Solutions for Introduction to Manufacturing Processes (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2011

06-14, 07-07-2010

15 THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

Problems
15.1 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake angle = 15. The chip thickness before the cut
= 0.30 mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.65 mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane
angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.30/0.65 = 0.4615
 = tan-1(0.4615 cos 15/(1 - 0.4615 sin 15)) = tan-1(0.5062) = 26.85
(b) Shear strain  = cot 26.85 + tan (26.85 - 15) = 1.975 + 0.210 = 2.185
15.2 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the 0.250 in wide tool has a rake angle of 5. The lathe is set so
the chip thickness before the cut is 0.010 in. After the cut, the deformed chip thickness is measured
to be 0.027 in. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.010/0.027 = 0.3701
 = tan-1(0.3701 cos 5/(1 - 0.3701 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3813) = 20.9
(b) Shear strain  = cot 20.9 + tan (20.9 – 5) = 2.623 + 0.284 = 2.907
15.3 In a turning operation, spindle speed is set to provide a cutting speed of 1.8 m/s. The feed and depth
of cut are 0.30 mm and 2.6 mm, respectively. The tool rake angle is 8. After the cut, the deformed
chip thickness is measured to be 0.49 mm. Determine (a) shear plane angle, (b) shear strain, and (c)
material removal rate. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.30/0.49 = 0.612
 = tan-1(0.612 cos 8/(1 – 0.612 sin 8)) = tan-1(0.6628) = 33.6
(b)  = cot 33.6 + tan (33.6 - 8) = 1.509 + 0.478 = 1.987
(c) RMR = (1.8 m/s x 103 mm/m)(0.3)(2.6) = 1404 mm3/s
15.4 The cutting force and thrust force in an orthogonal cutting operation are 1470 N and 1589 N,
respectively. The rake angle = 5, the width of the cut = 5.0 mm, the chip thickness before the cut =
0.6, and the chip thickness ratio = 0.38. Determine (a) the shear strength of the work material and
(b) the coefficient of friction in the operation.
Solution: (a)  = tan-1(0.38 cos 5/(1 - 0.38 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3916) = 21.38
Fs = 1470 cos 21.38 – 1589 sin 21.38 = 789.3 N
As = (0.6)(5.0)/sin 21.38 = 3.0/.3646 = 8.23 mm2
S = 789.3/8.23 = 95.9 N/mm2 = 95.9 MPa
(b)  = 45 + /2 - /2; rearranging,  = 2(45) +  - 2
 = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + 5 – 2(21.38) = 52.24
 = tan 52.24 = 1.291
15.5 The cutting force and thrust force have been measured in an orthogonal cutting operation to be 300
lb and 291 lb, respectively. The rake angle = 10, width of cut = 0.200 in, chip thickness before the
cut = 0.015, and chip thickness ratio = 0.4. Determine (a) the shear strength of the work material
and (b) the coefficient of friction in the operation.
Solution:  = tan-1(0.4 cos 10/(1 - 0.4 sin 10)) = tan-1(0.4233) = 22.94
Fs = 300 cos 22.94 - 291sin 22.94 = 162.9 lb.
As = (0.015)(0.2)/sin 22.94 = 0.0077 in2
S = 162.9/0.0077 = 21,167 lb/in2
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 = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + 10 - 2(22.94) = 54.1
 = tan 54.1 = 1.38
15.6 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the rake angle = -5, chip thickness before the cut = 0.2 mm and
width of cut = 4.0 mm. The chip ratio = 0.4. Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut, (b) shear
angle, (c) friction angle, (d) coefficient of friction, and (e) shear strain.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc, tc = to/r = 0.2/.4 = 0.5 mm
(b)  = tan-1(0.4 cos(–5)/(1 - 0.4 sin(–5))) = tan-1(0.3851) = 21.1
(c)  = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + (-5) - 2(21.8) = 42.9
(d)  = tan 42.9 = 0.93
(e)  = cot 31.8 + tan(31.8 - 15) = 2.597 + 0.489 = 3.09
15.7 The shear strength of a certain work material = 50,000 lb/in2. An orthogonal cutting operation is
performed using a tool with a rake angle = 20 at the following cutting conditions: cutting speed =
100 ft/min, chip thickness before the cut = 0.015 in, and width of cut = 0.150 in. The resulting chip
thickness ratio = 0.50. Determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force and
thrust force, and (d) friction force.
Solution: (a)  = tan-1(0.5 cos 20/(1 - 0.5 sin 20)) = tan-1(0.5668) = 29.5
(b) As = (0.015)(0.15)/sin 29.5 = 0.00456 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.00456(50,000) = 228 lb
(c)  = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + 20 - 2(29.5) = 50.9
Fc = 228 cos (50.9 - 20)/cos (29.5 + 50.9 -20) = 397 lb
Ft = 228 sin (50.9 - 20)/cos (29.5 + 50.9 -20) = 238 lb
(d) F = 397 sin 20 + 238 cos 20 = 359 lb
15.8 A carbon steel bar with 7.64 in diameter has a tensile strength of 65,000 lb/in2 and a shear strength
of 45,000 lb/in2. The diameter is reduced using a turning operation at a cutting speed of 400 ft/min.
The feed is 0.011 in/rev and the depth of cut is 0.120 in. The rake angle on the tool in the direction
of chip flow is 13. The cutting conditions result in a chip ratio of 0.52. Using the orthogonal model
as an approximation of turning, determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force
and feed force, and (d) coefficient of friction between the tool and chip.
Solution: (a)  = tan-1(0.52 cos 13/(1 - 0.52 sin 13)) = tan-1(0.5738) = 29.8
(b) As = tow/sin  = (0.011)(0.12)/sin 29.8 = 0.00265 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.00587(40,000) = 119.4 lb
(c)  = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + 10 - 2(29.8) = 43.3
Fc = Fscos (β – α)/cos ( + β – α)
Fc = 264.1 cos (43.3 - 13)/cos (29.8 + 43.3 - 13) = 207 lb
Ft = Fssin (β – α)/cos ( + β – α)
Ft = 264.1 sin (43.3 - 13)/cos (29.8 + 43.3 - 13) = 121 lb
(d) μ = tan β = tan 43.3 = 0.942
15.9 Low carbon steel having a tensile strength of 300 MPa and a shear strength of 220 MPa is cut in a
turning operation with a cutting speed of 3.0 m/s. The feed is 0.20 mm/rev and the depth of cut is
3.0 mm. The rake angle of the tool is 5 in the direction of chip flow. The resulting chip ratio is
0.45. Using the orthogonal model as an approximation of turning, determine (a) the shear plane
angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force and feed force.
