C ER 3:

COMPUTER NETWORKING
Objectives
Learners should be able to:
. define computer network
. explain various networking devices
. explain communication protocols
r compare TCP/IP model and the oSI model
. mapping OSI model to the TCP/IP model
. explain q/pes ofsignal routing protocols

Introduction to Computer Networks

Modern trends in data communication and networking have changed the way business and other daily
actMties works. Computer network is a telecommunication channel in which we can share data with
other computers or devices connected to the same network. The best example of computer network is
Internet. A network must be able to meet certain criteria, these are mentioned below:
. Performance
. Reliability
. Scalability

ComputerNetwork
. This is whereby computer systems are linked together so that they are able to share comPuting
powet storage facilities and various comPuter resources.
. it refers to the interconnection of two or more computers and associated devices to facilitate
communication between or among them.
. Cables or wireless technology can be used to connect diferent computers to a network.
. The connection may be between computers in the same building (LAN) or befi^'een comPuters
in different parts of the country (WAN).

Advantages of networking
. Facilitates easy sharing ofexpensive peripheral devices like printers and scanners
. Facilitates easy sharing ofdata and information
. Saves money by sharing expensive software, for example through telnet
. Easier and faster communication with other computers using large networks like internet.
. Avoids duplication of information since the same shafe-file is used
. User activities can be monitored easily
. User can login to any connected computer in order to access network services
. Allows .-ploy"". to work away from the ofhce (tele-working) thereby cutting overhead
expenses for the organisation

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D isadvantages of networking
. Hardware, software and setup costs for designing and implementing the network are very h4r
. Hardware and software management costs are high since a network administrator has to r
hired
. Malware spreads/propagates faster over computer networks
. Promotes illegal or undesirable behaviour for example downloading/uploading explicit cc
tent
. Hackers can gain access to data and information thereby compromising the integrity and *
curity of data stored in computer systems
. The whole network becomes unusable ifa server breaks down

Tlpes of networks
. Local Area Network (LAN)
. Wide Area Network (WAN)
. Metropolitan Area Net$tork (MAN)
. Personal Area Network (PAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a privately owned connection of computers on a very small geographical area for ug
the network to share files, data, software and hardware like printers, for example, within a siq!
room. It is usually connected using cables or wireless connections. Other LANs can link ditrerci
departments (e.g. Sales, Accounts, Warehousing, Despatch, etc) within an organisationt compla I
LAN is usually owned by one organisation. Howeveq if an organisation uses internet service widi
its restricted private Local Area Network, such a network is called an Intranet (INTernal RestriOd
Access NETwork).

Intranet is a private organisationt network that uses internet technologies for the benefits ofsuch r
organisation,
Extranet (EXTernal Restricted Access NETwork): an extension of the intranet giving authorisd
outsiders controlled/limited access to the intranet.

Requirements for a LAN Connection

Hardware requirements
l. Host computer / Server: This is the main computer that controls and manages other computcc
on the network. A server is an optional device used to store software that controls the network, usc
application software and data files that can be shared by all users ofthe network.

2, Workstations/Terminals: Workstations are computers that can work on their own as standaloa
computers. Terminals are controlled by the host computer. If the terminal has its own processing anl
storage capabilities, it is called an intelligent terminal. However, if the terminal does not have its on!
processing and storage facilities and relies on the host computer for it to work, it is called a durry
terminal.
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3. Transmission media: These are pathways for data from one computer to another. The transmissio!
media can be wired (cables) or wireless (Bluetooth, infra-red, etc). Cables can be coaxial, fibre optica
twisted pair, etc.

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4' A hub or a switch: These are central devices used as a connection point for other devices and com-
puters on a Local Area Network. Usually used when connecting computers to
a star network. Switches
are more popular these days as compared to hubs.

5' Network Interface Card (NIC):- Each computer on the network must have this
as it allows
comPuters to be linked and to be uniquely identified on the network via MAC addresses.
A network
card identifies a comPuter to the network, and this is where the network cables are plugged
on the
computer

6. A bridge can also be connected to link LANS and is an optional requirement.

However, some networks are now using wireless technology and these are called Wireless Local Area
Networks (WLAN). wLAN uses radio signals and therefore no cabling is required.

Software Requirements for A LAN Connection

l. Communication Software: Communications software is the loose category of systems and apps
that allow users to exchange files and text, audio and video messages vii cloud or local network
from various devices. The most common tools are email, chat and m--essaging applications, terminal
emulators, 6le transfer programs, etc. They are programs that provide r.riot-. to systems and
exchange files and messages """.g
2. Network operating system: manages the network and network devices

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Fig 3.1 Local Area Network

. Client-server network relationship can be used to organise LANS

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.Links2ormoredevicesusingwirelesscommunicationtoformaLANwithinalimitedat!
etc'
,rr.n ttottt., school, campus' ofrce building
", "
Wide AreaNetwork (WAN) large geographical area' for example'
coverl
. tonntti# of computers over a
This refers to tht
Jift""' countries' Inieriet is also part of wAN'
wANs d
the whole airt,i"t, p'oiin-t" o'
also be wireless.

Fig 3.3 Diagam sho?/ing a Wide Area Netwo*

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Hardware Requirements for a WAN
that converts analogue data from the teleplr
a. Modem (Modulator p"-rr'.c"r"t"0,- a device often for internet c
by the computer and vice versa;
line to digital autu tf,"t t* ft .onJtrstood

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 for connecting LAN to a WAN
nection using a telephone line' They can be used as gateway trans-
b. Communication link Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite
mission, etc.
network, where
c. Network cards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the
network cables are plugged on the computer

Software Requirements for a WAN

is the loose category of systems and apps
a. communicatio' sotw"l., communications software
and video messages via cloud or local network
that allow users to exchan|?r., ""a text, audio
email, chat and missaging applications, terminal
from various devi."r. ,.f,. ,ior, iommon tools are
emulators,filetransferPrograms'etc'TheyareProgramsthatprovideremoteaccesstosystems
and exchange files and messages
and network devices
b. Network oPerating syste;: manages the network
Web Browser: refers to arry ,oftrnlre used for
opening web pages on the internet, for cxample
c.
Microsoft Interntt n*pro'"'J'l"t""pt NJg"tor'
uozilla-Firefoi' coogle Chrome' Microsoft Edge
etc. It is used by users to hook to the internet'

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) geographical area,.usually covering the

It is an extensio' or reN, uoi"suily "".ita. to a lar-ger
of users. oifii..tri reNs are joined together to
" provide
whole city and is owned by;;;;;il
in the city have their LANs linked together so that
service for the whole city or disii.i. otg;o"tt."s payments
Users can view their electricity bills' make
local users can access their databases for services.
and even receive broadcasr, ;;;"uu;;;lssues
within their area. The nerwork is only accessed by a
gr example students of a certain university. It
enables
group of users us d"fin"a uyli. ffi*,ig;,
irr.. to do ,...urches, share files, hlraries' local email and for video conferencing'

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 Fig 3.4 MetroPolitan Area Network

Personal Area Networks (PAN)

This very much limited network, usually used by one person. This can also be Wireless Personal Art
a
Network (WPAN), fior example connection through Bluetooth. Bluetooth connects different devic
usually over a short distance. A PAN enables users to transfer files from a laPtoP to a PDA, carn
or Personal Computer. It strictly relates to the interconnection of ICT devices or gadgets within a
individual usert environment.

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 Fig 3.5 Personal Arco Network

NetworkToPologY
ThephysicallayoutorthewayinwhichnetworkconnectionsaremadeiscalledtoPology'Thetypes
of network toPologies are
. Bus or Line ToPologY
. Star ToPologY
. RingToPologY
. Tree ToPologY
. HYbridtoPologY
the lower grades
Nf , N.t*J typls an"i topologies were discussed in

Networking devices

?
in order to make a LAN. It receives signal/
lio", ,, a device that connects workstations together
Ui"ud""rt. it io all ports on it. Thus all-workstations I
data from workstations, regenlr"ate, ii ""J,fr* they cannot determine the
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Juta packets. Hubs are. not inteiligent,
connected to it will get tfr..ign"i;, a security risk' It is
the data ,, .o irr.y troua.ust the signal. This is
exact computer "d#;;;;;;;
star*,**i", e i"irt., miny ports on which cables to all
used on a
model's layer I (physical
usually "r'"iyiltiJi.*1rtr.
A hub op"rut., on th" oSI refeience
computers on the network are connected.
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layer). In a star topology, each node is connected to the hub with a Point-to-point connection. Hubs
can be active or passive.
Active hub: It has its own power supply and can clean, boost and relay the signal along the networL
It serves both as a repeatei as well as a wiring centre. It is used to extend maximum distance between
nodes.
Passive hub:It collects wiring from nodes and power supply from an active hub' Relays signals onto
the network without cleaning and boosting them. This cannot be used to extend distance between
nodes.

Router
This is a networking device that connects difierent types of networks together, for example, it cal
gateway betweea
connect a school LAN to the internet (which is a WAN). A router essentially acts as a
two networks. It makes sure that data is directed to the correct destination, such as an email being
sed
to uniqudy
to the correct ISP and recipient. It is configured to have a network address that will be used
identifr an indiviclual organisationt network on the internet. It is a network layer device which ir
responsible for routing data Packets based on their IP addresses'
A iouter can route fackets of the same protocol (e.g. TCP/p) over networks with dissimiler
architectures (e.g. Ethernet to token ring). It has a dynamic routing table on which it can malc
decisions on how to route the data packets. It receives transmitted messages and forwards
them to
their correct destinations over the most efficient available route. A router is used to form complc
on
networks with multiple paths between network segments (subnets). Each subnet and each node
each subnet is assigned as network address.
A router is very intelligent. It uses network addresses and IP addresses of other routers to creaE
used in routing
routes between two networks. It keeps tables ofaddresses (routing tables) that will be
information. Routers are thus used for:
. Determining the path ofdata packets using destination addresses ofthe packets
. Used for packet switching
. perform irotocol Translation (Wired Ethernet to Wireless/Wi-Fi, or Ethernet to CATV)

HubBI

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 Fig 3.6 Router connecting LANS
Switch
It is a device thatioins comPuters on a LAN and is found at layer 2 ofthe OSI reference model. A switch
is a networking device that allows multiple devices and workstations to be connected to each other on
a LAN just as a hub does. However, a switch is more intelligent than a hub; it uses MAC addresses to
identify individual computers on the network. It then creates a virtual link between the devices that
will be communicating together. A switch directs traffic across a LAN, enabling computers to talk to
each other and share resources. It allows different nodes on the network to direcily communicate with
each other. A switch runs in firll duplex mode. It can recognise different devices on the network using
their MAC address so that data and signals can be send to exact/intended devices. This is more secure
than a hub. Switches can be LAN switches or ATM switches which are used on WANs and MANs.
A switch can also be used as a multiport bridge, functioning at the Data Link Layer. Thus it can be used
to connect LAN segments into a single network. It keeps track ofthe MAC addresses of all attached
devices (just like a bridge). Switches are popular than hubs since they are more intelligent and can
filter data just like a bridge.

