Performance Directions

"Sul" - To designate which string the player should perform a musical gesture, the composer
may use the term "sul" followed by the letter name of the string. This means to play the passage
on the G string. For instance, if a dark quality of sound is needed, and the range of the passage
allows, the composer may include the direction "sul G."

"pizz." and "arco" - The string instruments are normally played with the bow. Therefore, if no
direction is indicated, the player will use the bow to play the strings. However, the strings may
also be plucked by the index finger of the left hand. This produces a percussive sound called
pizzicato (abbreviated "pizz."). When pizzicato is required the composer must write "pizz." over
the score. The player will then pluck the strings until the direction "arco" appears, which means to
return to playing with the bow. One thing to keep in mind is that rapid changes from pizz. to arco
can be difficult, tiresome, and clumsy if there are no breaks. Consider placing rests between
pizz. and arco moments so the player has a chance to get the bow back in position to play. When
using pizz. in a string ensemble, keep the rhythm simple. The percussiveness of the pizz.
technique requires exact synchronization which may be difficult with an inexperienced large
group. On longer note values, vibrato may accompany a note played pizz. If this is so desired,
write vib. over the score. For shorter note values, one may included the term "secco" for a short,
dry pizz. On the violin and viola, Pizz. is very effective on the lower notes (roughly, the first two
and a half octaves). Pizz. on upper notes produces a very thin sound. A "snap pizz." or "Bartok
pizz." may also be used. In performing the snap pizz. the player plucks the string outwards, away
from the body of the instrument so that it slaps back against the fingerboard producing a very
sharp articulation.

Vibrato (vib.) and Non-Vibrato (non-vib.) - String players will normally avoid the open strings.
This allows them to play with vibrato. Vibrato on a string instrument is achieved by the back and
forth motion of a finger on a string. When the finger moves towards the bridge, the pitch gets
higher. When the finger moves towards the tuning pegs, the pitch gets lower. When this
technique is accelerated, the resonances of the string and body of the instrument combine to
create a very thick, expressive tone. String players will normally play using vibrato. In certain
situations, however, the composer may wish not to use vibrato by placing the direction "non-vib."
over the score. Indicate where the player should go back to using vibrato by the direction "vib." an
opposite effect would be to include the direction "molto vib." which directs the player to use wide,
excessive vibrato. This direction should not be used for means other than effect. In other words,
do not use this direction when, for example, the musical gesture is a romantic melody. If the
desired result is one of great emotional expression, use the term molto espressivo.

Divisi, tutti, div. a 3, etc. - A string part may be divided into two or more parts. This is necessary
when a string part consists of two or more lines of music. To divide a part into tow separate parts,
use the direction "div." and notate the music so that there are stems going up for the upper part
and stems going down for the lower part. Keep this design even if the lower part "drifts" above the
upper part for a moment. If the notation loses its clarity, its best to place the two parts on separate
staffs. When the two parts rejoin use the term "tutti." In the case where three different lines of
music are necessary in one part, use the direction "div. a 3" which means to divide into three
parts. Divisi is not recommended for inexperienced groups, as there is strength in numbers.
Some highly experienced string players and orchestral composers actually avoid divisi because it
weakens the overall sound and cohesiveness in the orchestra. If only a couple of players are
needed, the term "one desk" should be used, or "two desks" for four players. If a solo string is
needed write "solo."

Mutes - A mute may be applied to the strings which softens the timbre as well as the dynamic.
The mute, when not in use, sits on the strings between the bridge and the tailpiece. When
needed, it is moved from that position to the other side of the bridge. This requires a brief amount
of time, which should be represented by a rest, that the composer must consider when engaging
and disengaging a mute.

Glissandi - Glissandi may be described as a sliding of pitch which connects two notes
seamlessly. A string player performs a glissando by playing a note, and without picking the left
hand finger up or stopping the bow motion, slides to the next note.

Harmonics - Harmonics fall into two categories: Natural and Artificial. Natural harmonics are
those that occur on the open string by lightly touching a "node" (a position on the string where a
harmonic sounds) with a left hand finger. The available harmonics are those taken from the
harmonic series. However, some harmonics speak more easily than others, and it is advised not
to write a natural harmonic past the fifth partial. Artificial harmonics are those formed by shorting
the string length. This would involve the stopping of a pitch on the fingerboard with a left hand
finger, then lightly touching above that stopped note (either a major third or a perfect fourth) to
sound a harmonic. Artificial harmonics may be used as a means to create octave displacement,
which can add an element of timbral coloration to a melody, or be used to make a melody in the
extreme upper register a little more manageable by taking it down two octaves. Harmonics should
be notated so that the sounding pitch is written on the score with a small circle above it.

Scordatura - The re-tuning of the open strings to pitches other than the conventional ones.
Scordatura only rarely appears in the upper strings. It often appears, however, in the bass where
the E string is tuned down to D or even C.

Special Effects (a few) -

"Sul Ponticello" - Bowing near the bridge. Produces a bright thin tone.
"Sul Tasto" - Bowing near the fingerboard. Produces a dark tone.
The above two directions may be further defined by adding the terms "poco"
(a little) and molto" (a lot)
"Col Lengo" - Bowing the string with the wood of the bow. Most players have a
special bow for performing this technique as the string will scratch up a
good bow.
Bow Behind the Bridge - Produces noise.
"Ordinary" (ord.) - Cancels the above effects and the player returns to normal
playing position.

Double, Triple and Quadruple Stops

Double Stops - The violin, viola, cello, and to some degree, double bass are capable of playing
more than one note at a time. This means that the bow must be able to make contact with two
strings simultaneously. On each of the string instruments, the strings appear in an arch shape
over the bridge to allow the bow to access one string at a time. (If the strings were flat all the way
across, like a guitar, the bow would not be able to touch the inner strings without touching the
outer strings.) Because the bow is flat, it is only possible to play double stops on adjacent strings.
The composer must then take care to write double stops that are playable on adjacent strings.
When writing double stops for less experienced groups, make sure one of the notes in the double
stop appears on an open string. An open string must be used when writing double stops for the
bass. Imperfect consonances work best as double stops. They are rich, and in tune. Perfect
consonances, such as the octave, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, can be noticeable out of tune. The
perfect fifth double stop on the violin especially, but also on the viola and cello, is very difficult and
will be out of tune. Avoid it! The composer should be aware of the timbral differences between an
open string and a stopped string (due to the resonance).

Triple and Quadruple Stops - Avoid these when writing for less experienced groups. In the
more experienced groups, triple and quadruple stops may be used in the violin, viola, and cello
parts, but not the bass. It is best to find a triple stop that includes an open string. This will make
the fingering easier. Triple stops may be played as a simultaneity, that is, all notes sounding at
the same time. This requires a heavy bow stroke which will produce a loud dynamic. The heavy
bow stroke is needed in order for the bow hair to touch all three strings. Quadruple stops will be
arpeggiated and will not sound as a simultaneity. Again, if a quadruple stop is necessary, find one
that includes at least one open string. In most cases in writing for string ensemble, it is probably
better to use divisi than to write triple and quadruple stops.

Techniques to Avoid

(1) Sudden and repeated jumps across the strings. Most string music, especially in the upper
strings, involves conjunct melody.
(2) Going beyond third position in an inexperienced group. (Violin I and cello may go up to
fifth position.)
(3) Divisi passages in inexperienced and high school groups. The sections are, many times,
already too small.
(4) Triple and Quadruple stops.
(5) Highly chromatic music for high school groups.
(6) Leaps to the upper positions. It is better to "lead" a player's fingers up to the upper
positions. In other words, move to the upper position gradually.