Solution: (a)  = tan-1(0.45 cos 5/(1 - 0.45 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.4666) = 25.0
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(b) As = tow/sin  = (0.2)(3.0)/sin 25.0 = 1.42 mm2.
Fs = AsS = 1.42(220) = 312 N
(c)  = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + 5 - 2(25.0) = 45.0
Fc = Fscos (β – α)/cos ( + β – α)
Fc = 312 cos(45 - 5)/cos(25.0 + 45.0 - 5) = 566 N
Ft = Fssin(β – α)/cos( + β – α)
Ft = 312 sin(45 - 5)/cos(25.0 + 45.0 - 5) = 474 N
15.10 A turning operation is made with a rake angle of 10, a feed of 0.010 in/rev and a depth of cut =
0.100 in. The shear strength of the work material is known to be 50,000 lb/in2, and the chip
thickness ratio is measured after the cut to be 0.40. Determine the cutting force and the feed force.
Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution:  = tan-1(0.4 cos 10/(1 - 0.4 sin 10)) = tan-1(0.4233) = 22.9
As = (0.010)(0.10)/sin 22.9 = 0.00257 in2
Fs = AsS = 0.00256(50,000) = 128 lb
 = 2(45) + α - 2() = 90 + 10 - 2(22.9) = 54.1
Fc = 128 cos (54.1 - 10)/cos (22.9 + 54.1 - 10) = 236 lb
Ft = 128 sin (54.1 - 10)/cos (22.9 + 54.1 - 10) = 229 lb
15.11 In a turning operation on stainless steel with hardness = 200 HB, cutting speed = 200 m/min, feed =
0.25 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 7.5 mm. How much power will the lathe draw in performing this
operation if its mechanical efficiency = 90%. Use Table 15.2 to obtain the appropriate specific
energy value.
Solution: From Table 15.2, U = 2.8 N-m/mm3 = 2.8 J/mm3
RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.25 mm)(7.5 mm) = 375,000 mm3/min = 6250 mm3/s
Pc = (6250 mm3/s)(2.8 J/mm3) = 17,500 J/s = 17,500 W = 17.5 kW
Accounting for mechanical efficiency, Pg = 17.5/0.90 = 19.44 kW
15.12 In Problem 15.11, compute the lathe power requirements if feed is changed to 0.50 mm/rev.
Solution: This is the same basic problem as the previous, except that a correction must be made for
the “size effect.” Using Figure 15.12, for f = 0.50 mm, correction factor = 0.85.
From Table 15.2, U = 2.8 J/mm3. With the correction factor, U = 2.8(0.85) = 2.38 J/mm3.
RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.50 mm)(7.5 mm) = 750,000 mm3/min = 12,500 mm3/s
Pc = (12,500 mm3/s)(2.38 J/mm3) = 29,750 J/s = 29,750 W = 29.75 kW
Accounting for mechanical efficiency, Pg = 29.75/0.90 = 33.06 kW
15.13 In a turning operation on aluminum, cutting speed = 900 ft/min, feed = 0.020 in/rev, and depth of
cut = 0.250 in. What horsepower is required of the drive motor, if the lathe has a mechanical
efficiency = 87%? Use Table 15.2 to obtain the appropriate unit horsepower value.
Solution: From Table 15.2, HPu = 0.25 hp/(in3/min) for aluminum. Since feed is greater than 0.010
in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 15.12. For f = 0.020 in/rev = to,
correction factor = 0.9.
HPc = HPu x RMR, HPg = HPc/E
RMR = vfd = 900 x 12(.020)(0.250) = 54 in3/min
HPc = 0.9(0.25)(54) = 12.2 hp
HPg = 12.2/0.87 = 14.0 hp
15.14 In a turning operation on plain carbon steel whose Brinell hardness = 275 HB, the cutting speed is
set at 200 m/min and depth of cut = 6.0 mm. The lathe motor is rated at 25 kW, and its mechanical
efficiency = 90%. Using the appropriate specific energy value from Table 15.2, determine the

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maximum feed that can be set for this operation. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended
for the iterative calculations required in this problem.
Solution: From Table 15.2, U = 2.8 N-m/mm3 = 2.8 J/mm3
RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(6 mm)f = 1200(103)f mm3/min = 20(103)f mm3/s
Available power Pc = Pg E = 25(103)(0.90) = 22.5 (103) = 22,500W = 22,500 N-m/s
Required power Pc = (2.8 N-m/mm3)( 20 x 103) f = 56,000 f (units are N-m/s)
Setting available power = required power, 22,500 = 56,000 f
f = 22,500/56,000 = 0.402 mm (this should be interpreted as mm/rev for a turning operation)
However, for this feed, correction factor in Figure 15.12 = 0.9. Thus U = 2.8(0.90) = 2.52 N-m/mm3
and an iterative calculation procedure is required to match the unit power value with the feed, taking
the correction factor into account.
Required Pc = (2.52)(20 x 103) f = 50,400 f
Again setting available power = required power, 22,500 = 50,400 f
f = 22,500/50,400 = 0.446 mm/rev
One more iteration using the correction factor yields a value around f = 0.45 mm/rev.
The author’s spreadsheet calculations (using Excel) returned a value closer to f = 0.46 mm/rev.
However, whether a spreadsheet is used or not, the difficulty that remains is reading the values of
the feed and the correction factor in Figure 15.12.
15.15 A turning operation is to be performed on a 20 hp lathe that has an 87% efficiency rating. The
roughing cut is made on alloy steel whose hardness is in the range 325 to 335 HB. The cutting
speed is 375 ft/min, feed is 0.030 in/rev, and depth of cut is 0.150 in. Based on these values, can the
job be performed on the 20 hp lathe? Use Table 15.2 to obtain the appropriate unit horsepower
value.
Solution: From Table 15.2, HPu = 1.3 hp/(in3/min)
Since the uncut chip thickness (0.030 in) is different from the tabular value of 0.010, a correction
factor must be applied. From Figure 15.12, the correction factor is 0.8. Therefore, the corrected HPu
= 0.8*1.3 = 1.04 hp/(in3/min)
RMR = vfd = 375 ft/min(12 in/ft)(0.03 in)(0.150 in) = 20.25 in3/min
HPc = (20.25 in3/min)(1.04 hp/(in3/min)) = 21.06 hp required.