Modem
Modem stands for modulator - demodulator. It is a networking device used for connecting computers
to the internet using a telephone line. It converts digital signals frorn the computer inio analogue
sign-als that can-be transmitted over telephone lines and vice versa. It operates itlayer I and layer
2 of the OSI reference model. Cable modems employ broadband transmission acrois regular cable
television wires.

lrl'.ure l.l Sl.f.'aaal€.| <-'

Fig 3.7

The following parameters must be specified when a modem is installed:

. the telephone number ofthe ISP
. baud rate of modem
. number of data bits per block
. number of stop bits
. whether odd or even parity is used

Multiplexer/De-multiplexer
A multiplexor is a communications device that combines several signals from different sources for
transmission over a single medium. A de-multiplexor completes the process by separating multiplexed
signals from a transmission line. Frequently a multiplexor and de-multiplexor are combined into a
single device capable ofprocessing both outgoing and incoming signals. It is a transport layer device.
A multiplexor is a device which takes in data from multiple signal lines and outputs a single signal
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 between several
line. It works as an electronic switch. A multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects
analogue or digital input signals and forwards it to a single output line' /4\

Receivers,,
WDM Transmiitets WDM
', ,\
v\"\/'

: - ''- -|
-)l
j
A4 Transmission on fiber oplic line
{:.

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Fig 3.8 Multiqlexing

There are nuo types of multiplexors, which are:

l. Time Division MultiPlexer (TDM)
time slices
Transmit signals from two or more sources in successive short intervals i.e.
Each source is given the same time interval

2. Frequenry DMsion Multiplexer (FDM)

uses available route to transmit data from different sources at the same
time is achieved I
dividing the available channel bandwidth into a number ofnarrow bands
each ba-nd is used for a separate transmission but at a slower speed

Prory Server
This is a dedicated computer or a software running on a computer
that acts as an intermediary betrrrl
an endpoint devi.., ,rr.h a computer, a,'d anoih.r server from which a user or client
is requ{
",
a service. It acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking
resources from other serveE I
client connects to the proxy seru.i, ,.qu.rtirrg some service, such as a file,
connection, web pagc e
other resource availabie from a different server and the proxy server
evaluates the.request as a qt
to simplify and control its complexity. The prory server rnuy t*itt in the same machine as
a 6rd
,".u., o, it -uy be on a separatl servlr, which forwards requests through the firewall'

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 rf Sdlool PC
\\
BtockeL
Website
Request
Allowed
Proxv
Reqrjest

Proxy
Website
Request
IU
Proxy Senar

IU
3-g ProxY Senrer oPeratiot

Anadvantageofaproxyserveristhatitscachecanserveallusers.Ifoneormorelnternetsitesare user response' It

tr'"" *t^nttiv to be in the p'oryt t"lht' which will improve
frequently requested, ttotia. No direct communication between
can-also be used to hide the inie'il;it;;;i:'f-;';x.;n"t
network *a ."t.rna nlilrk if o..d .o--orr-i'Jot *ill go through the proxy' External
from
internal ", "u makestamperinf with an-internal svstem
comouter will be uur" to
"ttt'lliii;;o.j]il;;t
the e'xternal network more difficult'
be vulnerable
many things in comPuting may
proxy servers in many forms enhance security but like should keep software up
To prevent o"s network intrusion, admiiristrators
themselves. "i""tr-*a
to date.

GatewaY
Thisisanetworkingdeviceusedtoconnectdifferentkindsofnetworks'Itactsasalinktodifferent
networks *iii air.t.tt architectures
and different
wANs. A gateway " i' d#"*;;;;;Jr from the
aI;; ;;';;;;ay, its softw"re.ffi all networkinginformation
orotocols. when packets sends it on
iuiJ
.Jlr! translates the iata into the new format and
packet, leaving onty ,t . ,u* lateway converter'
pro,o.;i;lr Jrr" i"ri"i,t"" a
system. Thus it becomes Protocol
using the networtirrg

does not
Agatewayisanetworklayerdeviceusedtoforwardthepacketswhichareintendedforremote
rtave,default gateY"v
ri"tra
network from local n"twor;'E;;;n*1" ?dd:::::-]f,packetto find the
take tlie help of gateway device
wodi
find its destination address in r"i
n'.t*ort then it
Jestination address in remote network'

Gatewaysareusuallyusedtobridgethedifferentnetworks.AEatewaydeviceknowsthepathofremote in other
If ,.quir;i;;iro tt; .r,""p.oi"tion of packet so it can travel
destination address. "h"ng.,
i.i*"tt," g" ns destination address' Examplest"ofgatewavs:x'aoo format before forwarding'
. Email cu,"*"y' r'-'tliJ^si"np'"--'"if 'L"d"'i
to access resources from NetWare
server
. GSNW Gateway: u['o" windo"t
and X'25 network'
. PAD Gateway: t'""td"'';;;;;;;i"ityu"t*te" nN network
"lients

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Bridge
It is used to
This is a device that connects networks using the same communication Protocols.
together' However'
connect diferent parts ofa LAN, thus is used to connect different LAN segments
it cannot handle multiple paths for data.

Jo,R
Wreline LAN
q
''(. '
x\
switch
"-t ' =/--Y'1;',,,.
I .. ii n.ia.,"
Bridge
)--
'-( JF
Wireless LAN
Fig j.10 Bridge connecting LANS

i
In general a bridge ,:u..d foti.
. ^rr_^^^^.
^ ^ addresses'
Filtering trafic using MAC
I
. |oining-different LAN segments with different
or- similar topologies

. is of separate collision domain

Breaki-ng a large LAN inf smaller segments, each of which
. Enablesiasier management of the network
. Improves network securitY
. Increasing the number of workstations on the network
", 2 LANs working on the sarnc
A bridge op.rot at data link layer and is used for interconnecting
port device' It is used to divi&
pro,o"Jt. Itias single input anJ single output port thus making it a 2 1
a large network in smaller segments. ^ -- ^-. -.-
twp I
but it cannot co_nn-ect
e iriag" can connect two different types of media or n-etwork architecture II
requires same network laF
differeit types of network layer protocol such as TCP/IP or IPX. Bridge
protocols in all segments.

There are three tYPes ofbridge:- it b

io"J nriag", - this bridge .on-n..t, two LAN segments directly. ln Ethernet.implementation'
t orn" o, ri*rparent Bri-<lgq. In Token Ring network it is called source-Routed Bridge.

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 Hub 1

Host D

Fig j'11 Local Briilge connecting LANs

bridge over the WAN link'

Remote Bridge :- This bridge connects with another

e!1 ell
I
lirk

Fir 3'12 Renote Bridge Connections

tridge without wiring between them'
Wireless Bridge: - This bridge connecis with another

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 lnternet

Wireless LAN to LAN Bridge

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1 92.1 68.7.x
I

ll il-r ll
il-r
tltl
,-.-.r
.r .E!ltlt
(b---l
-

s, \S,
B tr o-. *- Lr o-.
Fig 3,13 Wirelus Bridge conneclion to a Wireless LAN

In OSI Layer model bridge works at physical layer and data link layer. However bridges have tic
following problems:
. Bridges have limited Ports.
. In bridge forward decision are made through the software which slows down ovenl
performance of network.
. Bridges use age old technology which is not capable to fulfil the requirement of moden
networks efectivelY.

Network Interface Card ((NIC)

It is also called a network adapter or network card. It is a small electronic circuit board within r
computer (or other device that can be connected to a network) that controls the sending and receivi{
of data within a LAN. A network adapter (sometimes referred to as a NIC - Network
Interface card) L
either integrated into the system board or inserted into one ofthe exPansion ports inside the
comPutcr
process' Thi
-
The NIC cintain a unique MAC address which is hardwited on it during manufacturing
is sometir.Gt
MAC address is used io uniquely identify a computer on a LAN. The MAC address
physical addred'
referred to as a networking h".dw"r. address, the burned-in address (BIA), or the
NIC operates at the Physical layer of the OSI reference model' The NIC:

108

t
 provides a connection socket for the network cables;
iranslates the signals that are generated by a computer into a form that is suitable for transmis-
sion down a wiie (or through the air) - for example, it translates the parallel signals from the
processor into serial signals that can be carried down a wire'

Fig 3.14 Net*ork lnterface Card (NIC)

Repeater
over
This is a networking device used to regenerate and remove noise from digital signals transmitted
done to extend the length
the same network before the signals b-ecome too weak or corrupted. This is
to which the signal can be traismitted over the same network without distortion. It oPerates
at the
physical layer oithe OSI. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate
allows
it ut tt. origitrul strength. It is used tJoost the signals in connect networks of same types' This
a signal
the extensiJn ofa netiork beyond physical length li-itutiont. A digital repeater reconstructs
eliminated'
to near its original quality, it io"rrri lurt omplift it as the distortion and noise will also be

A repeater decodes the signal, extract the original signal and regenerat€ the signal then retransmit
it'
Repeater eliminates the n-oise by regenerating the signal' It maximizes the signal
to noise ratio hence
decreases the error associated with the signal.

