Tungsten

Tungsten (also called wolfram)[14][15] is a

Tungsten, 74W
chemical element; it has symbol W and atomic
number 74. It is a rare metal found naturally on
Earth almost exclusively as compounds with
other elements. It was identified as a distinct
element in 1781 and first isolated as a metal in
1783. Its important ores include scheelite and
wolframite, the latter lending the element its
alternative name. Tungsten
Pronunciation /ˈtʌŋstən/ ​(TUNG-stən)
The free element is remarkable for its robustness,
Alternative name Wolfram, pronounced:
especially the fact that it has the highest melting
/ˈwʊlfrəm/ (WUUL-frəm)
point of all known elements, melting at 3,422 °C
(6,192 °F; 3,695 K). It also has the highest Allotropes α-tungsten (common), β-
boiling point, at 5,930 °C (10,706 °F; tungsten
6,203 K).[16] Its density is 19.254 g/cm3,[4] Appearance Grayish white, lustrous
comparable with that of uranium and gold, and
Standard atomic weight Ar°(W)
much higher (about 1.7 times) than that of
lead.[17] Polycrystalline tungsten is an 183.84 ± 0.01[1]
intrinsically brittle[18][19][20] and hard material 183.84 ± 0.01 (abridged)[2]
(under standard conditions, when uncombined), Tungsten in the periodic table
making it difficult to work into metal. However,
pure single-crystalline tungsten is more ductile Mo
↑
and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw.[21] W
↓
Sg
Tungsten occurs in many alloys, which have tantalum ← tungsten → rhenium
numerous applications, including incandescent
Atomic number (Z) 74
light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes, electrodes in
gas tungsten arc welding, superalloys, and Group group 6
radiation shielding. Tungsten's hardness and high Period period 6
density make it suitable for military applications Block d-block
in penetrating projectiles. Tungsten compounds
Electron [Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2[3]
are often used as industrial catalysts. Its largest
configuration
use is in tungsten carbide, a wear-resistant metal
used in metalworking, mining, and Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2
construction.[22] About 50% of tungsten is used Physical properties
in tungsten carbide, with the remaining major use Phase at STP solid
being alloys and steels: less than 10% is used
Melting point 3695 K ​(3422 °C, ​6192 °F)
other compounds.[23]
Boiling point 6203 K ​(5930 °C, ​10706 °F)
Density (at 20° C) 19.254 g/cm3 [4]
Tungsten is the only metal in the third transition when liquid (at m.p.) 17.6 g/cm3
series that is known to occur in biomolecules, Heat of fusion 52.31 kJ/mol[5][6]
being found in a few species of bacteria and
Heat of 774 kJ/mol
archaea. However, tungsten interferes with
vaporization
molybdenum and copper metabolism and is
Molar heat 24.27 J/(mol·K)
somewhat toxic to most forms of animal
capacity
life.[24][25]
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
Characteristics at T (K) 3477 3773 4137 4579 5127 5823

Atomic properties
Physical properties Oxidation states common: +4, +6
In its raw form, tungsten is a hard steel-grey −4,[7] −2,[8] −1,[8] 0,[9] +1,[8]
metal that is often brittle and hard to work. +2,[8] +3,[8] +5[8]
Purified, monocrystalline tungsten retains its Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.36
hardness (which exceeds that of many steels), Ionization energies 1st: 770 kJ/mol
and becomes malleable enough that it can be
2nd: 1700 kJ/mol
worked easily.[21] It is worked by forging,
drawing, or extruding but it is more commonly Atomic radius empirical: 139 pm
formed by sintering. Covalent radius 162±7 pm