At efficiency E = 87%, available horsepower = 0.87(20) = 17.4 hp
Since required horsepower exceeds available horsepower, the job cannot be accomplished on the 20
hp lathe, at least not at the specified cutting speed of 375 ft/min.
15.16 In a turning operation on low carbon steel (175 BHN), cutting speed = 400 ft/min, feed = 0.010
in/rev, and depth of cut = 0.075 in. The lathe has a mechanical efficiency = 0.85. Based on the unit
horsepower values in Table 15.2, determine (a) the horsepower consumed by the turning operation
and (b) the horsepower that must be generated by the lathe.
Solution: (a) From Table 15.2, HPu = 0.6 hp/(in3/min) for low carbon steel.
HPc = HPu x RMR
RMR = vfd = 400 x 12(.010)(0.075) = 3.6 in3/min
HPc = 0.6(3.6) = 2.16 hp
(b) HPg = 2.16/0.85 = 2.54 hp
15.17 Solve Problem 15.16 except that the feed = 0.0075 in/rev and the work material is stainless steel
(Brinell Hardness = 240 HB).
Solution: (a) From Table 15.2, HPu = 1.0 hp/(in3/min) for stainless steel. Since feed is lower than
0.010 in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 15.12. For f = 0.0075
in/rev = to, correction factor = 1.1.
HPc = HPu x RMR
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RMR = 400 x 12(0.0075)(0.12) = 4.32 in3/min
HPc = 1.1(1.0)(4.32) = 4.75 hp
(b) HPg = 5.01/0.83 = 5.73 hp
15.18 A turning operation is carried out on aluminum (100 BHN). Cutting speed = 5.6 m/s, feed = 0.25
mm/rev, and depth of cut = 2.0 mm. The lathe has a mechanical efficiency = 0.85. Based on the
specific energy values in Table 15.2, determine (a) the cutting power and (b) gross power in the
turning operation, in Watts.
Solution: (a) From Table 15.2, U = 0.7 N-m/mm3 for aluminum.
RMR = vfd = 5.6(103)(.25)(2.0) = 2.8(103) mm3/s.
Pc = U RMR = 0.7(2.8)(103) = 1.96(103) N-m/s = 1960 W
(b) Gross power Pg = 1960/0.85 = 2306 W
15.19 A turning operation is performed on an engine lathe using a tool with zero rake angle in the
direction of chip flow. The work material is an alloy steel with hardness = 325 Brinell hardness.
The feed is 0.015 in/rev, depth of cut is 0.125 in and cutting speed is 300 ft/min. After the cut, the
chip thickness ratio is measured to be 0.45. (a) Using the appropriate value of specific energy from
Table 15.2, compute the horsepower at the drive motor, if the lathe has an efficiency = 85%. (b)
Based on horsepower, compute your best estimate of the cutting force for this turning operation.
Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution: (a) From Table 15.2, U = Pu = 520,000 in-lb/in3 for alloy steel of the specified hardness.
Since feed is greater than 0.010 in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure
15.12. For f = 0.015 in/rev = to, correction factor = 0.95. Thus,
U = 520,000(0.95) = 494,000 in-lb/in3 = 41,167 ft-lb/in3.
RMR = 300 x 12(.015)(0.125) = 6.75 in3/min
Pc = U RMR = 41,167(6.75) = 277,875 ft-lb/min
HPc = 277,875/33,000 = 8.42 hp
HPg = 8.42/0.85 = 9.9 hp
(b) HPc = vFc/33,000. Rearranging, Fc = 33,000 (HPc/v) = 33,000(8.42/300) = 926 lb.
Check: Use unit horsepower from Table 15.2 rather than specific energy. HPu = 1.3 hp/(in3/min).
Applying the correction factor correction factor = 0.95, HPu = 1.235 hp/(in3/min).
RMR = 300 x 12(.015)(0.125) = 6.75 in3/min, same as before
HPc = 1.235(6.75) = 8.34 hp
HPg = 8.34/0.85 = 9.8 hp
(b) Fc = 33,000 (8.3/300) = 913 lb.
15.20 In a turning operation on an aluminum alloy workpiece, feed = 0.020 in/rev and depth of cut =
0.250 in. The motor horsepower of the lathe is 20 hp and it has a mechanical efficiency = 92%. The
unit horsepower value = 0.25 hp/(in3/min) for this aluminum grade. What is the maximum cutting
speed that can be used on this job?
Solution: From Table 15.2, HPu = 0.25 hp/(in3/min) for aluminum. Since feed is greater than 0.010
in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 15.12. For f = 0.020 in/rev = to,
correction factor = 0.9.
HPc = HPu x RMR, HPg = HPc/E
RMR = vfd = 12v(.020)(0.250) = 0.06 v in3/min
HPc = 0.9(0.25)(0.06 v) = 0.0135 v hp
HPg = 0.0135 v /0.92 = 0.014674 v = 20 hp
v = 20/0.014674 = 1363 ft/min

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15.21 Orthogonal cutting is performed on a metal whose mass specific heat = 1.0 J/g-C, density = 2.9
g/cm3, and thermal diffusivity = 0.8 cm2/s. The cutting speed is 4.5 m/s, uncut chip thickness is 0.25
mm, and width of cut is 2.2 mm. The cutting force is measured at 1170 N. Using Cook's equation,
determine the cutting temperature if the ambient temperature = 22C.
Solution: C = (2.9 g/cm3)(1.0 J/g-C) = 2.90 J/cm3-C = (2.90x10-3) J/mm3-C
K = 0.8 cm2/s = 80 mm2/s
U = Fcv/RMR = 1170 N x 4.5 m/s/(4500 mm/s x 0.25 mm x 2.2 mm) = 2.127 N-m/mm3
T = 0.4U/(ρC) x (vto/K)0.333
T = 22 + (0.4 x 2.127 N-m/mm3/(2.90x10-3) J/mm3-C) [4500 mm/s x 0.25 mm/80 mm2/s]0.333
T = 22 + (0.2934 x 103 C)(14.06).333 = 22 + 293.4(2.41) = 22 + 707 = 729C
15.22 Consider a turning operation performed on steel whose hardness = 225 HB at a speed = 3.0 m/s,
feed = 0.25 mm, and depth = 4.0 mm. Using values of thermal properties found in the tables and
definitions of Sections 3.6 and 3.7, and the appropriate specific energy value from Table 15.2,
compute an estimate of cutting temperature using the Cook equation. Assume ambient temperature
= 20C.