Repeaters can be replaced by amplifiers if the signals -being transmitted are in analogue
form'
the noise'
Amplifiers increase the amplitude oithe signal. The amplifier amplifies the signal along with
It m-inimises the signal to noise levels, therefore, increases the noise'

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 --4 ti a4 tta'
;E
il be
iq eY bq
4s

Fig 3.15 RePeoter

to the other. This can be sui&

H:li3;;::il;:tilough which data travels from one computer
(wireless)
(wired) or unguided

data is transferred rrom the

trac
act as Pathwav through which
#$*J:ffi:I;s;;::ffitl "at
Sl.,r;"gr"in waves are'transmin J
solid media' They are found c
mitter to the receiver. "t"t coan
*bles include twisted pair' fibre optic'
physical layer of the ott -"liil%"--;;;;;;'
cables, etc.

to at!
with two copper wires orabout
I
ff;.t"i.il1.' T1l'1":::^:T*:::'"::*ffi'ff::ter
over short distances' Telepho
crosstalk.Twistedparisveryffi;il;;;;r;tgtoapt'io'-""tt
wiring systems' Tlvisted pair
exists in h
*ir* i" ,i.i.
comDanies use twir,"u-o"o .ioo.l pair (UTP)'
*Jif" "i"phone
untt'i"rato 1*;'1t6
forms; Shielded Twottd t"oiSiP)

Twisted Pair
Fig3.16: Shietded and lln-Shielded

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Twisted pair has the following advantages;
. Twisted pair is very cheap to purchase
. The system uses colour coded cabling which makes it easier link with connectors
. Permits many communication protocols
. Thin and flexible EasY to install
. Small size does not fill up wiring ducts fast

The following are some of the disadvantages of twisted pair:

. Has big attenuation
. Has low bandwidth
. Transmission ofhigh frequency is very poor
. Susceptible to interference

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has a centre core conductor of solid copper wire. The copper wire is enclosed
in an
metallic
insulating sheath, which, in itself, is enclosed in an outer conductor of metal foil. The outer
material ierves as shield against noise disturbances. It is used for transmission of both
digital and
analogue signals. The whole cable is protected by plastic cover as shown below'

Genter Conductor
Dielectric
Conducting Shield
Outer Jacket
Fig j.17: Coaxial Cable

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The following are some ofthe advantages of coaxialtable:
. Allows for both baseband and broadband transmission
. Has less attenuation than twisted pair,
. Has high bandwidth and
. Have low error rates.
. Can transmit analogue and digital signals
. Ensures accurate data transfer,
. pair'
Coaxial cable is much less susceptible to interference and crosstalk than twisted

The following are some of the disadvantages of twisted pair:

. Coaxial cable is expensive to buy as compared to twisted pair'
. It is stitr, making it difrcult to handle.
. For digital signi'ling, repeaters are needed every kilometre or so, with closer spacing needed
for higher data rates.
. They are suitable for short distance communication
. needed every few kilometres
For iong-distance transmission ofanalogue signals, amplifiers are

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Application: Used for TV distribution (connecting decoders with the antenna on the satellite rlisi
long distance telephone transmission; short run computer system links, Local Area Networks

Fibre Optic Cable

An optical fibre is a thin and flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray. OPtic fibre systa
transmit data and information by converting signals into light pulses over large distance like t
WAN, MAN and the internet. the light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is near to wha
visible to the human eye. Optic fibres consist of long, thin strands of very pure glass about the i
ofa human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit signals o
long distances.

Fig.3.I8 Optic Fibre

Fibre is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, and immunity
electromagnetic interference are required. It is therefore used by many telecommunications compan
to transmit telephone signals, for internet communication, and cable television signals.

Fibre optics is in two forms, multimode and mono-mode. Multimode fibre optic cable carries 2
more signals at a time, each at a slightly different reflection angle. This is used over short distanc
Mono-mode (Single mode) cable carried one signal at a time and is appropriate for long distal
communication.

:T
Grass

@
Light Signal 1
€ --
Total intemal refl ection
Light Signal 2
Light ray
-
Fig 3.21: Monomode ond multimode Optie Fibre

Benefits of optic fibre are:-

. t has less attenuation and therefore fewer rePeaters are needed,
. Has very high bandwidth
. Cannot corrode

tt2
 . It is thin and small in size and therefore has less weight.
. It allows very fast data transfer, as it can transmit more information, like thousands of tele-
phone conversations down a single strand
. Has no electromagnetic interference
However, fibre optic cables have the following disadvantages:
. Are very expensive to buy
. Are uni-directional (data travels in one direction only).
. Cable cannot bend around tight corners.
. It is also difficult to directly interface with computers.

Unguided Transmission Media

Theie are transmission media that do not have wires; they are wireless transmission media and include
infrared waves, microwaves, radio frequencies, Bluetooth, etc. Transmission occurs through the
atmosphere, outer space or water'
a
Infrared Waves
This refers to data transmission in form of air waves as through some remote controls' Infrared slntems
use the infrared light spectrum to send a focused light beam to a receiver. Infrared systems need special
infrared emitters and infrared detectors. The transmitter and the receiver must be in the line of sight'
Infrared transmission is used in remote-control boxes, Wireless LANS, cordless modems, intrusion
detectors, motion detectors, fire sensors, night-vision systems, medical diagnostic equipment, missile
guidance systems, etc

Advantages of infrared signals

. Infrared has enormous bandwidth.
. Do not need licenses to use them
. Relatively cheap to use
Advantages of infrared signals
. Signals do not travel through obstacles like buildings,
. Signals work for very short distances,
. Signals co:qsume a lot of power.
. Can be affJcted by direct light interference and therefore are appropriate for use indoors
Microwave
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300 GHz are called micro waves. Micro
waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an
obvious advantage. A pair ofantennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.

The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:

. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to
be in direct sight ofeach other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall'
. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a

disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.

n3
 almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands cao
t'
. The microwave band is relatively wide,
assigned and a high date rate is possible'
. Use ofcertain portions ofthe band requires permission from authorities' by mca
and reception of radio signals are achieved
In microwave tranr-irrior, *.Jiu, tr"nsmis.ion
of antennas with a line-of-sigiJl *.""i*"
*,.rnas. uied for uni-cast communication systems hL
RePeatert --
wireless LANS. Signals are uni-directional'
mobile phones, satellite communication and
neededforlongdi,,un"..o-,.,o',i.u.lon.Veryhighsignalsca_nnotPenetratethroughobstacles.

Giventhecurvatureoftheearth,andtheobviousproblemsoftransmittingthroughit,microEr
5o
hops generally are limited to aPProximately lt-' .

Fortransmissionofasignal,,"dio-f,.qu.n.yelectricalenergyfromthetransmitterisconvertedi
environment' For rec€F'-
electromagnetic by tn.llr""""f*J tiar"red into the-surrounding
"n.rgy on the antenna is converted into radio-ftequrr
of a signal, electromagnetic ttttgy i^pitging
electrical energy and fed into the receiver'

microwave and satellite microwave' They ba

Microwave transmission is in t\ryo formq terrestrial
of distance'
,r."i Un. ofright for transmissiou they only difier in terms
"
TerrestrialMicrowaveTransmission:Thistakesplacewhensignalsaresentbetweenmicro-
h""" a line of sight. It is the most common form of
lq
stations on the earth (""rth ;-il;rt;;; with ant'lr
distance communication. This is why
microwave transmission towers are speckled
at different microwave transmission towers
onl
pointing in many air."tio"'"ff"y'"thJiy p""t
gtoundorontoPofbuildings'Terrestrialmicrowaveoperatesatlowfrequencyband.Parabolicdil
areusedtofocusanarrowbeamontothereceiver,santenna.Canbeaffectedbybadweathetr
attenuation

Fig. 3.21 Terrestrial Micto*ave transmrssron ,\r

C-band (frequencies betw een3'7 artd 4'2 GHz; and from
5'9 o
Sateuite Microwave, Cohsts of the
L:t-"i*Jif,. x.-band (frequencies between I I and 12 GHz)'

114

- tll ".=-Ih
-
 Trangnitter and
Transrnit Anlsnna

iver and
Rec;e
Recclve Antenna

Destlnafion Ground
Orlglnatlng Ground Statlon
St don
Fig j.22 Sateltite Mi owave transmission

Bothterrestrialandsatellitemicrowavecommunicationsrequireground-basedreceiverstohavea so
*"iri aro h", to b'. dir..ted toward the satellite
oarabolic antenna to ,.".,u",i'i"ffi
rrr"
work when there is a
th. p"."bol" on ih.'satellite transmission. Ground receivers only
that it focuses
satellite in the atmosphere'
line of sight from the communications

*:""iffifi,::T;1:ffi"":iffi*'i,'11il smalr wavelengths that auows

a rransmitter to direct

microwaves to f"p"ntiu'y in a narrow beam' enhancing effectiveness

"
. lopport, u"ry long distance communication'
because oftheir high frequencies'
. Can broadcar, r-g" q"ltii'it] "iinrtt-"ti"n
lt* ti;;;;;t*i' Jrtwired tech;ologies' which might also
. Have relatively "t-ptt"a
need expensive attenuation
equiPment'

them with
if thev have a crear rine of sight between
"":u'ffi::ff:,:1il:::::::iilliil::tr slopes or. trees in the way'
,ro oUrt".tat such as buildings' bad weather'
. uy tttt atmosphere'
Signal can bt
"b'o'b;;;;;i"'io'tta
. TheY have big attenuation
. Slow in sending message
objects
. Signal does not pass through solid

Radio waves a-'n'mic'i.'n comoosed

compot of electric and magnetic fields vibrating
-- ^.:^
- transmission
n-"alo *uu.t are an electromagnetic and travel in the air as a wave'
tosether. These two n.ld, *. :i;;;ili "'p"rp.ran"l"r-"rr"ng.ment Radio signals are omni'
cell phone systems use ,Jio ti*rnlittion'
Ridios, televisions and some
lr5
 directional and propagate outward in a spherical shape. Thus broadcast radio does not require dish-
shaped antennas, and the antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise alignment. Any receiver
in its path or range can receive the signal as signals are broadcast. Signals can travel through walls.
Signals have less attenuation and therefore travel long distances.

Data Communication
It is the process of transferring data through networked computers. It is exchange of data betweeo
connected devices in a network. It involves the transmission or passing of data and information fron
one computer (or device) to another.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. Thc
hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which thc
data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, howl
is to be communicated and when it is communicated and these are called protocols. T{re transmittol
data can be in analogue or in digital form.

Digital Data
This refers to facts in discrete values, that is, in ones and zeros. Digital data has the following advan-
tages:

. Digital data produces high quality ouput.

. It is easier to represent.
. Rebooting is easier and faster
. Data is compressed and therefore takes less disc storage space

Analogue Data
Data is in continuously varying form, e.g. human voice. This is it will be in fon
diftcult to handle as
of waves. Analogues data can be collected by sensors e.g.57 and 93 are all analogue data. Analogu
data is difficult to handle and occupies a lot disk storage sPace.

