Historical evolution /development of computers of computers

Historical development of computers can be traced back to the time when humans were
struggling to invent tools that could simplify mathematical calculation.
Early discovery
The following are some of the tools invented as prerequisites or predecessors of modern or
electronic computers:
 -Abacus: The first computers machine was known as Abacus. An abacus was a Chinese
counting instrument which dates back to 3000 BC. The abacus has bead like parts that
move along rods. It was used for small volumes computing in china and Japan for
thousands of years
 Napier bones: Napier bones was developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician
in the 17th century who published his log tables in 1614. Napier bones was the first aid
of logarithms and helped in counting. It was made up of marked strips of wood or bone,
placed side by side to each other.
 -Slide Rule: A slide rule invented by William Oughtred in 17th century is a tool
that can be used to perform arithmetic operations and is based on the concept of
logarithms.
 Pascaline machine: In the 17th century, a Frenchman, Blaise Pascal invented the
La Pascaline machine also known as the mechanical calculator, the machine could
add and subtract numbers.
Start of computer Age
Analytical Engine: In the nineteenth century Charles Babbage, an English mathematician
designed the most outstanding developments in computing, a machine that could calculate a
long series of numbers and print the outcome. He called it the difference engine. Later in 1832,
he improved the design of the machine by incorporating the idea of programming using
punched cards. He called it the analytical engine. The analytical engine was able to combine
arithmetic process with decision. based on its own computer. It is recognized as a milestone
signifying the start of the computer age and Charles Babbage the “father” of the modern
computer, however it was never constructed.

Generation of Computers
First Generation (1951-1958) by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
The first generation of computers started with the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic
Computer) built by Mauchly and Eckert in 1951. It was sold to the U.S. Census Bureau. This
machine was dedicated to business data processing example payroll and record keeping and
not military or scientific purposes.

Characteristics
 Use of vacuum tubes in electronic circuits: These tubes controlled internal operations
and were huge. As a consequence, the machines were large.
 Magnetic drum; used as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents passed
through wires which magnetized the core to represent on and off states
 Limited main-storage capacity:
 Slow input/output, punched-card-oriented: Operators performed input and output
operations through the use of punched cards.
 Low level symbolic-language programming: The computer used machine language
which was cumbersome and accomplished through long strings of numbers made up of
Zeroes and Ones. In 1952, Dr. Grace Hopper developed a symbolic language called
mnemonics (instructions written with symbolic codes)
 Heat and maintenance problems: Special air-conditioning and maintenance were
required of the machines. The tubes gave off tremendous amounts of heat.
 Applications: payroll processing and record keeping though still oriented toward
scientific applications than business data processing.

Examples: IBM 650 UNIVAC I

Second Generation Computers

(1959-1964) Characteristics
 Use of transistors for internal operations: tiny solid state transistors replace vacuum
tubes in computers. The heat problem was then minimized and computers could be made
smaller and faster. The cost of the computers also reduced. Data access time was
measured in micro-seconds.
 Magnetic core as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents pass through wires
which magnetize the core to represent on and off states. Data in the cores can be found
and retrieved for processing in a few millionths of a second.
 Increased main-storage capacity: The internal or main storage was supplemented by
use of magnetic tapes for external storage. These tapes substituted for punched cards or
paper. Magnetic disks were also developed that stored information on circular tracks that
looked like phonograph records. The disks provided direct or random access to records in
a file.
 Faster input/output; tape orientation: Devices could be connected directly to the
computer and considered "on-line". This allowed for faster printing and detection and
correction of errors.
 High-level programming languages (COBOL,FORTRAN):These languages resembled
English. FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was the first high-level language that was
accepted widely. This language was used mostly for scientific applications. COBOL
(Common Business-Oriented Language) was developed in 1961 for business data
processing. Its main features include: file-processing, editing, and input/output
capabilities.
 Increased speed and reliability: Modular-hardware was developed through the design of
electronic circuits. Complete modules called "breadboards" could be replaced if
malfunctions occurred, or the machine "crashed". This decreased lost time and also new
modules could be added for added features such as file-processing, editing and
input/output features.
 Batch-oriented applications: billing, payroll processing, updating and inventory files:
Batch processing allowed for collection of data over a period time and then one processed
in one computer run. The results were then stored on magnetic tapes.