Solution: From Table 15.2, U = 2.2 N-m/mm3 = 2.2 J/mm3
From Table 3.10,  = 7.87 g/cm3 = 7.87(10-3) g/mm3
From Table 3.11, C = 0.11 Cal/g-C. From note “a” at the bottom of the table, 1 cal = 4.186 J.
Thus, C = 0.11(4.186) = 0.460 J/ g-C
C = (7.87 g/cm3)(0.46 J/g-C) = 3.62(10-3) J/mm3-C
From Table 3.11, thermal conductivity k = 0.046 J/s-mm-C
From Eq. (3.30), thermal diffusivity K = k/C
K = 0.046 J/s-mm-C /[(7.87 x 10-3 g/mm3)(0.46 J/g-C)] = 12.7 mm2/s
Using Cook’s equation, to = f = 0.25 mm
T = (0.4(2.2)/3.62(10-3))[3(103)(0.25)/12.7]0.333 = 0.2428(103)(59.06)0.333
= 242.8(3.89) = 944.4 C
Final temperature, taking ambient temperature in account T = 20 + 944 = 964C
15.23 An orthogonal cutting operation is performed on a certain metal whose volumetric specific heat =
110 in-lb/in3-F, and thermal diffusivity = 0.140 in2/sec. The cutting speed = 350 ft/min, chip
thickness before the cut = 0.008 in, and width of cut = 0.100 in. The cutting force is measured at
200 lb. Using Cook's equation, determine the cutting temperature if the ambient temperature = 70F.
Solution: v = 350 ft/min x 12 in/ft/60 sec/min = 70 in/sec.
U = Fcv/vtow = 200(70)/(70 x 0.008 x 0.100) = 250,000 in-lb/in3.
T = 70 + (0.4U/C)(vto/K)0.333 =
T = 70 + (0.4 x 250,000/110)[70 x 0.008/0.14]0.333 = 70 + (909)(4)0.333 = 70 + 1436 = 1506F
15.24 During a turning operation, a tool-chip thermocouple was used to measure cutting temperature. The
following temperature data were collected during the cuts at three different cutting speeds (feed and
depth were held constant): (1) v = 100 m/min, T = 505C, (2) v = 130 m/min, T = 552C, (3) v = 160
m/min, T = 592C. Determine an equation for temperature as a function of cutting speed that is in
the form of the Trigger equation, Eq. (15.23).
Solution: Trigger equation T = Kvm
Choose points (1) and (3) and solve simultaneous equations using T = Kvm as the model.
(1) 505 = K(100)m and (3) 592 = K(160)m
(1) ln 505 = ln K + m ln 100 and (3) ln 592 = ln K + m ln 160
Combining (1) and (3): ln 505 - m ln 100 = ln 592 - m ln 160
6.2246 – 4.6052 m = 6.3835 – 5.0752 m
0.47 m = 0.1589 m = 0.338
(1) K = 505/1000.338 = 505/4.744 = 106.44
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(2) K = 592/1600.338 = 592/5.561 = 106.45 Use K = 106.45
Check equation with data point (2): T = 106.45(130)0.338 = 551.87C (pretty close to the given value
of 552C).

16 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINE

TOOLS
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Problems
16.1 A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter and 700 mm long is to be turned in an engine lathe.
Cutting speed = 2.30 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 1.80 mm. Determine (a) cutting
time, and (b) metal removal rate.
Solution: (a) N = v/(πD) = (2.30 m/s)/0.200 = 3.66 rev/s
fr = Nf = 6.366(.3) = 1.17 mm/s
Tm = L/fr = 700/1.17 = 598 s = 9.96 min
Alternative calculation using Eq. (16.5), Tm = 200(700)π/(2,300 x 0.32) = 597.6 sec = 9.96 min
(b) RMR = vfd = (2.30 m/s)(103)(0.32 mm)(1.80 mm) = 1320 mm3/s
16.2 In a production turning operation, the foreman has decreed that a single pass must be completed on
the cylindrical workpiece in 5.0 min. The piece is 400 mm long and 150 mm in diameter. Using a
feed = 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of cut = 4.0 mm, what cutting speed must be used to meet this
machining time requirement?
Solution: Starting with Eq. (16.5): Tm = DoL/vf.
Rearranging to determine cutting speed: v = DoL/fTm
v = (0.4)(0.15)/(0.30)(10-3)(5.0) = 0.1257(103) m/min = 125.7 m/min
16.3 A tapered surface is to be turned on an automatic lathe. The workpiece is 750 mm long with
minimum and maximum diameters of 100 mm and 200 mm at opposite ends. The automatic
controls on the lathe permit the surface speed to be maintained at a constant value of 200 m/min by
adjusting the rotational speed as a function of workpiece diameter. Feed = 0.25 mm/rev and depth
of cut = 3.0 mm. The rough geometry of the piece has already been formed, and this operation will
be the final cut. Determine (a) the time required to turn the taper and (b) the rotational speeds at the
beginning and end of the cut.
Solution: (a) RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.25 mm)(3.0 mm) = 150,000 mm3/min
Area of frustrum of cone A = (R1 + R2){h2 + (R1 – R2)2}0.5
Given R1 = 100 mm, R2 = 50 mm, and h = 750 mm,
A = (100 + 50){7502 + (100 – 50)2}0.5 = 150(565,000)0.5 = 354,214 mm2
Given depth of cut d = 3.0 mm, volume cut V = Ad = (354,214 mm2)(3.0 mm) = 1,062,641 mm3
Tm = V/RMR = (1,062,641 mm3)/(150,000 mm3/min) = 7.084 min
(b) At beginning of cut (D1 = 100 mm), N = v/D = 200,000/100 = 636.6 rev/min
At end of cut (D2 = 200 mm), N = 200,000/200 = 318.3 rev/min
16.4 A cylindrical work bar with 4.5 in diameter and 52 in length is chucked in an engine lathe and
supported at the opposite end using a live center. A 46.0 in portion of the length is to be turned to a
diameter of 4.25 in one pass at a speed of 450 ft/min. The metal removal rate should be 6.75
in3/min. Determine (a) the required depth of cut, (b) the required feed, and (c) the cutting time.