Examples of data used in communications are as follows:

l. Text
. Text includes combination ofalphabets in lowercase or uPPercase.
. It is stored as a pattern ofbits.
. Prevalent encoding systems : ASCII, Unicode

2. Numbers
. Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
. It is stored as a pattern ofbits.
. Prevalent4ncoding systems : ASCII, Unicode

3. Images
. Can be pictures which are digitally stored \r
. commonly used image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

4. Audio
. Data can also be in the form ofsound which can be recorded and broadcasted.

l16

I
 or information'
. on the radio is a source of data
For examPle; what we hear
discrete'
. Audio daia is continuous' not

t uifrit"" chps
in form of animation or movie
. refers to broadcasting of data

Characteristics of Data Communication correct destination and correct user'

;5;;ffi;a"t*i"tra ut ltrt"ttta the
'".i"ria aeliver the data accurately' without introducing any
2. Accuracy: Th. .o--*i.utiol.'ry""r" affeaing the accuracy of the delivered
data'
errors. The data *ur r"t to"t"ililil;;;;;;ttission in tunner without any delav; such
3. Timeliness: nudio and
uidiPo ;";;;;:;;t delivered
"iii'"ry
jitter mav anect the timeriness ordata
ffi"t:til:ffi'":1tl;l,,:?,lt...l::n:i'"',',fft'n': "'even
being transmitted'

components ol D*"-c-::[:llt"1tlllo.n.",s as shown in the diagram below:

A data communication sYsten

Set of
Set of Rules
Rules

Transmission Medium

Transmission '
Fig 3.23: Components of Data

l.Message:-theinf ormationf,*".:;Tff jH#;J:$iffi '&.

2. Sender / ttansmitter:
- any ( il"T*:I
be
sender to receiver It can
I +*ffifffu;::;:Tllrffillt'$:*:':il'r:;;:'rum
wired or wirelesi n-red]a' . between the sender and receiver'
;.';;;;;;of rules that governs data communication

3rff L1ffi *:lil$ffi'",cantransrer*'":r::l*s::.l:s:i[T:Xlili;:il1*'datacan

,.L*"r. e.r*U., of-rignJ.*itihing
or signal routing techniques
talie multiple path, fro'o ,.r,a".iio

rt7
willdecidethebestroutefordatatransmission'The3basicswitchingtechniquesthatcanbeuscde.
asfollows:
. Circuit switching
. Message switching
. Packet switching
the above switching methods'
The following diagram summarises

Fig 3.24 Sw/itching methods

recri
in which,h.
:T#:ffll*1"f..*"0o*'it'*" ttif1l_l'"::*.T::#':'LrTL to be established bi
eo t"a-t"-""a p"ft has i:ilTlffi,to
r'nmediatelv before data 't"tt' first'
:H;:ilffi;;;;;;,. ft"'' a circuit must be established
f-';;';il duration of t'""'mit'iott' This
provides a dedicr
The circuit is maintained infringed upc
p",f' Utt'n"t'i tnio'""u""n' u,,i of"" bandwidth that cannot be
communication wood mo"oPoli'e the whole communicJ
that the channel wl
that tfre communicating Parties
other users. It implies
channel during,,-'-i"io"iril';;"il:"';i;"" il;;;;ication
released for use bY other Parties'

\,

rl8
 :

-*4?'.'
(,rr\$o' ,' s2 S4

a.
/
63-='q 55
s3

Fig 3.25 Citcuit switchiflg

Circuit switching has the following major phases:

I. Circuit establishment - a tiansmittir to receiver circuit is established'

II. Data transfer - data is now sent over the dedicated channel'
IIl. Circuit disconnect - connection termination'

In circuit switching,
.Thereisnoneedforwaitingperiodfordata'Thereiscontinuoustransmissionthatensures
better utilisation of the channel's bandwidth'
. The sender and receiver must send and receive
data at the same rate'
. pJ ;;;, ;;" (connected) for the sender and the receiver until
The transmission
transmission is comPlete'
. others to use'
After transmission, the path can now be released for
. Ifno path is established, transmission cannot occur
. similar to nor^"t ta.fio* ,yrt.-, *h.r.by a specific line is routed from point A to point B
and is dedicated but not necessarily used dl the
time'
. Data is not necessarily split, thus is send as it is' at
. Data signals ,"""i'"f,ii tt e same order they are send, therefore no need for processing
"r"
the receiving end.
. feeds' audio messages' etc
Used in telephone conversations, Iive broadcast
. Suitable for real-time sYstems

'Advantages of circuit switching

. No congestion is encountered'
. fixed high data transfer rate'
Dedicated transmission channel with guaranteed
. Less transmission errors as data in send in its entirety

Disadvantages of circuit switching

. No data can b.,"", iy "ii.r-p"-ties even if there is no data being transferred. This also
wastes the bandwidth'
. Long delays irr.onn"ltio" setup, takes about l0 seconds to establish a circuit connection
with no data having been send'
. every time when sending data
Expensive as dedicited connection is required

l19
Message Switching
. Also called a store and forward network
. Message switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete
unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded'

s2

A 51 / B

Fig 3.26 Message switching

The whole message may be routed by any convenient route.

No physical/dedicated path is established in advance between sender and receiver
Data ii stored at a hop (which may be router) then forwarded one hop later'
Each block is received in its entity form and inspected for errors
Data is not transmitted in real time.
Blocking cannot occur
Delays are very common
Sender and reieiver need not be compatible since sending will be done by routers, which caa
change data format, bit rate and then revert it back to original format on receiving or submit
it in different form.
Storing data solves congested networks since data can be stored in queue and forwarded latct
when channel becomes ftee
Priorities can be used to manage networks
very slow if the number ofnodes is many since each node stores before forwarding the data
Now implemented over packet or circuit switched data networks'
Each message is treated as a separate entiry
Each messaie contains addressing information, which is used by switches for transfer to
the
next destination.
Used in e-mails and in telex forwarding
There is often no real limit on the message / block size'

Advantages of circuit switching

. more devices can shate network bandwidth
. reduced traffic congestion
. one message can be sent to many destinations through broadcast addresses
. Message priority can be used to manage the network
. It supports the data of unlimited size.
I
-\\

Dioadvantages of Circuit switching

. ofteniostly - must have large stoiage devices to hold potentially long messages
r20
 not compatible with most real time applications as data can stored and then forwarded when
channels becomes free

Packet Switching:
. Data is first split into smaller chunks called packets (or datagrams) which may take different
routes and then reassembled to the original order at their destination.
. Each packet is assigned a unique number that would be used in determining the reassem-
bling order at the receiver
. Packets are routed to the next (intermediate) node along an appropriate route, which can
store and transmit the packet until the destination,
. Each packet takes its own convenient path and then re-assembled at the receMng end.
. Packets take the shortest path necessary.
. Packets do not necessarily arrive at the same time or in correct order.
. At the destination, packets are re-grouped to the original message.
. Packets can be offxed size
. Each packet has the following data: source address, destination address, error control signal,
packet size, packet sequence number, etc.
. if any packet is missing or corrupted, then the sender would be asked to resend the whole
message.
. If the correct order ofthe packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.

Advantages of packet switching:

. Makes more efficient use of communication lines
. Cheap as cost depends on number ofpackets send, not distance, so all data can be transmit-
ted at local call rates
. Less likely to be affected by network failure since an alternative route is used from each node.
. Security is better since packets follow different routes
. No call set-up is required.
. Fast and suitable for interactive applications

Transmission Protocols
. A protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is transferred in a network. It defnes the rules
on how network devices communicate.
. The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and
further interpret it correctly.
. When the sinder sends a message, it may consist of text, number, images, etc; which are
converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted. Often certain additional
information called controi information is also added to help the receiver to interpret the data.
. For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree uPon certain rules
on how to:
* interpret signals
* identifi bneself'and other computers on a network
' initiate and end network communications

. The following are the three key elements ofa protocol:

* Syntar Iirefers to the structure or format of the data or the arrangement of data being
transmitted.

l2l
 Semantics: Entails the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interPretation
of
each section. It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation'
synchronisation/Timing: It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to
receive

the data and tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to
avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
and error
Error recover'y method: communicating parties need to agree on error detection
detection methods to use if communication errors occur'

protocols
Types of -a.e
pro'tocols rules that govern communicating devices. The following are some of the communica-
tion protocols.

I. HTTP (Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol)

multimedia web
this ls a protoioi that defines the process of identifuing, requesting and transferring
pages over the internet. It is used for transferring data a-crosi the internet,
usually between servers and
to transmit
.oirpot"r, on the internet. It is based on the client -server relationship. It uses TCP/IP
data and messages.

IL FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

used to download soft-
It i. proto-f used to transfer data from one computer to another, It is often
"
\^/"r. flo- the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP protocol in doing this. However,
FTP has no security

to data as the data is not encrypted prior to its transmission'

III.TELNET
comPuter and usc
This is a network protocol that allows a comPuter user to gain access to another
to access data stored on
its software and data, usually on a LAN and on the internet. It allows users
servers from their terminals (remote access). Telnet allows comPuters
to connect to each other and
the internet.
allows sharing of data and files. Telnet has security problems especially on

IV. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)

the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls' Thus, it is a way
of having
It is a methoi of using'using
pioi" the internet as way of communication. By VoIR international and long
"o*.r*,ions " free. Howevel the system does
distance calls are ofthe same price as local calls and sometimes are for
etc'
no, ofi.r.-.rg.ncy calls. Applications ofVoIP include Skype call' video conferencing'

Communication Ports
added to an Ip address, this identifies the process to pass to on
the host ma-
e fo.t i,
chine.
"r, "t.-ent

\r

122
 Examples of ports
Port number Protocol that uses it
2l File Transfer Protocol
23 Telnet
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
80 and 8080 Hypertext Transfer protocol
ll0 Post Office Protocol v3(pOp3)
989 Secure FTP (SFTP)

Standards in Networking
Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity
and interoperability between
various networking hardware and software components. without
st"ni".d, *" *orild hav. proprleta.y
products creating isolated islands ofusers whici cannot interconnect.
Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors
to ensure national and
international interconnectivity, Data communications standards are
classifed into trvo categories,

l. De facto Standard
standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by
convention and are not approved
by any organised body but are adoptJd by widespread use.