Of all metals in pure form, tungsten has the

highest melting point (3,422 °C, 6,192 °F), Spectral lines of tungsten
lowest vapor pressure (at temperatures above Other properties
1,650 °C, 3,000 °F), and the highest tensile
Natural occurrence primordial
strength.[26] Although carbon remains solid at
higher temperatures than tungsten, carbon Crystal structure ​body-centered cubic (bcc) (cI2)
sublimes at atmospheric pressure instead of Lattice constant a = 316.52 pm
melting, so it has no melting point. Moreover, (at 20 °C)[4]
tungsten's most stable crystal phase does not
exhibit any high-pressure-induced structural Thermal expansion 4.42 × 10−6/K (at 20 °C)[4]
transformations for pressures up to at least 364 Thermal 173 W/(m⋅K)
gigapascals.[27] Tungsten has the lowest conductivity
coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure Electrical 52.8 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
metal. The low thermal expansion and high resistivity
melting point and tensile strength of tungsten
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic[10]
originate from strong covalent bonds formed
between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons.[28] Molar magnetic +59.0 × 10−6 cm3/mol
Alloying small quantities of tungsten with steel susceptibility (298 K)[11]
greatly increases its toughness.[17] Young's modulus 411 GPa
Shear modulus 161 GPa
Tungsten exists in two major crystalline forms: α
and β. The former has a body-centered cubic Bulk modulus 310 GPa
structure and is the more stable form. The Speed of sound 4620 m/s (at r.t.) (annealed)
structure of the β phase is called A15 cubic; it is thin rod
metastable, but can coexist with the α phase at Poisson ratio 0.28
ambient conditions owing to non-equilibrium Mohs hardness 7.5
synthesis or stabilization by impurities. Contrary
Vickers hardness 3430–4600 MPa
to the α phase which crystallizes in isometric
grains, the β form exhibits a columnar habit. The Brinell hardness 2000–4000 MPa

α phase has one third of the electrical CAS Number 7440-33-7

resistivity[29] and a much lower superconducting History
transition temperature TC relative to the β phase: Discovery and first Juan José Elhuyar and Fausto
ca. 0.015 K vs. 1–4 K; mixing the two phases isolation Elhuyar[12] (1783)
allows obtaining intermediate TC values.[30][31]
Named by Torbern Bergman (1781)
The TC value can also be raised by alloying
Symbol "W": from Wolfram, originally
tungsten with another metal (e.g. 7.9 K for W-
from Middle High German wolf-
Tc).[32] Such tungsten alloys are sometimes used
rahm 'wolf's foam' describing
in low-temperature superconducting
[33][34][35] the mineral wolframite[13]
circuits.
Isotopes of tungsten

Isotopes Main isotopes Decay

Naturally occurring tungsten consists of four abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
182 183 184
stable isotopes ( W, W, W, and W) and 186 180
W 0.120% 1.8 × 1018 y α 176
Hf
one very long-lived radioisotope, 180 W.
181 181
Theoretically, all five can decay into isotopes of W synth 121.2 d ε Ta

element 72 (hafnium) by alpha emission, but only 182

W 26.5% stable
180W has been observed to do so, with a half-life
183
of (1.8 ± 0.2) × 1018 years;[36][37] on average, this W 14.3% stable
yields about two alpha decays of 180 W per gram 184
W 30.6% stable
of natural tungsten per year. [38] This rate is
equivalent to a specific activity of roughly 63
185
W synth 75.1 d β− 185
Re
micro-becquerel per kilogram. This rate of decay 186
W 28.4% stable
is orders of magnitude lower than that observed
in carbon or potassium as found on earth, which 188
W synth 69.78 d β− 188
Re
likewise contain small amounts of long-lived
radioactive isotopes. Bismuth was long thought
to be non-radioactive, but 209Bi (its longest lived isotope) actually decays with a half life of 2.01 × 1019
years or about a factor 10 slower than 180W. However, due to naturally occurring bismuth being 100%
209Bi, its specific activity is actually higher than that of natural tungsten at 3 milli-becquerel per

kilogram. The other naturally occurring isotopes of tungsten have not been observed to decay,
constraining their half-lives to be at least 4 × 1021 years.
Another 34 artificial radioisotopes of tungsten have been characterized, the most stable of which are
181W with a half-life of 121.2 days, 185W with a half-life of 75.1 days, 188W with a half-life of 69.4 days,
178W with a half-life of 21.6 days, and 187W with a half-life of 23.72 h.[38] All of the remaining

radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 3 hours, and most of these have half-lives below
8 minutes.[38] Tungsten also has 12 meta states, with the most stable being 179mW (t1/2 6.4 minutes).