Solution: (a) depth d = (4.50 - 4.25)/2 = 0.125 in
(b) RMR = vfd; f = RMR/(12vd) = 6.75/(12 x 450 x 0.125) = 0.010 in
f = 0.010 in/rev
(c) N = v/πD = 450 x 12/4.5 = 382 rev/min
fr = 382(0.010) = 3.82 in/min
Tm = 46/3.82 = 12.04 min

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16.5 The end of a large tubular workpart is to be faced on a NC vertical boring mill. The part has an
outside diameter of 38.0 in and an inside diameter of 24.0 in. If the facing operation is performed at
a rotational speed of 40.0 rev/min, feed of 0.015 in/rev, and depth of cut of 0.180 in, determine (a)
the cutting time to complete the facing operation and (b) the cutting speeds and metal removal rates
at the beginning and end of the cut.
Solution: (a) Distance traveled L = (Do - Di)/2 = (38 - 24)/2 = 7.0 in
fr = (40 rev/min)(0.015 in/rev) = 0.60 in/min
Tm = 7.0/0.60 = 11.67 min
(b) At Do = 38 in, N = v/πD, v = NπD = (40 rev/min)(38/12) = 398 ft/min
RMR = vfd = (398 x 12)(0.015)(0.18) = 12.89 in3/min
At Di = 24 in, N=v/πD, v = NπD = (40 rev/min)(24/12) = 251 ft/min
RMR = vfd = (251 x 12)(0.015)(0.18) = 8.14 in3/min
16.6 A drilling operation is to be performed with a 12.7 mm diameter twist drill in a steel workpart. The
hole is a blind hole at a depth of 60 mm and the point angle is 118. The cutting speed is 25 m/min
and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev. Determine (a) the cutting time to complete the drilling operation, and
(b) metal removal rate during the operation, after the drill bit reaches full diameter.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 25(103) / (12.7) = 626.6 rev/min
fr = Nf = 626.6(0.30) = 188 mm/min
A = 0.5D tan (90 – θ/2) = 0.5(12.7)tan(90 – 118/2) = 3.82 mm
Tm = (d + A)/fr = (60 + 3.82)/188 = 0.339 min
(b) RMR = 0.25πD2fr = 0.25(12.7)2(188) = 23,800 mm3/min
16.7 A gundrilling operation is used to drill a 9/64-in diameter hole to a certain depth. It takes 4.5
minutes to perform the drilling operation using high pressure fluid delivery of coolant to the drill
point. The current spindle speed = 4000 rev/min, and feed = 0.0017 in/rev. In order to improve the
surface finish in the hole, it has been decided to increase the speed by 20% and decrease the feed by
25%. How long will it take to perform the operation at the new cutting conditions?
Solution: fr = Nf = 4000 rev/min (0.0017 in/rev) = 6.8 in/min
Hole depth d = 4.5 min (6.8 in/min) = 30.6 in
New speed v = 4000(1 + 0.20) = 4800 rev/min
New feed f = 0.0017(1- 0.25) = 0.001275 in/min
New feed rate fr = 4800(0.001275) = 6.12 in/min
New drilling time Tm = 30.6/6.12 in/min = 5.0 min
16.8 A peripheral milling operation is performed on the top surface of a rectangular workpart which is
400 mm long by 60 mm wide. The milling cutter, which is 80 mm in diameter and has five teeth,
overhangs the width of the part on both sides. Cutting speed = 70 m/min, chip load = 0.25
mm/tooth, and depth of cut = 5.0 mm. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make one pass
across the surface and (b) the maximum material removal rate during the cut.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 70,000 mm/80 = 279 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 279(5)(0.25) = 348 mm/min
A = (d(D-d))0.5 = (5(80-5))0.5 = 19.4 mm
Tm = (400 + 19.4)/348 = 1.20 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 60(5)(348) = 104,400 mm3/min
16.9 A face milling operation is used to machine 6.0 mm from the top surface of a rectangular piece of
aluminum 300 mm long by 125 mm wide in a single pass. The cutter follows a path that is centered
over the workpiece. It has four teeth and is 150 mm in diameter. Cutting speed = 2.8 m/s, and chip

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load = 0.27 mm/tooth. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make the pass across the surface
and (b) the maximum metal removal rate during cutting.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = (2800 mm/s)/150 = 5.94 rev/s
fr = Nntf = 5.94(4)(0.27) = 6.42 mm/s
= = 0.5(150 – 82.9) = 33.5 mm
Tm = (L + A)/fr = (300 + 33.5))/6.42 = 52 s = 0.87 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 125(6)(6.42) = 4813 mm3/s
16.10 A slab milling operation is performed on the top surface of a steel rectangular workpiece 12.0 in
long by 2.5 in wide. The helical milling cutter, which has a 3.0 in diameter and ten teeth, is set up to
overhang the width of the part on both sides. Cutting speed is 125 ft/min, feed is 0.006 in/tooth, and
depth of cut = 0.300 in. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make one pass across the
surface and (b) the maximum metal removal rate during the cut. (c) If an additional approach
distance of 0.5 in is provided at the beginning of the pass (before cutting begins), and an overtravel
distance is provided at the end of the pass equal to the cutter radius plus 0.5 in, what is the duration
of the feed motion.