2. De jure standard
It means \
law or_ by regulation. These are legislated and approved by a body
that is officially rec-
ognised' The standards are created by standar-ds creation committees,
foru-'r, urrd!*.rrr-"nt
regulatory agencies.

Exanples of Standard Creation Committees:

. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
. The Standard Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ) is part of the ISO.
' Under communication we have the Postal and Teie-Communication Regulatory
Authority
(POTRAZ)

.'
International Telecommunications union - Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

Forurns
A forum is a place, meeting or medium on the internet where ideas and views
on a particular issue
can be exchanged. It is an area where users share thoughts, ideas,
or help by postinjtext messages.
Examples of Forums include:
.ATM Forum \i

.MPLS Forum
.Frame Relay Forum
.TechZim Forum

123
 Regulatory agencies
This is a governmental body that is created by a legislature to implement and enforce specific lanr
An agency has quasi-legislative fi-rnctions, executive functions and judicial functions. ixamples c .
Regulatory Agencies:
. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)
. Postal and Tele-Communication Regulatory Authority (POTRAZ)

Networking Models
A model is a way to organise a system's functions and features to define its structural design. A desig
can help us understand how a communication system accomplishes tasks to form a protocol suil i
This book will look the OSI and TCP/IP models.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

. It is a network model that defines the protocols for network communications.
. The OSI model allows computers from different manufacturers or origin to be connectd
together.
. The idea is that different and new suppliers must produce hardware or software to implemeat
at any of the seven layers without problems. This promotes standardisation in communicatic
. The OSI model was developed by International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO).
. It was developed to allow systems with diferent platforms to communicate with each other.
. Platform could mean hardware, software or operating system.
. It is a hierarchical model that groups its processes into layers
. The approach is a top to bottom one, with T layers
. Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to cooperate with the layers above and belor
it
. A message sent from a sending device to a receiving device passes through all the layers I
sending side from toP to bottom as well as from bottom going upward on the receiving side.
. The message is transmitted through a transmission medium
. OSI allows standardisation in data communication since it allows diferent device manufacturco
to follow laid down rules that will allow different devices to communicate. It specifies tb
data transfer rate, format of data and error correction methods that are predefined and ther
facilitate communication.

OSI Model Layers

7. Application Layer
6. Presentation Layer
5. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
2. Data Link Layer
l. Physical Layer

The phrase, All People Seem To Need Data Processing, can be used to denote the layer.. \

124
 Scnding Device

Fig 3,27 QSI Model

Layers er<plained
Application layer

.'
enables a user (human or software) to access the
network resources
the only layer seen by most users ofthe Internet
. the layer contains functions mostly needed such
* as
remote printer access and remote 6le access and transfer
* resource sharing and device redirection
* network management
* directory services
* browsing the www
* e-mail messaging
* Responsible for virtual terminal and networking
* Responsible for file transfer and access
. Appli-cation layer devices include gateways, firewalls, pCs,
phones, servers,
' It defines how user applications interface or access communication etc
services, initiates or
accepts a request, provide network applications like
data transfer, messaging, opera,irri,y*"-
125
 function
Presentation layer
. It forms part of an operating system that converts incoming and outgoing data from or
presentation format to another e.g. from clear text to encrypted text at one end and back t
clear text at the other end.
. The layer is responsible for performing translation, encryption and compression ofdata
. It performs character code translation (for example ASCII to EBCDIC). The sending anl ,

receiving devices may run on different platforms (hardware, software and operating systenl
It is important that they understand the messages being send, hence a translation service m4/ I
be required which is provided by the presentation layer
. Performs compression of data. This involves reducing the number of bits to be transmittd {
over the internet, This ensures faster data transfer. The data compressed at sender has to bc
decompressed at the receiving end and are both performed by the presentationlayer.
. Encryption ofdata is done for secruity reasons. It is a process of transforming and scramblir!
the original message to change its meaning before sending it. The reverse process calld
decryption has to be performed at the receiving end to recover the original message from thr
encrypted message. Encryption involved converting plaintext into cipher text while decryptia
involves converting cipher text back to plaintext.
. Presentation layer devices include gateways, firewalls and PCs.
Session layer
. It creates and terminates sessions, e.g. login session, file transfer session
. It sets up, coordinates and terminates conversation services, include authentication and
reconnection after an irtterruption
. Establishes a session between the communicating devices called dialogue and synchronizl
their interaction.
. Also called the nerwork dialogue controller.
. Used for user authentication
. At the sending side it accepts data from the presentation layer, adds checkpoints to it (called
sync bits) and passes the data to the transport layer.
. At the receiving end the session layer receives data from the transport layer removes thc
checkpoints inserted previously and passes the data to the presentation layer.
. Session layer devices include gateways, firewalls and PCs.-

Transport layer
. Manages packetisation ofdata, delivery of the packets and checking oferrors in the data oncc
it arrives
. A logical address at network layer facilitates the transmission ofdata from source to destination
device.
. The Sansport layer takes care ofprocess to process delivery of data and makes sure that it ir
intact and in order
. At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the session layer, divides it into units \ir
called segments and sends it to the network layer.
. At the receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from the network layer, converts and
arranges into proper order of subdMsions and sends it to the session layer.
. Is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of the message into segments which bear

t26
 sequence numbers.
. This numbering enables the receMng transport layer to rearrange the segments in
. proper order.
. Transport layer devices are gateways and firewalls
. In summary, it allows error correction during transmission, maintains flow control, allows
data recovery, allows routing, addressing and multiplexing of signals

Network layer
. The main resPonsibility ofthis layer is transmission ofpackets ofdata from source to destination
. The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to the receiver despite multiple
intermediate devices.
. The network layer at the sending side accepts data from the transport layer, divides it into
packets, adds addressing information in the header and passes it to the data link
. At the receiving end the network layer receives the frames sent by data link layer, converts
them back into packets, verifes the physical address (verifies if the receiver address matches
with its own address) and then send the packets to the transport layer.
. Performs logtcal addressing ofthe network and routing of packets.
. Logical addressing of network layer works as follows:
* The network layer uses logical address commonly known as IP address to recognise devices
on the network.
* An IP address is a universally unique address which enables the network layer to identifo
devices outside the sendert network.
* The header appended by the network layer contains the actual sender and receiver's IP
addresses.
. Routing happens when a computer on one network needs to send a packet to a computer on
another network. The routing process works as follows:
t The network layer divides data into units called packets of equal size and bears a sequence
number for rearranging on the receiving end.
* Each packet is independent of the other and may travel using diferent routes to reach the
receiver hence may arrive out of turn at the receiver.
* The best possible path may depend on several factors such as congestion, number ofhops,
etc.
* This process offinding the best path is called Routing. It is doie using routing algorithms.
* Network layer devices include routers, brouters and 3-layer switches.

Data Link layer

. Adds reliability to the physical layer by providing error detection and correction mechanisms.
. On the sender side, the data link layer receives the data from network layer and divides the
stream of bits into fixed size manageable units called frames and sends them to the physical
layer.
. On the receiver side, the data link layer receives the stream ofbits from the physical layer and
regroups them into frames and sends them to the network layer. This process is called Framing.
. Datalink layer device include bridges, modems, network cards and 2-layer switches.
. Its main duties are:
* Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data Link Layer.

t27
 Re-assembling of frames at the receiving end
Phvsical Addressins: The Data Link hler adds a header to
the frame in order to de6nc
,"ra* receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to
il,ffi; "dil.iirr.the network'
".
different systems on
FlowControl:Aflowcontrolmechanismtoavoidafasttransmitterfromrunningaslou traftc jam a:
..""*". Uy U"e"ring the extra bit is provided by flow control This Prevents
the receiver side.
at the end of the fram
Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer
Data Link Layers ad&
O"pif.",i." ftames are also pre"tnted by using thi-s mechanism'
"f
mechanism to Prevent duPlication of frames'
which ofthe devices has control over thr
Access Control: proto.oh ofthi' layer determine
the same link'
ii"t *V glt* time, when two oi more devices are connected to
",
Physical laYer
.Thelowestlayeroftheoslmodelconcernedwiththetransmissionandreceptionofthl
unstructured ,"* Uit it""t oue' u physitd
medium' It describes the electrical/optical
physical medium, and carries the signals for all
d
mechanical, *a ru',.tiona i,,terfaces to the
the higher laYers' It Provides: the PC to
. Data encoding: *oaiit"t'" simple digital signal pattern (ls and.0s)::td I
if the fttysiiut medium, and to aid in bit and fra*
better accommodat. tle
"h"ra.teristi.s
sYnchronization. It determines:
* What signal state rePresents a binary I
* How the receiving siation knows when a
"bit-time" starts
* How the receiving station delimits a frame
various possibilities in the medium
. Physical medium attachment, accommodating
* Will an external transceiver be used to connect to
the medium?
*Howmanypinsdotheconnectorshaveandwhatiseachpinusedfor?
the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband
. Transmission technique' letermines whether
(digital) or broadband (analogue) signaling'
for thc
. physical mediu- trunimits b.-it. as electrical or optical signals appropriate
,r*.-irri"i,
phYsical medium, and determines:
* What physical medium options can be used?
* a given signal state, using a given physice
How many volts shodd Le used to represent
medium
and token ring networks
. Media used include Ethernet cables, hubs, repeaters
. Following ar. tfr" i-ttio"''pt'fo'^"d by the Physical layer of the OSI model'
* "*io"' of stream of bits. The bits must be encoda
Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists
ofencoding i'e' how 0's and l's are changa
into signals for transmission' It defines the type
to signal.
* which is the number of bits^!::tf'"19
Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission
* synchronisation: It deals with the synchronisation
of the transmitter and receiver' th. t.
sender and receiver are synchronised at bit
level'
* Interface: Th" p;;;;ii;yer defines the transmission interface between devices ar
transmission medium' -the medium: Point to Po
* Line conngorutioi; This layer connects devices with
128
 configuration and Multipoint configuration.
* Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, star,
Ring
and Bus.
* Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet protocol Model

It is also known as the TCP/IP protocol suite. This is a collection ofprotocols which existed even be-
fore the OSI model was developed. It has four layers (bottom to top):
:
l. Network Access Layer / Host to Network LayerlNetwork Interface Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer

The structure of TCP/IP model is similar to the structure of the OSI model. Howeve! the OSI model
has seven layers whereas the TCp/Ip model has four layers.