Chemical properties
Tungsten is a mostly non-reactive element: it does not react with water, is immune to attack by most acids
and bases, and does not react with oxygen or air at room temperature. At elevated temperatures (i.e.,
when red-hot) it reacts with oxygen to form the trioxide compound tungsten(VI), WO3. It will, however,
react directly with fluorine (F2) at room temperature to form tungsten(VI) fluoride (WF6), a colorless gas.
At around 250 °C it will react with chlorine or bromine, and under certain hot conditions will react with
iodine. Finely divided tungsten is pyrophoric.[39][40]

The most common formal oxidation state of tungsten is +6, but it exhibits all oxidation states from −2 to
+6.[40][41] Tungsten typically combines with oxygen to form the yellow tungstic oxide, WO3, which
dissolves in aqueous alkaline solutions to form tungstate ions, WO2−
4 .

Tungsten carbides (W2C and WC) are produced by heating powdered tungsten with carbon. W2C is
resistant to chemical attack, although it reacts strongly with chlorine to form tungsten hexachloride
(WCl6).[17]

In aqueous solution, tungstate gives the heteropoly acids and polyoxometalate anions under neutral and
acidic conditions. As tungstate is progressively treated with acid, it first yields the soluble, metastable
6−
"paratungstate A" anion, W7O24 , which over time converts to the less soluble "paratungstate B" anion, H2
10− 6−
W12O42 .[42] Further acidification produces the very soluble metatungstate anion, H2W12O40 , after
which equilibrium is reached. The metatungstate ion exists as a symmetric cluster of twelve tungsten-
oxygen octahedra known as the Keggin anion. Many other polyoxometalate anions exist as metastable
species. The inclusion of a different atom such as phosphorus in place of the two central hydrogens in
metatungstate produces a wide variety of heteropoly acids, such as phosphotungstic acid H3PW12O40.

Tungsten trioxide can form intercalation compounds with alkali metals. These are known as bronzes; an
example is sodium tungsten bronze.

In gaseous form, tungsten forms the diatomic species W2. These molecules feature a sextuple bond
between tungsten atoms — the highest known bond order among stable atoms.[43][44]

History
In 1781, Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new acid, tungstic acid, could be made from scheelite (at
the time called tungsten).[45][46] Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested that it might be possible to
obtain a new metal by reducing this acid.[47] In 1783, José and Fausto Elhuyar found an acid made from
wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid. Later that year, at the Royal Basque Society in the town of
Bergara, Spain, the brothers succeeded in isolating tungsten by reduction of this acid with charcoal, and
they are credited with the discovery of the element (they called it "wolfram" or
"volfram").[48][49][50][51][52]

The strategic value of tungsten came to notice in the early 20th century. British authorities acted in 1912
to free the Carrock mine from the German owned Cumbrian Mining Company and, during World War I,
restrict German access elsewhere.[53] In World War II, tungsten played a more significant role in
background political dealings. Portugal, as the main European source of the element, was put under
pressure from both sides, because of its deposits of wolframite ore at Panasqueira. Tungsten's desirable
properties such as resistance to high temperatures, its hardness and density, and its strengthening of alloys
made it an important raw material for the arms industry,[54][55] both as a constituent of weapons and
equipment and employed in production itself, e.g., in tungsten carbide cutting tools for machining steel.
Now tungsten is used in many more applications such as aircraft and motorsport ballast weights, darts,
anti-vibration tooling, and sporting equipment.

Tungsten is unique amongst the elements in that it has been the subject of patent proceedings. In 1928, a
US court rejected General Electric's attempt to patent it, overturning U.S. patent 1,082,933 ([Link]
[Link]/patent/US1082933) granted in 1913 to William D. Coolidge.[56][57][58]

It is suggested that remnants of wolfram have been found in what may have been the garden of the
astronomer/alchemist Tycho Brahe[59]