Solution: (a) N= v/πD = 125(12)/3 = 159.15 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 159.15(10)(0.006) = 9.55 in/min
A = (d(D-d))0.5 = (0.30(3.0-0.30))0.5 = 0.90 in
Tm = (L + A)/fr = (12.0 + 0.9)/9.55 = 1.35 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 2.5(0.30)(9.55) = 7.16 in3/min
(c) The cutter travels 0.5 in before making contact with the work. It moves 0.90 in before reaching
full depth of cut. It then feeds the length of the work (12.0 in). The overtravel consists of the cutter
radius (1.5 in) plus an additional 0.5 in. Thus,
Tf = (0.5 + 0.9 + 12.0 + 1.5 + 0.5)/9.55 = 1.56 min
16.11 A face milling operation is performed on the top surface of a steel rectangular workpiece 12.0 in
long by 2.5 in wide. The milling cutter follows a path that is centered over the workpiece. It has five
teeth and a 3.0 in diameter. Cutting speed = 250 ft/min, feed = 0.006 in/tooth, and depth of cut =
0.150 in. Determine (a) the actual cutting time to make one pass across the surface and (b) the
maximum metal removal rate during the cut. (c) If an additional approach distance of 0.5 in is
provided at the beginning of the pass (before cutting begins), and an overtravel distance is provided
at the end of the pass equal to the cutter radius plus 0.5 in, what is the duration of the feed motion.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 250(12)/3 = 318.3 rev/min
fr = 318.3(5)(0.006) = 9.55 in/min
= in
Tm = (12.0 + 0.671)/9.55 = 1.33 min
(b) RMR = 2.5(0.150)(9.55) = 3.58 in3/min
(c) The cutter travels 0.5 in before making contact with the work. It moves 1.50 in before its center
is aligned with the starting edge of the 12.0 in workpiece. It then feeds the length of the work (12.0
in). The overtravel consists of the cutter radius (1.5 in) plus an additional 0.5 in. Thus,
Tf = (0.5 + 1.5 + 12.0 + 1.5 + 0.5)/9.55 = 1.68 min
16.12 Solve Problem 16.11 except that the workpiece is 5.0 in wide and the cutter is offset to one side so
that the swath cut by the cutter = 1.0 in wide. This is called partial face milling, Figure 16.20(b).
Solution: (a) N = 250(12)/3 = 318.3 rev/min

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fr = 318.3(5)(0.006) = 9.55 in/min
A = (1(3-1)).5 = 1.414 in
Tm = (12.0 + 1.414)/9.55 = 1.405 min
(b) RMR = 1.0(.150)(9.55) = 1.43 in3/min
(c) The cutter travels 0.5 in before making contact with the work. It moves 1.414 in before reaching
full width of cut. It then feeds the length of the work (12.0 in). The overtravel consists of the cutter
radius (1.5 in) plus an additional 0.5 in. Thus,
Tf = (0.5 + 1.414 + 12.0 + 1.5 + 0.5)/9.55 = 1.67 min
16.13 In a turning operation on cast iron, the nose radius on the single-point tool = 1.5 mm, feed = 0.22
mm/rev, and speed = 1.8 m/s. Compute an estimate of the surface roughness for this cut.
Solution: Ri = f2/32NR = (0.22)2/(32 x 1.5) = 0.00101 mm. = 1.01 m.
From Fig. 16.37, rai = 1.25
Ra = 1.01 x 1.25 = 1.26 m.
16.14 A turning operation uses a 2/64 in nose radius cutting tool on a free machining steel with a feed rate
= 0.010 in/rev and a cutting speed = 300 ft/min. Determine the surface roughness for this cut.
Solution: Ri = f2/32NR = (0.010)2/(32 x 2/64) = 0.0001 in = 100 in
From Fig. 16.37, rai = 1.02
Ra = 1.02 x 100 = 102 in
16.15 A single-point HSS tool with a 3/64 in nose radius is used in a shaping operation on a ductile steel
workpart. The cutting speed is 120 ft/min. The feed is 0.014 in/stroke and depth of cut is 0.135 in.
Determine the surface roughness for this operation.
Solution: Ri = f2/32NR = (0.014)2/(32 x 3/64) = 0.000131 in = 131 in
From Fig. 16.37, rai = 1.8
Ra = 1.8 x 131 = 235 in
16.16 A part to be turned in an engine lathe must have a surface finish of 1.6 m. The part is made of a
free-machining aluminum alloy. Cutting speed = 150 m/min, and depth of cut = 4.0 mm. The nose
radius on the tool = 0.75 mm. Determine the feed that will achieve the specified surface finish.
Solution: For free-machining aluminum at 150 m/min, from Figure 16.37 ratio rai = 1.0 in Eq.
(16.22), so Ra = Ri
Ra = Ri = f2/32NR
Rearranging, f2 = Ri(32NR) = 1.6(10-6)(32)(0.75)(10-3) = 38.4(10-9) = 3.84(10-8) m2
f = (3.84(10-8) m2)0.5 = 1.96(10-4) m = 0.196 mm (mm is interpreted mm/rev)
16.17 Solve previous Problem 16.16 except that the part is made of cast iron instead of aluminum and the
cutting speed is reduced to 100 m/min.
Solution: For cast iron at 150 m/min, extrapolating Figure 16.37 ratio rai = 1.2 in Eq. (16.22),
so Ra = 1.2 Ri = 1.2f2/32NR
Rearranging, f2 = Ri(32NR)/1.2 = 1.6(10-6)(32)(0.75)(10-3)/1.2 = 31.96(10-9) = 3.196(10-8) m2
f = 3.196(10-8) m2)0.5 = 1.79(10-4) m = 0.179 mm (mm is interpreted mm/rev)
16.18 A face milling operation is to be performed on a cast iron part to finish the surface to 36 -in. The
cutter uses four inserts and its diameter is 3.0 in. The cutter rotates at 475 rev/min. To obtain the
best possible finish, a type of carbide insert with 4/64 in nose radius is to be used. Determine the
required feed rate (in/min) that will achieve the 36 -in finish.
Solution: v = πDN = π(3/12)(475) = 373 ft/min
For cast iron at 373 ft/min, from Figure 16.2 ratio rai = 1.26, so Ra = 1.26 Ri
Ri = Ra/1.26 = 36/1.26 = 28.6 in
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Ri = f2/32 NR
Rearranging, f2 = 32Ra(NR) = 32(28.6 x 10-6)(4/64) = 57.1 x 10-6 in2
f = (57.1 x 10-6).5 = 7.56 x 10-3 = 0.00756 in/tooth.
fr = Nntf = 475(4)(0.00756) = 14.4 in/min
16.19 A face milling operation is not yielding the required surface finish on the work. The cutter is a
four-tooth insert type face milling cutter. The machine shop foreman thinks the problem is that the
work material is too ductile for the job, but this property tests well within the ductility range for the
material specified by the designer. Without knowing any more about the job, what changes in (a)
cutting conditions and (b) tooling would you suggest to improve the surface finish?
Solution: (a) Changes in cutting conditions: (1) decrease chip load f, (2) increase cutting speed v,
(3) use cutting fluid.
(b) Changes in tooling: (1) increase nose radius NR, (2) increase rake angle, and (3) increase relief
angle. Items (2) and (3) will have a marginal effect.