Fig 3.28 TCP/IP Model

I
The diagram showing the comparison of OSI model and TCP/IP model along with the protocols
is as
I
shown below. \r
Mapping the OSI model and the TCP/Ip protocol
The following diagram shows the relationship between the osl model and the TCp/Ip model.

t29
 TEP/Plvffi- FroTOEOLS AiIII SENVEES O:iltrtffi-
AFFLEA'IIil

PnE:EilffATI rl
HTIPfTTP
TEJGTJTTP
qff.Ft{

TRATTsFTTRT
TCFJIF

TGTIVTR( NETWTNK

IIAIA Ltrt(
tGTlvltft(
NTENFAEE

Fig 3.29 Mapping of OSI model and TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP Model layers explained

This is a suite of communication protocols used to connect networking devices on the internet. This
suite is used for communications, whether for voice, video or data.

4. Application Layer
Gives the applications the ability to access the services ofother layers
Defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data
Media such as Ethernet, fiber, satellites through the router are used
It port numbers to offer service to each application.
uses
It has the following protocols in it: HTTB SMTB FTB Telnet, Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)
The application layer generates the message. For example, a web browser like Mozilla Firefor
can send a request to open a web page. This message will then be send to the transport layer.

3. Transport Layer
3rd layer which is between Application and Internet layers
It is concerned with the transmission of data using the TCP and the UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
Breaks the data into chunks / packets
Each packet is attached to a unique number specifring its order or position
A packet is given to a port number
Allows two communicating devices to carry on a conversation \rr
Outlines the level of service and status ofthe connection used when transporting data
Protocols used include TCB UDP (User Datagram Protocol),

130
2. Internet Layer
. Also called the Network Layer
. Responsible for addressing, packaging and routing packets
. The sender's IP address is attached. This is done to enable the receiver to identifu the sender
. Packs data into packets called IP datagrams. Datagrams contain source and destination
addresses (logical or IP addresses)
. Protocols used include IB ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) and RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol).

l. Link Layer
. Responsible for placing the packets on the transmission medium and removing packets offthe
network
* How TCP/IP functions, an example:
* A sending computer processes an e-mail at the application layer using the SMTP
* The file is passed to the next layer, Transport Layer
* The data is broken down into packets and then passed to internet layer where an IP address
is attached
* Then the packets are able to move using one of the following; Ethernet cables, satellites,
fibers, wireless technologies etc. to the receiving comPuter
* Packets are reassembled on the transport layer of the receiving computer into the exact
email that was sent
* The email will be passed to the application layer of the receMng computer where it will
processed using the POP or IMAP thereby enabling the user to read the email
* POP is used for retrieving stored email and SMTP is for sending the email

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP models

Following are some similarities between OSI Reference Model and TCP/P Reference Model.
* Both have layered architecture.
* Layers provide similar functionalities.
* Both are protocol stack.
* Both are reference models.

However, OSI and TCP/IP have the following differences

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / In-

ternet Protocol)
l. OSI is a generic, protocol independent l. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols
standard, acting as a communication gateway around which the Internet has developed. It
between the network and end user. is a communication protocol, which allows
connection ofhosts over a network.
2. In OSI model the transPort layer guarantees 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
 4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer 4. TCPAP does not have a separate Presentation
and Session layer. layer or Session layer.
5, Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented
and Connection less.
6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented 6. Network Layer is Connection less.
and Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which the 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of
networks are built. Generally it is used as a the OSI model.
guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides both 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the proto- 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
cols into the model.
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology changes.
ll. OSI model defines services, interfaces and In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols
11.
protocols very clearly and makes clear distinction are not clearly separated. It is also protocol
between them. It is protocol independent. dependent.
12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

IP Addressing
What is an IP address?
. An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected
to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication especially on thc
internet.
. It is an address with information on how to reach a specific host or resource, especially outside
the LAN.
. An IP address should not be confused with a MAC address, Media Access Control (MAC)
address is a unique number that is embedded on a device connected to a network for
identification purposes. The MAC address is hardwired on the devicet NIC and therefore
it is used to identifi a device on a network. MAC addresses are usually important on LAN
setup other than on the internet. Thus, MAC addresses allows physical and have a permanent
identification whereas IP addresses are logical and may change each time a device is connectd
to the internet, Only IP addresses for servers can be permanent.

Private, Public and Reserved IP addresses

IP addresses are classified into private and public IP addresses.

Public IP Addresses \r
A public IP address is the one that is used to identify a host on th€ internet and is not reserved for use
on private organisationt network. A computer with a public IP addresses can be viewed on a global
scale, allowing other machines on the internet to communicate with it. Public IP addresses are unique

r32
 the.world over, allowing computers to see each other and exchange data on a global scale. public Ip
addresses are assigned by the ISp

Private IP addresses
Private IP addresses, also known as local IP addresses, are those that are reserved for
use within
an organisationt network, e.g on a LAN or intranet. Computers with private Ip addresses cannot
communicate on the internet directly but have to communicate with the outside through a
router.
Private IP addresses are available for use behind the router. Private IP addresses are issued
by a router
to comPuters that are connected to it. This provides unique identification for devices on the LAN
during that session. Private IP addresses never leave a LAN.

Private IP addresses provide an entirely separate set ofaddresses that still allow access on a network but
without taking up a public IP address space. This is because the world is running out oflp addresses as
too many_electronic gadgets are being connected to the internet. The following Il address ranges are
available for use as private IPs:
. 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
. 172.16.0.0 to t72.3t.255.255
. 192.168.0.0 to 192.t6t.255.255
It does not matter if the private IP addresses for different organisations' computers are the same since
they do not directly communicate with each other over the internet. They communicate through their
router.

Note: An organization can be given both a private IP address and a public IP address. The private Ip
address would be used when communicating with other devices locally within the intranet. The public
IP address would be used for communication with other devices over the internet.

Reserved IP addresses
These are IP addresses that cannot be used for communications between hosts on the internet.
Additionally, reserved IP addresses are set aside for other purposes, for example, Ip address 127.0.0.1
is used as a loop back facility. It is used for testing your computer's network adapter. Ifused, the user
would be informed that he or she is trlng to connect to his or her own No data or traffic
addressed to this IP address would be transferred either on a LAN or "o-pui.r.
ovei the internet. Also, the
first address 0.0.0.0 refers to the default network while the IP address 2,s5.255.255.2ss is called the
broadcast address.

Static and Dynamic IP addressing

Static IP addressing
A static IP address is the address provided by the ISP for an individual organization and this would
never change. Even if users reboot the router or modem, it will stay the same.lt is assigned permanently
and physically to a host, for example IP address ofa server. Static IP addresses are-ideaias public Ip
addresses for large organisations. On a LAN, one can also assign specific IP addresses to ind"ividual \r
comPuter and every time the computer connects to the internet, it will use that IP address assigned
to it. However, if two or more computels are assigned the same static IP address, then only one of
them will connect to the internet at a time, the other computers would get connected if the currently
connected compirter is disconnected.

133
Dynamic IP Addressing
Using this scheme, computers pick an IP address that is not in use at that time. Thus every time
the computer connects to the internet, it can use a diferent IP address. However, only available IP
addresses within the range or address space can be picked. This is ideal for public IP addresses for
home users and other small businesses. A dynamic IP address is automatically assigned to a host by a
DHCP server every time it needs an internet connection. A dynamic IP address is different each time
a device gets connected to the internet.

Dynamic IP addressing is very flexible, easy to setup, easy to administer and to manage than static IPs-
Devices would be free to pick up any available IP address. Also, they offer some form of security sinc.
no one is more likely to track users using a dynamic IP address.
t
IP address Versions
There two versions of IP addresses, namely:
. IPv6 (Internet protocol Version 6)
. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)

a. IPv6
IPv5 was developed as a response to exhaustion ofIP addresses available for IPv4. However, it is still
to be fully deployed and adopted, most devices still run on IPv4. IPv6 would change the address sizc
from 32 bits to 128 bits, giving an address space of2128. This change needs existing hardware to bc
changed. IPv6 addresses are written in hexadecimal.

b. IPv4
IPv4 has been in existence for a long time and is the widely used protocol for internet connectioDr
to this day. Most computers on the internet use IPv4. IPv4 addresses are in binary notation but are
displayed in human readable form. The IP Address is a 32 bit unique address having an address spacc
of232.

Format of an IP address
This section looks at the format of IPv4 address since it is the most widely used as compared to Ih6.
Generally, an IPv4 address is written in dotted decimal notation, hexadecimal notation, octal notatioo
or binary notation. However, the dotted decimal and the binary-notions are of concern in this booh
IP address classes also form part of the IP address format.

a. Dotted decimal notation

Using the dotted decimal notation, an IPv4 address always consists of4 base ten numbers separated I
pedods, with the numbers having a possible range of 0 through 255, e.g. 192.L68.1.1O2

b. Using the binary notation t

This represents an IP address as a binary number with 4 octets that are separated by a full stop, forl
example 10000000.00001 101.0000001 1.0001 I I I l. Each octet has 8 bits, which give 32 bits in total. The l' 1-
binary notation is usually converted to the decimal notation for readability to users.

Each IP address format, whether in decimal or binary notation, serves two principal functions:

t34
 . Network identification and
. Host identification

t3l'ff t':fi i"-il;.hin'lh"'"'l*o'k rhe generar

rheNetworkldentiner(NetworklD).identinesthe3i*:"*:::'-1il:f;iT:.TlilHi'J#*
il;:;ff
H: I:J:::ili#tiiIiifi
i"t-.i"f * is given below'
rp address as
32 bits

r-ilr
Sbits
Sbits Sbits _]q .r

,-.162.1.I02
Fig 3'30 IP Address format

be represented in binary notation by simply

address 192'168 1'102-can
The decimal format for IP iii This this gives us I1000000'10
converting each octet to bin;X;;
,.r;;;;,h. "a* "irg
.