Etymology
The name tungsten (which means 'heavy stone' in Swedish and was the old Swedish name for the mineral
scheelite and other minerals of similar density) is used in English, French, and many other languages as
the name of the element, but wolfram (or volfram) is used in most European (especially Germanic and
Slavic) languages and is derived from the mineral wolframite, which is the origin of the chemical symbol
W.[21] The name wolframite is derived from German wolf rahm ('wolf soot, wolf cream'), the name given
to tungsten by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747. This, in turn, derives from Latin lupi spuma, the name
Georg Agricola used for the mineral in 1546, which translates into English as 'wolf's froth' and is a
reference to the large amounts of tin consumed by the mineral during its extraction, as though the mineral
devoured it like a wolf.[13] This naming follows a tradition of colorful names miners from the Ore
Mountains would give various minerals, out of a superstition that certain ones that looked as if they
contained then-known valuable metals but when extracted were somehow "hexed". Cobalt (cf. Kobold),
pitchblende (cf. German blenden for 'to blind, to deceive') and nickel (cf. "Old Nick") derive their names
from the same miners' idiom.

Occurrence
Tungsten has thus far not been found in nature in its pure form.[60]
Instead, tungsten is found mainly in the minerals wolframite and
scheelite.[60] Wolframite is iron–manganese tungstate
(Fe,Mn)WO4, a solid solution of the two minerals ferberite
(FeWO4) and hübnerite (MnWO4), while scheelite is calcium
tungstate (CaWO4). Other tungsten minerals range in their level of
abundance from moderate to very rare, and have almost no
economic value.

Chemical compounds Wolframite mineral, with a scale in

cm
Tungsten forms chemical compounds in oxidation states from -II
to VI. Higher oxidation states, always as oxides, are relevant to its
terrestrial occurrence and its biological roles, mid-level oxidation states
are often associated with metal clusters, and very low oxidation states are
typically associated with CO complexes. The chemistries of tungsten and
molybdenum show strong similarities to each other, as well as contrasts
with their lighter congener, chromium. The relative rarity of tungsten(III),
for example, contrasts with the pervasiveness of the chromium(III)
compounds. The highest oxidation state is seen in tungsten(VI) oxide
(WO3).[61] Tungsten(VI) oxide is soluble in aqueous base, forming
tungstate (WO42−). This oxyanion condenses at lower pH values, forming
polyoxotungstates.[62] Structure of W6Cl18
("tungsten trichloride")
The broad range of oxidation states of tungsten is reflected in its various
chlorides:[61]

Tungsten(II) chloride, which exists as the hexamer W6Cl12

Tungsten(III) chloride, which exists as the hexamer W6Cl18
Tungsten(IV) chloride, WCl4, a black solid, which adopts a polymeric structure.
Tungsten(V) chloride WCl5, a black solid which adopts a dimeric structure.
Tungsten(VI) chloride WCl6, which contrasts with the instability of MoCl6.
Organotungsten compounds are numerous and also span a range of oxidation states. Notable examples
include the trigonal prismatic W(CH3)6 and octahedral W(CO)6.

Production

Reserves
The world's reserves of tungsten are 3,200,000 tonnes; they are mostly located in China (1,800,000 t),
Canada (290,000 t),[63] Russia (160,000 t), Vietnam (95,000 t) and Bolivia. As of 2017, China, Vietnam
and Russia are the leading suppliers with 79,000, 7,200 and 3,100 tonnes, respectively. Canada had
ceased production in late 2015 due to the closure of its sole tungsten mine.
Meanwhile, Vietnam had significantly increased its output in the 2010s,
owing to the major optimization of its domestic refining operations, and
overtook Russia and Bolivia.[64]

China remains the world's leader not only in production, but also in export
and consumption of tungsten products. Tungsten production is gradually
increasing outside China because of the rising demand. Meanwhile, its
supply by China is strictly regulated by the Chinese Government, which
fights illegal mining and excessive pollution originating from mining and
refining processes.[65]

There is a large deposit of tungsten ore on the edge of Dartmoor in the

United Kingdom, which was exploited during World War I and World War Tungsten mining in Rwanda
II as the Hemerdon Mine. Following increases in tungsten prices, this forms an important part of
mine was reactivated in 2014,[66] but ceased activities in 2018.[67] the country's economy.

