Human and Social Biology

Ms. M Murray
 1. Explain the properties, role and importance of enzymes involved
in digestion.
2. Investigate the effects of temperature and pH on the activity of
the enzymes, amylase and catalase in the digestive process.

OBJECTIVES:
3. Identify the various structures of the digestive system.
4. Relate the structures of the digestive system to their functions.
5. Describe the processes of digestion and absorption of food in the
alimentary canal.
6. discuss the fate of the products of digestion after their absorption.
7. Relate the structure of a villus to the function of absorption.
8. Distinguish between egestion and excretion.
 DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH
• Mechanical digestion by teeth occurs in the mouth.

• Chemical digestion by enzymes in saliva also starts in the mouth.

• The enzyme in saliva is called salivary amylase.

 WHAT ARE ENZYMES?

• An enzyme is a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in living cells by

lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to occur. Enzymes are

biological catalysts that are not destroyed or permanently altered during the

reaction and can be used repeatedly.

 MORE ABOUT ENZYME

https://youtu.be/qgVFkRn8f10?si=pEhO000KIMY8IcJc
 Enzymes involved in digestion:
properties, role, and importance
Amylase
• Properties: A carbohydrate-digesting enzyme.

• Role: Breaks down starches into simpler sugars like maltose.

• Importance: Helps in the initial breakdown of carbohydrates in the mouth and

small intestine.

• Site of Production: Salivary glands (mouth) and pancreas (small intestine).

 Pepsin
•Properties: A protein-digesting enzyme that works in an acidic environment.

•Role: Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides in the stomach.

•Importance: Starts protein digestion in the stomach.

•Site of Production: Stomach (produced by gastric glands as pepsinogen, activated by acid).

 Lipase

• Properties: A fat-digesting enzyme.

• Role: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

• Importance: Essential for fat digestion and absorption in the small intestine.

• Site of Production: Pancreas (small intestine).

 Trypsin

• Properties: A protein-digesting enzyme that works in a neutral to slightly alkaline

environment.

• Role: Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids.

• Importance: Continues protein digestion in the small intestine.

• Site of Production: Pancreas (small intestine).

 Lactase

• Properties: An enzyme that breaks down lactose, a sugar found in milk.

• Role: Converts lactose into glucose and galactose.

• Importance: Helps digest dairy products, especially important for people with

lactose tolerance.

• Site of Production: Small intestine (produced by cells lining the small intestine).
 Sucrase

• Properties: A sugar-digesting enzyme.

• Role: Breaks down sucrose (table sugar) into glucose and fructose.

• Importance: Important for digesting dietary sugars.

• Site of Production: Small intestine (brush border cells).

 Peptidases

• Properties: Enzymes that break down peptides into amino acids.

• Role: Final breakdown of protein fragments into absorbable amino acids.

• Importance: Essential for protein absorption.

• Site of Production: Small intestine (brush border cells).

 To investigate the action of amylase on starch
• https://youtu.be/NqzRYwEvWpw?si=C_eEqK4wGt1uj9gv
Watch the video above to complete the table below.
Contents of test Iodine test tube Benedict’s test Conclusion

Starch + amylase Stays red-brown Turns brick red Starch is changed

to reducing sugar
Starch + boiled Blue-black Stays blue The starch
amylase remains
unchanged as
the enzyme is
destroyed
Starch + water Blue-black Stays blue The starch
remains
unchanged as no
enzyme present
The effects of Temperature and pH on Enzymes

• https://youtu.be/n9He_FK6nao?si=jGTCAgJqg4qm4X3b
 Temperature affects enzymes by influencing
their activity.
• Optimal Temperature: Each enzyme has a specific
temperature at which it works best (usually around 37°C for
human enzymes). At this temperature, the enzyme's activity is
highest.

• Increased Temperature: As temperature rises, enzyme activity

increases because molecules move faster, leading to more
frequent collisions between the enzyme and substrate.

• High Temperatures: If the temperature is too high, the enzyme

can denature, meaning it loses its shape and can no longer
function properly.

• Low Temperatures: At low temperatures, enzyme activity

slows down because the molecules move more slowly, reducing
the frequency of collisions.
pH affects enzymes by influencing their shape and function:
• Optimal pH: Each enzyme works best at a specific pH level (usually around pH 7
for enzymes in the human body). At this pH, the enzyme's shape is ideal for binding
to its substrate and performing its function.

• Extreme pH (too acidic or too alkaline): If the pH is too high or too low, the
enzyme can denature, meaning it loses its shape and becomes less effective or stops
working altogether.

• Changes in pH: Small changes in pH can alter the enzyme's structure, affecting its
ability to bind with the substrate and catalyze reactions.
THE STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
•Mouth: Chewing and saliva breakdown.

•Esophagus: Moves food to the stomach.

•Stomach: Mechanical and chemical digestion of food.

•Small Intestine: Digestion and absorption of nutrients.

•Liver: Produces bile for fat digestion.

•Gallbladder: Stores bile.

•Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and insulin.

•Large Intestine: Absorbs water and forms feces.