101000.00000001.01 l00l l0
class while the right bits
indicate the host' The
bits indicate Network
The hisher order left-most
;ff *.?r.il;;+"r."*tji,f'l,hitij;ttk*:*1**n;*T:::"'":":J'using'lhe
classiful lP addressing mecna

IP address Classes
No. of Bits
Default Subnet Theoretical IP
Class Format Start Bits Host
Mask Address Range Network
24
0 255.0.0.0 1.0.0.0 - 7
A N.H.H.H 127.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 - t4 16
-B N.N.H.H 10 255.255.O-0
t91.255.255.255
8
110 255.255.255.0 192.0.0.0 - 22
C N.N.N.H ).23.255.255.255
224.0.0.0 - N/A
1110 N/A
D N/A 1\s.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 - N/A
E N/A ull N/A
255.255.255.255-

135
Ip address ctasses include Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and class E as illustrated in the table aboe
Classes A, B and C are the only ones available for comrnercial use'

Class A
If the first bit of the 6rst octet of an IP address is a binary 0, the address is a Class A address. Witl
that first bit being a 0, the lowest network number that can be represented is 00000000, decimal 0. Tbt
highest network number that can be represented is 011I I l1l, decimal 127. Any address that startr
wih a value between 0 and I27 in the first octet is a Class A address. These two numbers,0 and 127
are reserved and cannot be used as a network address'
Class A is for very few large organisations. Class A address uses the 6rst 8 bits for the network
Addresr
and the other 24 bits for host addresses. We can write this as N.H.H.H. IP addresses 127.0.0.0 t3
127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback, broadcasting and diagnostic functioni

Calculating the number ofnetwork blocks

. From the format N.H.H.H, we have I byte for N, which give us 8 bits. However the frrst bit' 0
is not available so we have 7 bits left
, 27 = 128 networks
. However, networks 0 and 127 are not utilized therefore 126 networks are addressable.

Number of Hosts
.From the format N.H.H.H, we have 3 bytes of H, which gives us 24 bits
. 224 - rc777 216
. Two of these IP addresses, the lowest (which is all 0s, representing the NetworklD) and tb
highest (ail ls, for broadcasting) are reserved. This gives us 16 ,777 214 hosts that can bc
ad-tlressed. For example, IP address 192.0.0.0 is a Network ID, whle 192.255.255.255 will bc r
broadcasting IP address.

Total number of addresses

. 128 networks multiplied by 16777 2l4hostsper network

Note: Also note that address 127.0.0.0/8 is used for loopback.

Class B
Class B addresses start with a binary l0 in the first 2 bits ofthe first octet. Therefore, the lowest
networt
number that can be represented wiih a Class B address is 10000000, decimal 128. The highest
netwot
value in thc
number that can be represented is l01l I I I l, decimal l9l. Any address that starts with a
range of 128 to 191 in the first octet is a Class B address.
thiJ is a class reserved for medium-size organisations. Class B address uses 16 bits for the networt
address and 16 bits for host addresses. We can write this as N'N'H'H'

Calculating the number of network blocks

. From the format N.N.H.H, we have 2 bytes for N, which give us 16 bits. However the first I
bits, l0 are not available so we have 14 bits left \r
. 214 = t6 384 networks

136
 Number of Hosts
.From the format N.N.H.H, we have 2 bytes of H, which gives us l6 bits
.216 = 55 536
.Two ofthese are reserved, leaving us with 65 534 hosts

Total number of addresses

. 16 384 networks multiplied 65 534 hosts per network

Other bits represent broadcasting address.

Class C
A Class C address begins with binary ll0. Therefore, the lowest number that can
be represented is
I1000000' decimal 192. The highest number that can be represented is Il0lIlll, decimal 223. Ifan
IPv4 address contains a number in the range of 192 to 223 rn the first octet, it is a Class
C address. This
is for small organisations.
The first three octets ofa Class C address represent the network number. The
last octet may be used
for hosts. One host octet lelds 256 (2s) posiibiliti.s. After the all-0s network number and
the all-ls
broadcast address are subtracted, only 254 hosts may be addressed on a Class C
network. Whereas
Class A and Class B networks_prove impossibly large without subnetting, Class C
networks can impose
an overly restrictive limit on hosts.
Because the 6rst 3 bits ofa Class C address are always 110, 2l bits are left in the network portion ofthe
address, resultin g in 221 or 2 097 152 Class C networks.

Class D
A Class D address begins with binary lll0 in the first octet. Therefore, the first octet range for
a class
D address is I I100000 to lll0llll,
or 224to 239. Class D addresses are not used to address individual
hosts. Instead, each Class D address can be used to represent a group ofhosts called
a host group, or
multicast group

Class E
Ifthe first octet ofan IP address begins with I I I l, the address is a Class E address. Therefore, the first
octet range for Class E addresses is I I I10000 to 1l I l l l l, or 240 to 255. Class E addresses
are reserved
for experimental purposes and should not be used to address hosts or multicast groups.

IP Address Subnetting
Large and complex networks can be split into multiple smaller network segments called
subnets. This
gives rise to classless IP addressing. This concept is beyond the scope of this book.

Domain Name System (DNS)

This is a hierarchical distributed database installed on Domain Name Servers (DNS)
on the internet
that is responsible for mapping a domain name to an IP address. The domain name server
found on
the DNS translates the human-readable domain name of a host to its IP address. Let us
consider the
\r
following Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

http://wu.n'.tsanrbesanta. ac. zwl( )onrPut erScience/ Lorver Sixth/chapter3 pdl

The above URL is made up of the following parts:

t37
 have multimedia data
. http: - Protocol specifying that the page can
. r/iww: - Host on the network
. tsambesanta : - Domain name (name of
the website)
. ac : - Domain tyPe (academic institution)
. zw : - Country code, where the server resides
. ComputerScience : - name of the main folder
. Loweisixth : - sub-folder of ComPuterscience
. chaPter3 : - File name
. .pdi, - File type (portable document)
be followed to identify a unique resource on
th
It can be noted that the uRL is a path that must th
internet. Internet resources r#Ji.a ty rpecifying the IP address of the computers that store
-.
tjll^,ltij; a diary of all IP addresses-and therefst
it becomes difficult for user to memorise or keep domain I
The DNS would then map the human readable
they just need to type the Unl- in ;l"tti;i for the uscrr
stored in domain servers. This simplifies life
specific Ip address that i, t"pt in i"tuu"ses

ComputersontheinternethaveDNSservers.TheseserversmaintainadatabasethatcontainslL readl*
udd'ess' The DNS system allocates these human
mapping between a domain namt *d * tp individd
u ty*t* for finding the IP address for an
domain names for Internet h;;;;;;;J*
(iNS) is the way that internet domain names r
domain name. Thus, the d.-;i; ;;. system
located and translated IP addresses'

the domain name space' The joq lt":l domains

rrcrr
The DNS is based on a tree structure called domi
assigned by organisation *iily t*""y *a are sl11n by the suffix attached to internetcountri{
names. There -or. th* z#,of i.*ia"-"itts which ari either generic or rePresenting countrb
"r. are .com, .edu, .gov and those rePresenting
or organisations. Examples of gen"ii" domains
are .zw, .uk,. org, .sch etc

an internetwork from a source to a destination.

Routil
ll"lj*l an. ".t of moving information across responsible for exchanging information between
routGl
orotocols are networt tuy", p.oiolJ, that are
[iilJ;;;;;ff;;i., p"*, r", ,.'.,*ork traffic. For-ex"mple, m"nv routins Protoc*
between routers'
u*" ,ret uork protocols to exchange information

Path Determination
algorithms to determine fu
Routingprotocolsusemetricstoevaluatewhatpathwillbethebestforapackettotravel.Ametricirt
standard of mearrrr"-.nt, ts path bandwidth' that is used by routing
'uth fiil;;;;;' determination, routing algorithms initialir
optimal path to a destination.'T" "ip"n depen'linl
route iriformation, Route information varies
and maintain routing tables, ,rrri"r, ..rrr"in
on the routing algorithm used' .

Routingalgorithmsfillroutingtableswithavarietyofinformation.Destinationornexthopasso\ packet r
can be reached optimally by sendin-g the
ciations tell a router that pu.ii.rrl", destination
a particular router
"
rePresent"g "t*t hop' on the way to the final destination When a routtt
'
'ftt this addra
receives an incoming o*0",],".i..n, ,il l"Jrin",ion addiess and attempts to associate

r38
with a next hoP' path' Routers
such as data about the desirability of a
Routing tables can contain other information, of
and these metrics differ depending on the design
comDare metrics to a"t"r-irr" fpti-al routes,
ilHffi:L;;,h;;. til;il;;;;;il*iih on.
"noth"r
and maintain their routing tables

through th'e tiansmission of a variety of messages'

Routing Protocols of step-

the routing of packets in a node' It' is a set
A routing protocol is a method for determining to facilitate the
by-step operation used to di'; ;;;t;;";
;;affic ifficiently' R?uting protocols are used
of processes'
routers' A routing protocol is therefore a set
exchange of routing inro'Inutjon tttween the routing
algorithms, and messages il;;;;'; to exchange routi;g information and populate
packet of data leaves its source' there
table with the routing Prot;;;;;Jb;;tht' lpti
it' a"'ti'i"tion' The routing protocol are is used to determine
.re manv different paths it cair iJe io
mathematically the best path to take'

Purposes of routing Protocols

J Dircovery of remote networks
. -Ct
Maintaining uP-to-date routing information .
. oo.lng tfre best path to destination networks-
: ililt fifr;d " ";;;;P"th if the current path is no longer available
TVoes of Routing Protocols
iilr"u"Jt* -. lome (not alt) of the types of routing Protocols:
. Static
. Dynamic
. Distance vector
. Link-state
Static Routing Protocols
Staticroutinginvolvesamanualconfiguration.ofroutingtables'Thesystemsadministratorhasto hoP router'
of remote n-etwork, and lP Address of next
specifu the network address and subnet-mask routing Protocols are table
The route to destinarion i, -o.h-predictable. static
"il;;;;;;.,u.ry
mappings established by th.';;,ilri ffi;tt,tl..i
u.r.t" trte beginning of routing These maPPings
donotchangeunlessthe'.*"'t*"a-"''tratoraltersthem'Algorithmsthatusestaticroutesare
,,.t*ortiraftc is relatively predictable and
simple to design and *"rt'*.iii. "irii.i-"",r *t "r.
whJre networi design is relatively simple'
are considered
static routing systems cannot react to network changes, they generall-y
Because
Jft"ili"g Static routing is used when:
unsuitable for toa"yt fu'gt,;o;"ffi "etworks'
. Network only consists of few routers through one ISP
. Network is connected to Internet only
/
Static routing advantages are as follows:

. Easier for administrator to understand

. EasY to configure
. Suiiable for simPle toPologies

139
 i

. More secute
Static routing disadvantages are as follows:
. Configuration and maintenance are time-consuming.
. Confguration is error-prone, especially in large networks.
. Administrator intervention is required to maintain changing route information especi
when topology changes.
. Becomes more complex as the network grows
. Requires complete knowledge of the entire network for proper implementation.
Dynamic Routing Protocols
Dynamic routing enables routers to select paths according to real-time logical network layout changcr
In dynamic routing, the routing protocol operating on the router is responsible for the creatic
maintenance and updating ofthe dynamic routing table. This networking technique provides op-:rnd
data routing.
D1'namic routing uses multiple algorithms and protocols. The most popular are Routing Informatb
Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF). Dynamic routing is cheaper and automates tafi
changes, at the same time providing the best paths for data transmission.