Within the EU, the Austrian Felbertal scheelite deposit is one of

the few producing tungsten mines.[68] Portugal is one of Europe's
main tungsten producers, with 121 kt of contained tungsten in
mineral concentrates from 1910 to 2020, accounting for roughly
3.3% of the global production.[69]

Tungsten is considered to be a conflict mineral due to the

Tungsten concentrate production,
unethical mining practices observed in the Democratic Republic of
1946
the Congo.[70][71]

South Korea's Sangdong mine, one of the world's largest tungsten mines with 7,890,000 tonnes of high-
grade tungsten reportedly buried, was closed in 1994 due to low profitability but has since re-registered
mining rights and is scheduled to resume activities in 2024.[72][73]

Extraction
Tungsten is extracted from its ores in several stages. The ore is eventually converted to tungsten(VI)
oxide (WO3), which is heated with hydrogen or carbon to produce powdered tungsten.[47] Because of
tungsten's high melting point, it is not commercially feasible to cast tungsten ingots. Instead, powdered
tungsten is mixed with small amounts of powdered nickel or other metals, and sintered. During the
sintering process, the nickel diffuses into the tungsten, producing an alloy.

Tungsten can also be extracted by hydrogen reduction of WF6:

WF6 + 3 H2 → W + 6 HF

or pyrolytic decomposition:[74]

WF6 → W + 3 F2 (ΔHr = +)
Tungsten is not traded as a futures contract and cannot be tracked on exchanges like the London Metal
Exchange. The tungsten industry often uses independent pricing references such as Argus Media or Metal
Bulletin as a basis for contracts.[75] The prices are usually quoted for tungsten concentrate or WO3.[64]

Applications
Approximately half of the tungsten is consumed for the production
of hard materials – namely tungsten carbide – with the remaining
major use being in alloys and steels. Less than 10% is used in
other chemical compounds.[23] Because of the high ductile-brittle
transition temperature of tungsten, its products are conventionally
manufactured through powder metallurgy, spark plasma sintering,
chemical vapor deposition, hot isostatic pressing, and
thermoplastic routes. A more flexible manufacturing alternative is
selective laser melting, which is a form of 3D printing and allows
creating complex three-dimensional shapes.[76]

Close-up of a tungsten filament

Industrial inside a halogen lamp
Tungsten is mainly used in the production of hard materials based
on tungsten carbide (WC), one of the hardest carbides. WC is an
efficient electrical conductor, but W2C is less so. WC is used to
make wear-resistant abrasives, and "carbide" cutting tools such as
knives, drills, circular saws, dies, milling and turning tools used by
the metalworking, woodworking, mining, petroleum and
construction industries.[17] Carbide tooling is actually a
ceramic/metal composite, where metallic cobalt acts as a binding
(matrix) material to hold the WC particles in place. This type of
industrial use accounts for about 60% of current tungsten
consumption.[77] Tungsten carbide jewelry

The jewelry industry makes rings of sintered tungsten carbide,

tungsten carbide/metal composites, and also metallic tungsten.[78] WC/metal composite rings use nickel
as the metal matrix in place of cobalt because it takes a higher luster when polished. Sometimes
manufacturers or retailers refer to tungsten carbide as a metal, but it is a ceramic.[79] Because of tungsten
carbide's hardness, rings made of this material are extremely abrasion resistant, and will hold a burnished
finish longer than rings made of metallic tungsten. Tungsten carbide rings are brittle, however, and may
crack under a sharp blow.[80]

Alloys
The hardness and heat resistance of tungsten can contribute to useful alloys. A good example is high-
speed steel, which can contain as much as 18% tungsten.[81] Tungsten's high melting point makes
tungsten a good material for applications like rocket nozzles, for example in the UGM-27 Polaris
submarine-launched ballistic missile.[82] Tungsten alloys are used in a wide range of applications,
including the aerospace and automotive industries and radiation shielding.[83] Superalloys containing
tungsten, such as Hastelloy and Stellite, are used in turbine blades and wear-resistant parts and coatings.