•Rectum & Anus: Store and expel waste.

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
 ALIMENTARY CANAL

• The alimentary canal, sometimes called the gut, is a tube running from the
mouth to the anus.

This tube is divided into distinct regions that perform special functions. Glands
(such as the salivary glands, liver and pancreas) pour various digestive juices into
the gut. Once digestion has occurred and valuable products have been absorbed
from the food molecules, any undigested food and other waste materials finally
pass out through the anus.
 MOVEMENT OF FOOD THROUGH THE
ALIMENTARY CANAL
Swallowing
▪ We use our tongue to roll food into a ball called bolus and push this to the back
of the mouth (pharynx).
▪ Food passes from mouth to the oesophagus (tube goes to stomach), by
swallowing.
▪ The epiglottis prevents food going down the trachea (going down the wrong
way).
Peristalsis
• Gravity helps liquids down the oesophagus, but muscles are important too.
• The alimentary canal has circular and longitudinal muscles in its walls, which
contract and relaxes alternately to churn the food and force it along.
• The movement is called peristalsis.
The Stomach
• Food enters the stomach, a bag-like structure from the oesophagus.
• Muscle contract to churn food in the stomach and mix with the stomach juices.
• The pyloric sphincter at the other end of the stomach retains the food until it is
digested and liquid. This is and opening controlled by circular muscle; this
allows food to pass through when relaxed. A meal rich in protein or fat may
remain in the stomach for 1 to 3 hours.
• The stomach wall secretes gastric juice, which contains dilute hydrochloric
acid and protease enzymes. The acid stops the action of salivary amylase from
the mouth, which works best at a neutral pH, and provides the optimum
conditions conditions for the gastric enzymes.
• The hydrochloric acid also destroys some harmful bacteria in the stomach.
• The cells lining the stomach are protected from the acid by a layer of mucus.
• The pyloric sphincter relaxes to allow the liquid food to enter the duodenum a small
amount at a time.
• Small bulk is needed in our food for peristalsis to take place – so the gut to provide this
bulk.
The duodenum
• The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. Bile, pancreatic juice and
intestinal juice are poured onto the food in the duodenum.
Bile
• Bile is made in the liver. It is stored in the gall bladder and passes from the gall bladder,
down the bile duct, onto the food in the gut.
• Bile has no enzymes but contains salt which emulsify fats.
Pancreatic juice
• Pancreatic juice is also alkaline due to the presence of sodium bicarbonate. The
pancreatic juice passes down a duct from the pancreas to the duodenum. This
duct joins with the bile duct before entering the duodenum.
• Pancreatic juice contains three types of enzyme, carbohydrase, protease and
lipase, which continue the chemical breakdown of food molecules.
Absorption
• The ileum is the second part of the small intestine. The most important function
of the ileum is absorption. The lining of the ileum is specially adapted to increase
the surface area for absorption.
• The inner part of the ileum is shaped into many tiny finger-like structures called
villi (singular villus). The cells on the surface of each villus have many
projections called microvilli also called brush border and can be seen with an
electron microscope.
• A large surface area greatly increases the rate
of absorption by diffusion. The epithelial cells
of villi also speed up absorption of some
nutrients by active transport.

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7qTWNqbM
 ASSIMILATION
• refers to the process by which the absorbed nutrients from digested food are taken into the
cells of the body and utilized for growth, energy, and repair. After food is broken down into
its basic components (such as amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and vitamins) in the
digestive system, these nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream or lymphatic system
through the walls of the intestines.

• Once in the bloodstream, the nutrients are transported to various cells throughout the body.
Assimilation involves the cells using these nutrients for various metabolic processes—such
as energy production, building and repairing tissues, and supporting normal cellular
functions.

• In summary, assimilation is the final step in digestion, where absorbed nutrients are
incorporated into the body’s tissues and used for its functions.
 EXCRETION AND EGESTION
Excretion: is the process by which metabolic waste products, such as urea, carbon dioxide, and
excess salts, are removed from the body. These wastes are typically the result of cellular
metabolism (e.g., the breakdown of proteins or the production of energy).

Organs involved: Excretion primarily involves the kidneys (which filter blood to remove waste
products like urea and excess water), the lungs (which remove carbon dioxide), and the skin
(which excretes sweat containing salts, urea, and water).

Nature of waste: Excretory waste is usually in the form of liquids (urine, sweat) or gases (carbon
dioxide).

Purpose: The primary function of excretion is to maintain homeostasis by regulating the internal
environment of the body, particularly through the removal of toxic substances and the regulation
of water and salt balance.
Egestion: is the process by which undigested food and other waste products are expelled
from the digestive system. This refers to the elimination of material that could not be
broken down or absorbed by the body.
•Organs involved: Egestion occurs through the anus, where undigested food (such as
fiber) and waste products are expelled as feces.
•Nature of waste: Egested waste is typically solid, such as undigested food, fiber, and
bacteria, along with small amounts of metabolic waste (like dead cells).
•Purpose: Egestion serves to rid the body of indigestible substances, including dietary
fiber, and helps to maintain the overall function of the digestive system.