Typically, dynamic routing protocol operations can be explained as follows:

l. The router delivers and receives the routing messages on the router interfaces.
2. The routing messages and information are shared with other routers, which use exactly the san
routing protocol.
3. Routers swap the routing information to discover data about remote netwodc.
4. Whenever a router finds a change in topology, the routing protocol advertises this topolog
change to other routers.

Advantages of dynamic routing

. Administrator has less work in maintaining the configuration when adding or deleti;
networks.
. Protocols automatically react to the topology changes.
. Configuration is less error-prone.
. More scalable; growing the network usually does not present a problem.

Disadvantages of dynarnic routing:

. More router resources are used (CPU cycles, memory and link bandwidth).
. More administrator knowledge is required for configuration, verification and troubleshoot-
ing.

Distance Vector Routing

Distance vector routing protocol (also known as Bellman-Ford algorithm,) finds the best path tot
remote network by using the relative distance. Each time when a packet passes through a rout6 -
referred as a hop. The best route is the route which has the lowest number ofhops to the destinatb
network. \i
Distance vector routing algorithms require that each router exchanges information with its neighbc
each router broadcasts to its neighbors a vector that lists each network it can reach the metric associad
with, that.is to say the number of hops. Each router can therefore build a routing table with informatb

140
 . More secure
Static routing disadvantages nre as follows:
. Configuration and maintenance are time_consuming.
. Configuration is error-prone, especially in large networks.
' Administrator intervention is required to m-aintain changing
route information espq
when topology changes.
. Becomes more complex as the network grows
' Requires complete knowledge of the entire network
for proper implementation.

Dynamic Routing Protocols

Dynamic routing enables routers to select paths according to real-time
logical network layout
In dynamic routing, the routing protocol operating ori the router is responsible .l-
for the crtl
maintenance and updating of the dynamic routing taLre. This networking
data routing.
techniqoe provides qf
uses multiple alqprithms and protocols. The most popular
Py"-i.t.111ti"g are Routing Info4.
Protocol (RIP) and open shortest path First (ospF). Dynamic routingis
cheaper and aritom,r.rl
changes, at the same time providing the best paths ior data
transmission.

fryic{lf, dynamic routing protocol operations can be explained as follows;

l, The router delivers and receivesihe routing messages
on the router interfaces.
2' The routing messages and information are ihared riith other
routers, which useexactly thc*
routing protocol.
3' Rorrters swap the routing information to discover data about
remote networr..
4. whenever a router finds a change in topology, the routing protocol
advertises this topl
change to other routers.

Advantages of dynamic routing

' Administrator has less work in maintaining the configuration when adding or d&
networks. d
. Protocols automatically react to the topology changes. {
. Configuration is less error-prone. {
. More scalable; growing the network usually does not present a problem. I

Disadvantages of dynarnic routingr

. More router resources are used (CpU cycles, memory and link bandwidth).
' More administrator knowledge is required for configuration, verification and troublesb
mg.

Distance Vector Routing

Distance vector routing protocol (also known as Bellman-Ford argorithm,) finds the best
using the relative distance. Each time when aiacket p"rr", tt rough
::l-"_:-,r.-Y:l\by
referred
u

network,
as a hop. The best route is the route which has the rowest
,i"-t.r'"li"p,
," ,ri.,

Distance vector routing algorithms require that each router exchanges

each router broadcasts to its neighborsi vector that lists each network
information with its neigl
it can reach the metric assofl
with, that'is to say the number ofhops. Each router can therefore buifa
"
i"r.rr
touti"g t"bl" *iiit

l4{)

\r
I
receivedflomitsneighborsbuthasnoideaoftheidentityofroutersthatareontheselectedroute.Thisits neighbors'
,outing table by adding information about all
implies that each ,outer keeps-an-JiJ"i.d
pI" of a distance vector protocol'
Routing Information Protocol (RIi; it "" "*"
Each table
path first, in which each router creates three separate tabres'
+iT$nti*:*::shortest of directly auached neighbors, the second
one
perform its difierent tu*,i""rt*il;;;; ;;;;;;;;k table'
determines the topology t ;;;;;; tti"r"",."tt, and- the third one is used for the routingintended to
.f Lirk;;;;;itrg pr"to*r. Theal_gorithms link state had initially
oSpF is an exampl. the
#J;;;;;;;uting. w-hen a router is initialised, it must define
overcome the shortcomings to all
of its links .""n..ia i. *oth.. ,rod.. The nod" then broadcasts the information
cost of each information'
autonomous ,yr;, ;d ,h.;;fore not only to its neighbours. From all this
nodes in the
t;ble indicating the cost of achieving
for obtaining a routing"ott"tr
the nodes can perform their calculation its routing table, it notifies all
each destination. when a ;;;;;;; i"i"r-"ii"r tiut
of each link'
.o"iit"'"ti;;:;;;;e has the network topologyind costs
intervening rout.r, i' it,
node'
routing cai be seen as central in each
Protocol and open Shortest Path Ftust'
This book will dir"u* trr. no,r:tirrg Information

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) of distance vector routing for local

Routing Information
p.otoJ J ti" ,,roigb, i-pt.-entation
a hop
lO ,".orrir,lt J.i*..r i" *,iie routing table to all active routers' It uses
networks. In every
to a remote. network. It prevents
count (maximum 15) t;;;; ;;rJ, *" a*.riu" the best path in the path' RIP is used in local
". counts permined
routing loops, through restriciin!,rr" "o** "rrrop
,r!t*oik, and wide area networks' between the gateways
"r." rcp I rp environment to route packets
RIp is the most wia"ry u."a p-io.oiin
th"
L".:t.*fpr.t *r (IGp), which uses the shortest path algorithm'
of the Internet. rt i, * rrrt ri",

TherearetwoversionsofRlBRIPversionlandRlPversion2.Thedifrerencesbetweenthe2ver.
sions are as follows:

mask (VLSM)
ffi "bt.+t$t*ubnet
s."dr*"-;*t -"rk "t"ng with routing update
Broadcast address Multicast address
C.ffi"i."t", *tth "th- RIP router through the

Supports authentication
/
be between I
on, RIP counts the number of hops for each packet' which must
As has been said earlier to establish the
t6 indicates ih"iii. ..""".it.n cannot be established' RIP messages
and 15. The value
;*ry If a RIP message does not reach its neighbor
;; ;ds.
routing tables ur. ,.nt "ppro*iii'":t.,i
l4r

I
 after three minutes, the latter considers that the link is no longer valid; the number oflinks is
than 15. RIP relies on hop count as the only measure for choosing the best route. RIp disr
is that it is inefficient on large networks or on networks where a large number ofrouters are

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

oSPF is part of the second generation of routing protocols that is more complex than RIp. It
distributed database that keeps track of the link state thereby giving a higher performance
collects information about its neighbours; the network topology and the status oinodes, and us.
information to calculate the shortest path to the destination address.

osPF is basically a link state and hierarchical IGP routing algorithm. It uses features like
routing, least cost routing and load balancing. Its major metric is the cost to determine the best
OSPF uses Dijkstra algorithm. OSPF uses load balancing, in which it overally distributes traffic rG
equally.
oSPF operates inside a distinct autonomous system and frequently updates its database.

Differences between RIP and OSPF

BASIS FORCOMPARISON RIP OSPF
Stands for Routing Information Protocol. Open Shortest Path First
Class Distance vector routing protocol Link State Routing Protocol
Default metric Hop count Bandwidth (cost)
Administrative distance t20 ll0
Convergence Slow Fast
Summarization Auto Manual
Update timer 30 seconds Only when changes occur
Hop count Lmit l5 None
Multicast address used 224.0.0.rO 224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.8
Protocol and port used UDP and port 20 IP and port 89
Algorithm used Bellman-ford Dijlatra

Uses of Computer Networks

a. Computer Networks: Business Applications

Following are some business applications of computer networks:

l. Resource Sharing:
The goal is to make all programs, equipment (like printers etc), and especially data, available to anyor
on the network without regard to the physical location ofthe resource and the user.

2. Server-Clientmodel:
\r
In this model, the data is stored on powerful computers called Servers. Often these are centrallyhoused
and maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the employees have simple machines, called
clients, on their desks, using which they access remote data.

t42

'lr

IJ.r
 3. CommunicationMedium:
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among employees. Virtually
every company that has two or more computers now has e-mail (electronic mail), which employees
generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
4. eCommerce:
A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing business with consumers over
the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors have discovered that many customers like the
convenience ofshopping from home. This sector is expected to grow quickly in the future.
The most popular forms are listed in the below figure:

b. Computer Networks: Home Applications

Some of the most important uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
. Access to remote information
. Person-to-personcommunication
. Interactiveentertainment
. Electronic commerce
Glossary of Terms
cs Circuit Switching
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexer
HTTP Hlper Text Transfer Protocol
IPX Internetwork Packet Exchange
LAN Local Area Network
MODEM Modulator Demodulator
NIC Network Interface Card
osI Open System Interconnection
OSPF Open Shortest Path First
RIP Routing Information Protocol
TCP/IP Transfer Control Protocol Internet Protocol
UDP User Datagram Protocol
WAN Wide Area Net$rork

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i-
l
r43
 qlt-

End of chapter questions

t. What are the irain differences between OSI and TCP/ IP reference modelg? t81

2. How optimization is achieved in DNS? ts1

3. What are the three basic types of web documents? AIso explain the advantages and disadvantag'
es of each type. t8l

4. Differentiate beween http and ftp. tsl

al I th
5. Draw a neat labeled diagram of the OSI reference model for computer networks showing
layers and the communication subnet boundary' I7l

6. Write short notes on:

(i) Client Server Model (CSP)
(i0 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
(iii) Post Office Protocol (POP)
(iv) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Ir2l
7. Differentiate between Transport and Session layers of OSI model' t4l

8. Explain any five networking devices you know [15]

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