Tungsten's heat resistance makes it useful in arc welding applications when combined with another
highly-conductive metal such as silver or copper. The silver or copper provides the necessary
conductivity and the tungsten allows the welding rod to withstand the high temperatures of the arc
welding environment.[84]

Permanent magnets
Quenched (martensitic) tungsten steel (approx. 5.5% to 7.0% W with 0.5% to 0.7% C) was used for
making hard permanent magnets, due to its high remanence and coercivity, as noted by John Hopkinson
(1849–1898) as early as 1886. The magnetic properties of a metal or an alloy are very sensitive to
microstructure. For example, while the element tungsten is not ferromagnetic (but iron is), when it is
present in steel in these proportions, it stabilizes the martensite phase, which has greater ferromagnetism
than the ferrite (iron) phase due to its greater resistance to magnetic domain wall motion.

Military
Tungsten, usually alloyed with nickel, iron, or cobalt to form heavy alloys, is used in kinetic energy
penetrators as an alternative to depleted uranium, in applications where uranium's radioactivity is
problematic even in depleted form, or where uranium's additional pyrophoric properties are not desired
(for example, in ordinary small arms bullets designed to penetrate body armor). Similarly, tungsten alloys
have also been used in shells, grenades, and missiles, to create supersonic shrapnel. Germany used
tungsten during World War II to produce shells for anti-tank gun designs using the Gerlich squeeze bore
principle to achieve very high muzzle velocity and enhanced armor penetration from comparatively small
caliber and light weight field artillery. The weapons were highly effective but a shortage of tungsten used
in the shell core, caused in part by the Wolfram Crisis, limited their use.

Tungsten has also been used in dense inert metal explosives, which use it as dense powder to reduce
collateral damage while increasing the lethality of explosives within a small radius.[85]

Chemical applications
Tungsten(IV) sulfide is a high temperature lubricant and is a component of catalysts for
hydrodesulfurization.[86] MoS2 is more commonly used for such applications.[87]

Tungsten oxides are used in ceramic glazes and calcium/magnesium tungstates are used widely in
fluorescent lighting. Crystal tungstates are used as scintillation detectors in nuclear physics and nuclear
medicine. Other salts that contain tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries.[26] Tungsten
oxide (WO3) is incorporated into selective catalytic reduction (SCR) catalysts found in coal-fired power
plants. These catalysts convert nitrogen oxides (NOx) to nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O) using ammonia
(NH3). The tungsten oxide helps with the physical strength of the catalyst and extends catalyst life.[88]
Tungsten containing catalysts are promising for epoxidation,[89] oxidation,[90] and hydrogenolysis
reactions.[91] Tungsten heteropoly acids are key component of multifunctional catalysts.[92] Tungstates
can be used as photocatalyst,[93] while the tungsten sulfide as electrocatalyst.[94]

Niche uses
Applications requiring its high density include weights, counterweights, ballast keels for yachts, tail
ballast for commercial aircraft, rotor weights for civil and military helicopters, and as ballast in race cars
for NASCAR and Formula One.[95] Being slightly less than twice the density, tungsten is seen as an
alternative (albeit more expensive) to lead fishing sinkers. Depleted uranium is also used for these
purposes, due to similarly high density. Seventy-five-kg blocks of tungsten were used as "cruise balance
mass devices" on the entry vehicle portion of the 2012 Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft. It is an ideal
material to use as a dolly for riveting, where the mass necessary for good results can be achieved in a
compact bar. High-density alloys of tungsten with nickel, copper or iron are used in high-quality darts[96]
(to allow for a smaller diameter and thus tighter groupings) or for artificial flies (tungsten beads allow the
fly to sink rapidly). Tungsten is also used as a heavy bolt to lower the rate of fire of the SWD M11/9 sub-
machine gun from 1300 RPM to 700 RPM. Some string instrument strings incorporates tungsten.[97][98]
Tungsten is used as an absorber on the electron telescope on the Cosmic Ray System of the two Voyager
spacecraft.[99]

Gold substitution
Its density, similar to that of gold, allows tungsten to be used in jewelry as an alternative to gold or
platinum.[21][100] Metallic tungsten is hypoallergenic, and is harder than gold alloys (though not as hard
as tungsten carbide), making it useful for rings that will resist scratching, especially in designs with a
brushed finish.

