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Cambridge (CIE) O Level Your notes

Computer Science
Computer Architecture
Contents
The CPU & Microprocessors
Von Neumann Architecture
The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
Characteristics of the CPU
CPU Instruction Sets
Embedded Systems

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The CPU & Microprocessors

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The CPU & Microprocessors
What is the purpose of the CPU?
The purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is to fetch, decode and execute instructions
The CPU is the brain of the computer and its job is to take an input, process data and produce an output
It is central to all devices including:
Laptops
Desktops
Games-Consoles
Mobile Devices
The words CPU and Microprocessor are interchangeable and can be used to mean the same thing
A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip
Data and commands are inputted by the user using an input device, the central processing unit (CPU)
processes data by executing instructions and the results are outputted to an output device
Below is an example of data being inputted, processed and the results being outputted

Step Example

Input A keyboard is used to input a number

Process If the instruction being executed is ADD, the inputted value is added to an existing value

Output The result of the calculation is outputted to the user via the monitor

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A diagram showing the input, process, output sequence followed by computer systems
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Von Neumann Architecture

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Von Neumann Architecture
What is the Von Neumann architecture?
The Von Neumann Architecture is a design of the CPU which was proposed by Mathematician John Von
Neumann in the 1940s, which most general-purpose computers are built upon
The Von Neumann Architecture outlines how the computer memory, input/output devices and
processor all work together

The Von-Neumann architecture

The Von Neumann architecture consists of:

Control unit (CU)
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
Registers
Buses
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What is the function of each component?

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Your notes

Performs arithmetic operations

Performs logical decisions
IF X > 5 THEN
DO ……….

Control unit (CU)

Coordinates how data moves around the CPU by sending a signal to control the movement of the
data
Decodes the instructions fetched from memory

Registers
Extremely small, extremely fast memory located in the CPU
Hold small amounts of data needed as part of the fetch-execute cycle
Each register has its own specific purpose
It consists of 5 main registers
The Program Counter (PC)
The Memory Address Register (MAR)
The Memory Data Register (MDR)
The Accumulator (ACC)
Current Instruction Register (CIR)
For each of the registers you must know
The name of the register
Its acronym
The purpose of the register

Name Acronym Purpose

Program Counter PC Holds the memory address of the next instructions to be

executed

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Increments by 1 as the fetch-decode-execute cycle runs

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Memory Address MAR Holds the memory address of where data or instructions are
Registers to be fetched from memory

Memory Data Register MDR Stores the data or instruction which has been fetched from
memory

Current Instruction CIR Stores the instruction the CPU is currently decoding or
Register executing

Accumulator ACC Stores the results of any calculations that have taken place in
the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Buses
Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by buses
A bus is a set of parallel wires through which data/signals are transmitted from one component to
another
There are 3 types of bus:
Address - unidirectional, carries location data (addresses), data is written to/read from
Data - bidirectional, carries data or instructions
Control - bidirectional, carries commands and control signals to tell components when they
should be receiving reads or writes etc..

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Your notes

EXAM TIP
If asked to describe the purpose of the PC, MAR or the MDR make sure you explain how the data is
being fetched or written to memory

WORKED EXAMPLE
Describe the role of the control unit, the control bus, the data bus and the address bus when
fetching an instruction from memory [4]
Answer
The address of memory (holding instruction) is placed on the address bus (1)
The control unit sends a signal (1) on the control bus (to start a read operation) (1)
The instruction is/the contents of the memory are placed on the data bus (1)

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The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle

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Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle (FDE)
What is the purpose of the CPU?
The purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is to fetch, decode and execute instructions
The CPU is the brain of the computer and its job is to take an input, process data and produce an output

What is the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle?

The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle is the cycle that the central processing unit (CPU) runs through
billions of times per second to make a computer work
A computer takes an input, processes the input and then delivers an output for the user
Input: Clicking a button on the gamepad
Process: The CPU inside the console follows a set of instructions to carry out the task
Output: The player moving on screen

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The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle stages

Fetch stage Your notes

During the fetch stage of the cycle, the program counter holds the address of the next instruction to
be fetched from memory
The address of the next instruction or data to be fetched is copied into the memory address register
(MAR)
The address of the instruction or data is then sent along the address bus and awaits a signal from the
control bus
The signal sent along the control bus is sent from the control unit (CU) to the main memory
The data or instructions received from main memory is fetched to the memory data register (MDR) via
the data bus
A copy of the instruction or data is stored in the current instruction register (CIR)
The program counter (PC) increments by 1 so it is pointing to the next instruction to be executed

Decode stage
During the decode stage of the cycle, the CPU needs to work out what is required from the
instruction
This is done as the instruction is split into two parts:
Opcode - what the instruction is
Operand - what to do it to
This could be either data or an address where the data is stored

Execute stage
During the execute stage of the cycle, the CPU will carry out the instruction that was fetched
Some examples that would take place at this stage are
Performing a calculation
Storing a result or data back in main memory (RAM)
Going to main memory to fetch data from a different location

The important things to remember are:

An instruction or data is fetched from memory

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The instruction is decoded

The instruction is executed Your notes
The cycle repeats billions of times per second

EXAM TIP
Make sure you read the question carefully and look at the number of marks allocated to judge the
level of detail required. Often questions on the fetch-decode-execute cycle only require you to
describe the steps rather than explain how the registers and buses are used during each step

