built
• The highly-developed, prosperous, and cultured life-style of the Romans
• Roman religion was influenced by that of the Greeks in many ways. The Roman calendar of
twelve months is very like the one used today.
• The coming of Christianity and how it first faced persecution by the Romans; it later became the
state religion.
• The breakup of the empire due to invasions by tribes of barbarians

Chapter 11: The Dawn of Islam

The invasion of Sindh by Mohammad bin Qasim left a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent. The
Umayyad Khalifa in Damascus had sent his army under the leadership of a young general who defeated
Raja Dahir and established his rule in Sindh, according to Islamic principles.

Key Points

• The impact of Islam on Arabia

Chapter 12: Turkish Muslims Conquer Northern India

The north-west of the subcontinent and the Khyber Pass became the route into India for the Turks who
conquered the region in the 10th century. The first invader was Mahmud of Ghazni and he came into
India seventeen times, but did not stay to build an empire. It was Muhammad of Ghor who set up the
first Muslim dynastic rule in India. He had no heirs and the sultanate he founded was continued by his
generals, who were slaves. Qutbuddin Aibak became the first Sultan of the Slave Dynasty followed by
Iltutmush, Razia Sultana, and Balban. All proved to be competent rulers.

Key points

• After Mohammad bin Qasim, the next invasion of the subcontinent came from the northwest of
India. Turkish Muslims from Central Asia set up the Delhi Sultanate and would rule for 335 years.
• The nomadic tribes of Central Asia converted to Islam and set up kingdoms. Ghazni’s ruler
Mahmud invaded India seventeen times. Already a ruler of a large empire in Central Asia,
Mahmud is a controversial figure in history.
• Ghazni became a centre of learning as well as a place of fine architecture. Two important
books—Kitab-ul-Hind and Shahnama—were written during Mahmud of Ghazni’s rule.
• Muhammad of Ghor set up his kingdom in India and ruled till 1206. He was succeeded by
Qutbuddin Aibak of the Slave Dynasty. The Quwwatul Islam Mosque and the Qutb Minar in
Delhi were built by him. The powerful ‘Forty Nobles’ supported the Sultans.
• Iltutmush, the next ruler, had to consolidate his power by defeating the Rajputs and other
rulers; he established a good administration.
• Razia Sultana succeeded her father, Iltutmush, but the ‘Nobles’ did not support her.

Chapter 13: Afghans and the Sultanate of Delhi

The Afghans took over the Delhi Sultanate from the Turks when the Khilji dynasty was established by
Jalaluddin Khilji in 1290. He was replaced by his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khilji who ruled
successfully for the next twenty years and proved to be a strong and strict ruler. The Forty Nobles
decided to make Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq the next ruler as the Khiljis had become weak. Two Tughlaq
rulers—Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Feroz Tughlaq—made a great impact with their policies. The
traveller Ibn Batuta visited India at this time and served at the court of Muhammad Tughlaq.

Key points

• The Delhi Sultanate passed into the hands of the Afghan Khiljis and Tughlaqs.
• Alauddin Khilji extended the size of the Sultanate and proved to be an able ruler.
• Malik Kafur became close to Alauddin Khilji and started to intrigue to keep the power in his
hands.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s controversial reign included a change of capital, and the introduction
of copper currency. Ibn Batuta lived at his court and has given an account of the Sultan’s reign.
• Feroz Tughlaq proved to be a benign ruler who looked after the welfare of the people Like the
Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan, he also constructed a lot of buildings, gardens, bridges, etc.
• During this time Mongol invasions continued and Timur’s invasion in 1398 effectively led to the
downfall of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties carried on as rulers of a weaker sultanate till 1526 when Babur
defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat.
 • During the time of the Sayyids and Lodhis, reform movements in Hinduism took place such as
the Bhakti movement by Kabir and Chaitanya, and the founding of the Sikh religion by Guru
Nanak.

Chapter 14: The Making of Hindu and Regional Kingdoms

The weakening of the Delhi Sultanate led to regional states becoming independent. The prominent ones
were Bengal, Kashmir, Jaunpur, the Rajput states in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa, and the Deccan states of
Bahmani and Vijayanagar. All these states copied the pomp of the Delhi Sultans and ruled their
kingdoms as strong rulers.

Key points

• Many states became independent of the Sultanate; in the Deccan, the kingdoms of Vijayanagar
and Bahmani were powerful and independent.
• Both Kashmir and Bengal reached the heights of culture and became prosperous states.
• Jaunpur, named after Muhammad Tughlaq, became independent under the Sharqis and
developed into a place of learning and culture.
• Gujarat and Malwa became independent under Tughlaq governors. Gujarat, under Mahmud
Beghara, became a wealthy state and one of the best in India.
• The Muslim Sultans of the Bahmani kingdom to the south were powerful and developed ties
with the Ottoman Sultans and other countries. When the Bahmani kingdom weakened it broke
up into five smaller states, each independent of the others. However, they fought with each
other and could not unite to face a common enemy, the Vijayanagar kingdom, which defeated
and took them over.
• The Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar was impressive with grand buildings and great wealth.
Eventually, it fought with Ahmednagar and was divided up between other states.

Chapter 15: Social and Cultural Developments

This chapter sums up the Delhi Sultanate and its achievements in government, architecture, and
learning. The social and cultural changes that followed Muslim rule affected Indian society in many ways
as Islam was a different way of life. The Hindus continued their way of life and the Sultans did not
interfere; but they had to pay taxes. A new language, Urdu, developed and was used by both Hindus and
Muslims. During this period, many Sufi saints came to the subcontinent and spread Islam; they have left
reminders of their presence in the form of tombs which are visited by pilgrims all over India and
Pakistan.

Key points

• The Sultanate period brought great changes to the lives of the people of India. Many were
converted to Islam by the Sufis and the interaction with Muslims brought about a new cultural
exchange.
• The administration of the Sultans can be compared to any system of government today.
• The innovations of the Sultanate period were the building of roads, canals, and factories, and
introducing a good system of land taxes.
• The buildings left behind by the Sultans introduced a new style of architecture= incorporating
some local influences; but most buildings were more like those of Central Asia.
• Urdu evolved as a language used by both Hindus and Muslims.
• Sufi saints and their teachings were a distinctive feature of the Sultanate period.