Because the density is so similar to that of gold (tungsten is only 0.36% less dense), and its price of the
order of one-thousandth, tungsten can also be used in counterfeiting of gold bars, such as by plating a
tungsten bar with gold,[101][102][103] which has been observed since the 1980s,[104] or taking an existing
gold bar, drilling holes, and replacing the removed gold with tungsten rods.[105] The densities are not
exactly the same, and other properties of gold and tungsten differ, but gold-plated tungsten will pass
superficial tests.[101]

Gold-plated tungsten is available commercially from China (the main source of tungsten), both in jewelry
and as bars.[106]

Electronics
Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point, elemental tungsten is
used in many high-temperature applications,[107] such as incandescent light bulb, cathode-ray tube, and
vacuum tube filaments, heating elements, and rocket engine nozzles.[21] Its high melting point also makes
tungsten suitable for aerospace and high-temperature uses such as electrical, heating, and welding
applications, notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process (also called tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding).[108]
Because of its conductive properties and relative chemical
inertness, tungsten is also used in electrodes, and in the emitter
tips in electron-beam instruments that use field emission guns,
such as electron microscopes. In electronics, tungsten is used as an
interconnect material in integrated circuits, between the silicon
dioxide dielectric material and the transistors. It is used in metallic
films, which replace the wiring used in conventional electronics
with a coat of tungsten (or molybdenum) on silicon.[74]
Tungsten electrode used in a gas
The electronic structure of tungsten makes it one of the main tungsten arc welding torch
sources for X-ray targets,[109][110] and also for shielding from
high-energy radiations (such as in the radiopharmaceutical
industry for shielding radioactive samples of FDG). It is also used
in gamma imaging as a material from which coded apertures are
made, due to its excellent shielding properties. Tungsten powder is
used as a filler material in plastic composites, which are used as a
nontoxic substitute for lead in bullets, shot, and radiation shields.
Since this element's thermal expansion is similar to borosilicate
glass, it is used for making glass-to-metal seals.[26] In addition to
its high melting point, when tungsten is doped with potassium, it Tungsten filament is used in
leads to an increased shape stability (compared with non-doped incandescent lightbulbs, where it is
heated until it glows
tungsten). This ensures that the filament does not sag, and no
undesired changes occur.[111]

Tungsten is used in producing vibration motors, also known as mobile vibrators.[112] These motors are
integral components that provide tactile feedback to users, alerting them to incoming calls, messages, and
notifications.[113] Tungsten’s high density, hardness, and wear resistance property helps to endure the
high-speed rotational vibrations these motors generate.[114][115]

Nanowires
Through top-down nanofabrication processes, tungsten nanowires have been fabricated and studied since
2002.[116] Due to a particularly high surface to volume ratio, the formation of a surface oxide layer and
the single crystal nature of such material, the mechanical properties differ fundamentally from those of
bulk tungsten.[117] Such tungsten nanowires have potential applications in nanoelectronics and
importantly as pH probes and gas sensors.[118] In similarity to silicon nanowires, tungsten nanowires are
frequently produced from a bulk tungsten precursor followed by a thermal oxidation step to control
morphology in terms of length and aspect ratio.[119] Using the Deal–Grove model it is possible to predict
the oxidation kinetics of nanowires fabricated through such thermal oxidation processing.[120]

Fusion power
Due to its high melting point and good erosion resistance, tungsten is a lead candidate for the most
exposed sections of the plasma-facing inner wall of nuclear fusion reactors. Tungsten, as a plasma-facing
component material, features exceptionally low tritium retention through co-deposition and implantation,
which enhances safety by minimizing radioactive inventory, improves fuel efficiency by making more
fuel available for fusion reactions, and supports operational continuity by reducing the need for frequent
fuel removal from surfaces.[121] It will be used as the plasma-facing material of the divertor in the ITER
reactor,[122] and is currently in use in the JET test reactor.