17 CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

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Review Questions
17.1 What are the two principal aspects of cutting-tool technology?
Answer. The two principal aspects of cutting tool technology are (1) tool material and (2) tool
geometry.
17.2 Name the three modes of tool failure in machining.
Answer. The three tool failure modes are (1) fracture failure, (2) temperature failure, and (3)
gradual wear.
17.3 What are the two principal locations on a cutting tool where tool wear occurs?
Answer. Wear occurs on the top face of the cutting tool as crater wear and on the side or flank of
the tool, called flank wear. Portions of flank wear are often identified separately as notch wear,
corresponding to the surface of the work; and nose radius wear, corresponding to the tool point.
17.4 Identify the mechanisms by which cutting tools wear during machining.
Answer. The important tool wear mechanisms are (1) abrasion, (2) adhesion, (3) diffusion, and (4)
plastic deformation of the cutting edge.
17.5 What is the physical interpretation of the parameter C in the Taylor tool life equation?
Answer. The parameter C is the cutting speed corresponding to a one-minute tool life. C is the
speed-axis intercept on the log-log plot of the tool life data.
17.6 What are some of the tool life criteria used in production machining operations?
Answer. As identified in the text, tool life criteria used in production include (1) visual observation
of flank or crater wear, (2) degradation of finish, (3) workpiece count, and (4) length of cutting time
for the tool.
17.7 Identify three desirable properties of a cutting-tool material.
Answer. Three desirable properties are (1) toughness to resist fracture failure, (2) hot hardness to
resist temperature failure, and (3) wear resistance to prolong the life of the tool during gradual wear.
17.8 What are the principal alloying ingredients in high-speed steel?
Answer. Principal alloying ingredients in HSS are (1) either tungsten or a combination of tungsten
and molybdenum, (2) chromium, (3) vanadium, and (4) carbon. Some grades of HSS also contain
cobalt.
17.9 What is the difference in ingredients between steel cutting grades and nonsteel-cutting grades of
cemented carbides?
Answer. In general, non-steel cutting grades contain only WC and Co. Steel cutting grades contain
TiC and/or TaC in addition to WC-Co.
17.10 Identify some of the common compounds that form the thin coatings on the surface of coated
carbide inserts.
Answer. The common coatings are: TiN, TiC, and Al2O3.
17.11 Name the seven elements of tool geometry for a single point cutting tool.
Answer. The seven elements of single-point tool geometry are (1) back rake angle, (2) side rake
angle, (3) end relief angle, (4) side relief angle, (5) end cutting edge angle, (6) side cutting edge
angle, and (7) nose radius.
17.12 Identify the alternative ways by which a cutting tool is held in place during machining.
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Answer. There are three principal ways: (1) solid shank, in which the cutting edge is an integral
part of the tool shank, an example being high speed steel tooling; (2) brazed inserts, used for some
cemented carbides; and (3) mechanically clamped inserts, used for most hard tool materials
including cemented carbides, coated carbides, cermets, ceramics, SPD, and CBN.
17.13 Name the two main categories of cutting fluid according to function.
Answer. The two functional categories of cutting fluids are: (1) coolants and (2) lubricants.
17.14 Name the four categories of cutting fluid according to chemistry.
Answer. The four categories of cutting fluids according to chemistry are (1) cutting oils, (2)
emulsified oils, (3) chemical fluids, and (4) semi-chemical fluids.
17.15 What are the methods by which cutting fluids are applied in a machining operation?
Answer. The most common method of application is flooding, in which a steady stream of fluid is
direct at the operation. Other methods include mist application, fluid-hole delivery through the tool,
and manual application (e.g., using a paint brush).
17.16 Dry machining is being considered by machine shops because of certain problems inherent in the
use of cutting fluids. What are those problems associated with the use of cutting fluids?
Answer. Cutting fluids become contaminated over time with a variety of contaminants, including
tramp oil, garbage, small chips, molds, fungi, and bacteria. In addition to causing odors and health
hazards, contaminated cutting fluids do not perform their lubricating function as well as when they
are fresh and clean.
17.17 What are some of the new problems introduced by machining dry?
Answer. Problems with dry machining include (1) overheating the tool, (2) operating at lower
cutting speeds and production rates to prolong tool life, and (3) absence of chip removal benefits
that are provided by cutting fluids in grinding and milling.
16.24 Define machinability.
Answer. Machinability can be defined as the relative ease with which a material can be machined
using an appropriate cutting tool under appropriate cutting conditions.
16.25 What are the criteria by which machinability is commonly assessed in a production machining
operation?
Answer. The machinability criteria include (1) tool wear and tool life, (2) forces and power, (3)
surface finish, and (4) ease of chip disposal.
16.26 What are the factors on which the selection of feed in a machining operation should be based?
Answer. The factors are (1) type of tooling (e.g., a cemented carbide tool should be used at a lower
feed than a high-speed steel tool), (2) whether the operation is roughing or finishing (e.g., higher
feeds are used in roughing operations), (3) cutting forces limitations that would require lower feeds,
and (4) surface roughness requirements.
16.27 The unit cost in a machining operation is the sum of four cost terms. The first three terms are: (1)
part load/unload cost, (2) cost of time the tool is actually cutting the work, and (3) cost of the time
to change the tool. What is the fourth term?
Answer. The fourth term is the cost of the tool itself (purchasing the tool and grinding it, if
applicable).
16.28 Which cutting speed is always lower for a given machining operation, cutting speed for minimum
cost or cutting speed for maximum production rate? Why?

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Answer. Cutting speed for minimum cost is always lower because of the fourth term in the unit cost
equation, which deals with the actual cost of the cutting edge. This term tends to push the U-shaped
function toward a lower value in the case of cutting speed for minimum cost.
Problems
17.1 Flank wear data were collected in a series of turning tests using a coated carbide tool on hardened
alloy steel at a feed of 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of 4.0 mm. At a speed of 125 m/min, flank wear =
0.12 mm at 1 min, 0.27 mm at 5 min, 0.45 mm at 11 min, 0.58 mm at 15 min, 0.73 at 20 min, and
0.97 mm at 25 min. At a speed of 165 m/min, flank wear = 0.22 mm at 1 min, 0.47 mm at 5 min,
0.70 mm at 9 min, 0.80 mm at 11 min, and 0.99 mm at 13 min. The last value in each case is when
final tool failure occurred. (a) On a single piece of linear graph paper, plot flank wear as a function
of time for both speeds. Using 0.75 mm of flank wear as the criterion of tool failure, determine the
tool lives for the two cutting speeds. (b) On a piece of natural log-log paper, plot your results
determined in the previous part. From the plot, determine the values of n and C in the Taylor Tool
Life Equation. (c) As a comparison, calculate the values of n and C in the Taylor equation solving
simultaneous equations. Are the resulting n and C values the same?