WORKED EXAMPLE
Explain how an instruction is fetched using Von Neumann architecture
[6]
Answer
The Program Counter (PC) holds the address/location of the next instruction to be fetched [1]
The address held in the PC is sent to the Memory Address Register (MAR) [1]
The memory address is sent using the address bus [1]
The Program Counter is incremented [1]
The instruction is sent from the address in memory to the Memory Data Register (MDR) [1]
The instruction is transferred using the data bus [1]
The instruction is sent to the Current Instruction Register (CIR) [1]

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Characteristics of the CPU

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Characteristics of the CPU
What are the common characteristics of the CPU?
There are 3 common characteristics
Clock Speed
Cache Size
Number of Cores
Each of these characteristics has a significant impact on the performance of the CPU

How do the characteristics of the CPU affect performance?

Clock speed
The clock speed is measured in Hertz (Hz)
The clock speed measures the number of fetch-decode-execute cycles that can take place in 1
second
The faster the clock speed, the more instructions can be fetched and executed per second

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Modern computers have a clock speed in Gigahertz (GHz), meaning billion

A clock speed of 3.5GHz can perform up to 3.5 billion instructions per second Your notes
Cache size
Cache is very small, very fast memory on or close to the CPU
Cache is used as temporary storage to provide quick access to a copy of frequently used instructions
and data
The larger the cache size, the more frequently used instructions or data can be stored
This results in the CPU having to complete fewer fetch cycles from memory (RAM), speeding up the
performance
Cache also has a significantly faster read/write speed than RAM, making it much quicker to retrieve
instructions from there instead of from memory (RAM)

Number of cores
A core works like it is its own CPU
Multiple core processors mean they have multiple separate processing units that can fetch, decode
and execute instructions at the same time
For example, a dual-core processor would have 2 processing units, each with their own
Control Unit (CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Accumulator (ACC)
Registers
Multi-core processors can run more powerful programs with greater ease
Multiple cores increase the performance of the CPU by working with the clock speed
Example: A quad-core CPU (4 cores), running at a clock speed of 3Ghz
4 cores x 3GHz
4 x 3 billion instructions
12 billion instructions per second

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Your notes

WORKED EXAMPLE
One computer has a single core processor and the other has a dual core processor.
Explain why having a dual core processor might improve the performance of the computer
[2]
Answer
Any 2 from:
The computer with the dual core processor has two cores/double the amount of cores [1]
Parallel processing can take place [1]
Each core can execute a separate instruction at the same time [1]
Each core can process instructions independently of each other [1]

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CPU Instruction Sets

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CPU Instruction Sets
What is an Instruction set?
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
Each command has a binary code which is called machine code
The binary code is made up of an operation code (opcode) and an operand
The opcode is the operation to be performed
The operand is the location where the operation is to be performed in
The table below shows an example instruction set
Each instruction has a mnemonic that indicates what the instruction does alongside an example
binary code
After an instruction is decoded into an opcode and an operand, the CPU finds the opcode in the
processor’s instruction set
It then knows what operation to perform when executing the instruction

Instruction Mnemonic Binary code Command

Add ADD 10100001 Adds a value to the value currently stored in the accumulator
(ACC)

Subtract SUB 00100010 Subtract a value from the values stored in the accumulator

Load LDA 10111111 Load the value stored in a memory location into the
accumulator

Store STA 01100000 Store the value in the accumulator in a specific location in
memory

Stop HLT 00000000 Stop the program

Instruction lists are machine-specific

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A program created using one computer’s instruction set would not run on a computer containing a
processor made by a different manufacturer
Your notes
For example, a computer program created using Intel’s instruction set would not run on a device
containing an ARM processor

WORKED EXAMPLE
Using the instruction set in the table above what would be the operation if the instruction was
00100010 00000010?
[1]
Answer
Either of:
The operation would be SUB [1]
If the operand was raw data the complete instruction would be to subtract 2 from the value in
the accumulator [1]

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Embedded Systems
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Embedded Systems
What is an embedded system?
An embedded system is a computer system which is used to perform a dedicated function, inside a
larger mechanical unit
Examples of embedded systems include
Heating thermostats
Hospital equipment
Washing machines
Dishwashers
Coffee machines
Satellite navigation systems
Factory equipment
Security systems
Traffic lights

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Your notes

What are the properties of an embedded system?

They are small in size
They use less power than a general-purpose computer
They have a lower cost

EXAM TIP
Always use key examples from the list above and don’t try to use different examples such as a fridge
or kettle as these will not appear on mark schemes because although they have a single purpose,
most fridges and kettles do not have a CPU.

WORKED EXAMPLE
1) Tick two boxes below to show which are an example of an embedded system
[2]

Is it an example of an embedded system

Laptop

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Washing Machine

Mobile Phone Your notes

Car Engine Management System

2) Justify your choice to question 1

[2]
Answers
1) Tick two boxes below to show which are an example of an embedded system. [2]

Is it an example of an embedded system

Laptop

Washing Machine ✓

Mobile Phone

Car Engine Management System ✓

2) Justify your choice to question 1 [2]

Any two of:
A washing machine and car engine management system are not general-purpose computers [1]
A washing machine and car engine management system have a single purpose and are both
housed inside a larger mechanical unit [1]
A washing machine and car engine management system have a microprocessor [1]

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