Biological role
Tungsten, at atomic number Z = 74, is the heaviest element known to be biologically functional. It is used
by some bacteria and archaea,[123] but not in eukaryotes. For example, enzymes called oxidoreductases
use tungsten similarly to molybdenum by using it in a tungsten-pterin complex with molybdopterin
(molybdopterin, despite its name, does not contain molybdenum, but may complex with either
molybdenum or tungsten in use by living organisms). Tungsten-using enzymes typically reduce
carboxylic acids to aldehydes.[124] The tungsten oxidoreductases may also catalyse oxidations. The first
tungsten-requiring enzyme to be discovered also requires selenium, and in this case the tungsten-selenium
pair may function analogously to the molybdenum-sulfur pairing of some molybdopterin-requiring
enzymes.[125] One of the enzymes in the oxidoreductase family which sometimes employ tungsten
(bacterial formate dehydrogenase H) is known to use a selenium-molybdenum version of
molybdopterin.[126] Acetylene hydratase is an unusual metalloenzyme in that it catalyzes a hydration
reaction. Two reaction mechanisms have been proposed, in one of which there is a direct interaction
between the tungsten atom and the C≡C triple bond.[127] Although a tungsten-containing xanthine
dehydrogenase from bacteria has been found to contain tungsten-molydopterin and also non-protein
bound selenium, a tungsten-selenium molybdopterin complex has not been definitively described.[128]

In soil, tungsten metal oxidizes to the tungstate anion. It can be selectively or non-selectively imported by
some prokaryotic organisms and may substitute for molybdate in certain enzymes. Its effect on the action
of these enzymes is in some cases inhibitory and in others positive.[129] The soil's chemistry determines
how the tungsten polymerizes; alkaline soils cause monomeric tungstates; acidic soils cause polymeric
tungstates.[130]

Sodium tungstate and lead have been studied for their effect on earthworms. Lead was found to be lethal
at low levels and sodium tungstate was much less toxic, but the tungstate completely inhibited their
reproductive ability.[131]

Tungsten has been studied as a biological copper metabolic antagonist, in a role similar to the action of
molybdenum. It has been found that tetrathiotungstate salts may be used as biological copper chelation
chemicals, similar to the tetrathiomolybdates.[132]

In archaea
Tungsten is essential for some archaea. The following tungsten-utilizing enzymes are known:

Aldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase (AOR) in Thermococcus strain ES-1

Formaldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase (FOR) in Thermococcus litoralis
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (GAPOR) in Pyrococcus furiosus
A wtp system is known to selectively transport tungsten in archaea:

WtpA is tungsten-binding protein of ABC family of transporters

 WtpB is a permease
WtpC is ATPase[133]

Health factors
Because tungsten is a rare metal[134] and its compounds are generally inert, the effects of tungsten on the
environment are limited.[135] The abundance of tungsten in the Earth's crust is thought to be about 1.5
parts per million. It is the 58th most abundant element found on Earth.[136]

It was at first believed to be relatively inert and an only slightly toxic metal, but beginning in the year
2000, the risk presented by tungsten alloys, its dusts and particulates to induce cancer and several other
adverse effects in animals as well as humans has been highlighted from in vitro and in vivo
experiments.[137][138] The median lethal dose LD50 depends strongly on the animal and the method of
administration and varies between 59 mg/kg (intravenous, rabbits)[139][140] and 5000 mg/kg (tungsten
metal powder, intraperitoneal, rats).[141][142]

People can be exposed to tungsten in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and
eye contact. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended
exposure limit (REL) of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg/m3.[143]

In popular culture
Tungsten and tungsten alloys gained popularity through tungsten cubes and spheres. This popularity
started in October 2021, and rose again in January 2023, through social media.[144]

The main reason that tungsten cubes, spheres and other forms became popular is for their novelty as an
item, due to their density. No other element comes close to the same density with regards to cost and
availability, with some being radioactive as well.

See also
Field emission gun
Tungsten oxide
List of chemical elements name etymologies
List of chemical elements naming controversies

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Properties, Photos, History, MSDS ([Link]
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards ([Link]
[Link])
Tungsten ([Link] at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
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Official website ([Link] of the International Tungsten Industry Association

Retrieved from "[Link]