Examples:IBM 1401*(most popular business-oriented computer. Honeywell 200 CDC

1604

Third generation computers

(1965-1970) Characteristics
 Use of integrated circuits: The use of integrated circuits (Ics) replaced the transistors of
the second- generation machines. The circuits are etched and printed and hundreds of
electronic components could be put on silicon circuit chips less than one-eighth of an inch
square.
 Magnetic core and solid-state main storage: Greater storage capacity was developed.
They have higher main memory capacity, reliable and increased processing power (have
the capability of holding more than one set of instructions and operate on them) than the
 second generation computers.
 More flexibility with input/output; disk-oriented:
 Smaller size and better performance and reliability: Advances in solid-state
technology allowed for the design and building of smaller and faster computers. The
small circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times the past. The
speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds (1/1,000,000,000 of a second).
 Extensive use of high-level programming languages: The software industry evolved
during this time. Many users found that it was more cost effective to buy pre-programmed
packages than to write the programs themselves. The programs from the second
generation had to be rewritten since many of the programs were based on second
generation architecture.
 Emergence of minicomputers: The mini computers offered many of the same features
as the mainframe computers only on a smaller scale. These machines filled the needs of
the small business owner.
 Remote processing and time-sharing through communication: Computers were then
able to perform several operations at the same time. Remote terminals were developed to
communicate with a central computer over a specific geographic location. Time sharing
environments were established.
 Availability of operating-systems (software) to control I/O and do tasks handled by
human operators: Software was developed to take care of routine tasks required of the
computer freed up the human operator.
 Applications such as airline reservation systems, market forecasting, credit card billing:
The applications also included inventory, control, and scheduling labor and materials.
Multitasking was also accomplished. Both scientific and business applications could be
run on the same machine.

Examples: IBM System/360 NCR 395 Burroughs B6500

Fourth Generation (1970-)

Characteristics:
 Use of Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits
which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC which are between 200,000 to
400, 000 in one IC.
 Smaller and cheaper
 Increased storage capacity and speed. Memory used includes magnetic disc and optical
disc. Memory size expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster.
 Modular design and compatibility between equipment
 Special application programs
 Versatility of input/ output devices
 Increased use of minicomputers
 Introduction of microcomputers. This generation marked the origin of microcomputers in
use today
 Applications: mathematical modeling and simulation, electronic funds transfer, computer-
aided instruction and home computers. Internet Explosion.
 Enabled creation of Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN)
which facilitates connection and communication of hundreds of computers located across
multiple locations.
  Operating systems includes; DOS and Windows. Use of GUI – Graphical User Interface
– a user friendly interface that provides ICONS and Menus to the user to interact with the
various computer applications.
 No air conditions

Fifth generation computers (1990-current)

The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative by Japan's Ministry
of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer"
which was supposed to perform much calculation using massive parallel processing.

 The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration)
technology, the micro chip technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known as
the micro computers in use today.
 These computers are used in networking .examples of micro computers are IBM PCs
BBC micro etc. the micro computers are usually described as PCs or stand alone or
desktop computers because they were designed primarily to serve single person at a time.
 The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on predictions and
further technological refinements.
 It has been predicted that such a computer will be able to communicate in natural spoken
language with its user;
 store vast knowledge databases;
 search rapidly through these databases,
 making intelligent inferences and drawing logical conclusions; and
 process images and ‘see’ objects in the way that humans do.

Summary
Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is;
o Continual decrease in computer size
o Improved speed and power processing
o Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
o Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over 500,000
physical elements
e.g. transistors, capacities, diodes etc per chip(IC).

1.4 Characteristics of Computers

Computers are so versatile that they have become indispensable to engineers, scientists,
business executives, managers, administrators, accountants, teachers and students. Modern
computers posses certain characteristics and abilities peculiar to them.
1) Perform complex and repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately.
2) Store large amounts of data and information for subsequent manipulation.
3) Compare items and make decisions.
4) Provide information to the users in many different forms
5) Automatically correct or modify the parameters of a system under control
6) Converse with the users interactively
7) Receive and display audio and video signals
8) Speed – a computer is a very fast machine. It can perform in a very few seconds the
amount of work that a human being can do in a year if he/she worked day and night doing
nothing else.
9) Accuracy – the computer accuracy is consistently high.
10) Diligence – computers are free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration etc. It
can therefore work for hours without creating an error. For example if 10 million
calculations are to be done, a computer will do the tenth million calculations with exactly
the same speed and accuracy as the first one.
11) Versatility – a computer performs various tasks with ease. The computer perform three
basic operations
a) It is capable to access and accept information through various input-output devices
from the user.
b) It performs basic Arithmetic and Logic operations on data as desired.
c) It is capable to generate the desired output in the desired form.
 Example i.e. it can search for a letter, the next moment prepare an electricity bill, and
write a report next then do an arithmetic calculation all with ease.
12) Power of remembering – a computer can store and recall any information due to its
secondary storage capability.
13) No intelligence Quotient (IQ) – a computer cannot make its own decisions and has to be
instructed on what to do.
14) No feelings – computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings or instincts and
none possesses the equivalent of a human heart and soul.

Limitation of Computer
1. Computer does not work on itself, it requires set of instructions to be provided, else
computer (Hardware) is waste.
2. Computer are not intelligent, they have to be instructed about each and every step
which they have to perform
3. Computers cannot take decisions on its own, one has to program the computer to take
an action if some conditional prevail.
4. Computers, unlike humans cannot learn by experience.

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