Solution: (a) and (b) Student exercises. For part (a), at v1 = 125 m/min, T1 = 20.4 min using
criterion FW = 0.75 mm, and at v2 = 165 m/min, T2 = 10.0 min using criterion FW = 0.75 mm. In
part (b), values of C and n may vary due to variations in the plots. The values should be
approximately the same as those obtained in part (c) below.
(c) Two equations: (1) 125(20.4)n = C, and (2) 165(10.0)n = C
(1) and (2) 125(20.4)n = 165(10.0)n
ln 125 + n ln 20.4 = ln 165 + n ln 10.0
4.8283 + 3.0155 n = 5.1059 + 2.3026 n
0.7129 n = 0.2776 n = 0.3894
(1) C = 125(20.4)0.3894 = 404.46
(2) C = 165(10.0)0.3894 = 404.46 C = 404.46
17.2 Solve Problem 17.1 except that the tool life criterion is 0.50 mm of flank land wear rather than 0.75
mm.
Solution: (a) and (b) Student exercises. For part (a), at v1 = 125 m/min, T1 = 13.0 min using
criterion FW = 0.50 mm, and at v2 = 165 m/min, T2 = 5.6 min using criterion FW = 0.50 mm. In
part (b), values of C and n may vary due to variations in the plots. The values should be
approximately the same as those obtained in part (c) below.
(c) Two equations: (1) 125(13.0)n = C, and (2) 165(5.6)n = C
(1) and (2) 125(13.0)n = 165(5.6)n
ln 125 + n ln 13.0 = ln 165 + n ln 5.6
4.8283 + 2.5649 n = 5.1059 + 1.7228 n
0.8421 n = 0.2776 n = 0.3296
(1) C = 125(13.0)0.3894 = 291.14
(2) C = 165(5.6)0.3894 = 291.15 C = 291.15
17.3 Tool life tests on a lathe have resulted in the following data: (1) at a cutting speed of 375 ft/min, the
tool life was 5.5 min; (2) at a cutting speed of 275 ft/min, the tool life was 53 min. (a) Determine
the parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life equation. (b) Based on the n and C values, what is the
likely tool material used in this operation? (c) Using your equation, compute the tool life that
corresponds to a cutting speed of 300 ft/min. (d) Compute the cutting speed that corresponds to a
tool life T = 10 min.
Solution: (a) VTn = C; Two equations: (1) 375(5.5)n = C and (2) 275(53)n = C
375(5.5)n = 275(53)n
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375/275 = (53/5.5)n
1.364 = (9.636)n
ln 1.364 = n ln 9.636
0.3102 = 2.2655 n n = 0.137
C = 375(5.5)0.137 = 375(1.2629) C = 474
0.137
Check: C = 275(53) = 275(1.7221) = 474
(b) Comparing these values of n and C with those in Table 17.2, the likely tool material is high
speed steel.
(c) At v = 300 ft/min, T = (C/v)1/n = (474/300)1/0.137 = (1.579)7.305 = 28.1 min
(d) For T = 10 min, v = C/Tn = 474/100.137 = 474/1.371 = 346 ft/min
17.4 Tool life tests in turning yield the following data: (1) when cutting speed is 100 m/min, tool life is
10 min; (2) when cutting speed is 75 m/min, tool life is 30 min. (a) Determine the n and C values in
the Taylor tool life equation. Based on your equation, compute (b) the tool life for a speed of 110
m/min, and (c) the speed corresponding to a tool life of 15 min.
Solution: (a) Two equations: (1) 120(7)n = C and (2) 80(28)n = C.
120(7)n = 80(28)n
ln 120 + n ln 7 = ln 80 + n ln 28
4.7875 + 1.9459 n = 4.3820 + 3.3322 n
4.7875 - 4.3820 = (3.3322 – 1.9459) n
0.4055 = 1.3863 n n = 0.2925
0.2925
C = 120(7) = 120(1.7668) C = 212.0
Check: C = 80(28)0.2925 = 80(2.6503) = 212.0
(b) 110 T0.2925 = 212.0
T0.2925 = 212.0/110 = 1.927
T = 1.9271/0.2925 = 1.9273.419 = 9.42 min
(c) v (15)0.2925 = 212.0
v = 212.0/(15)0.2925 = 212.0/2.2080 = 96.0 m/min
17.5 Turning tests have resulted in 1-min tool life at a cutting speed = 4.0 m/s and a 20-min tool life at a
speed = 2.0 m/s. (a) Find the n and C values in the Taylor tool life equation. (b) Project how long
the tool would last at a speed of 1.0 m/s.
Solution: (a) For data (1) T = 1.0 min, then C = 4.0 m/s = 240 m/min
For data (2) v = 2 m/s = 120 m/min
120(20)n = 240
20n = 240/120 = 2.0
n ln 20 = ln 2.0
2.9957 n = 0.6931 n = 0.2314
(b) At v = 1.0 m/s = 60 m/min
60(T)0.2314 = 240
(T)0.2314 = 240/60 = 4.0
T = (4.0)1/0.2314 = (4)4.3215 = 400 min
17.6 In a production turning operation, the workpart is 125 mm in diameter and 300 mm long. A feed of
0.225 mm/rev is used in the operation. If cutting speed = 3.0 m/s, the tool must be changed every 5
workparts; but if cutting speed = 2.0 m/s, the tool can be used to produce 25 pieces between tool
changes. Determine the Taylor tool life equation for this job.
Solution: (1) Tm = (125 mm)(0.3 m)/(3.0 m/s)(0.225 mm) = 174.53 s = 2.909 min

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T = 5(2.909) = 14.54 min
(2) Tm = (125 mm)(0.3 m)/(2.0 m/s)(0.225 mm) = 261.80s = 4.363 min
T = 25(4.363) = 109.08 min
(1) v = 3 m/s = 180 m/min
(2) v = 2 m/s = 120 m/min
(1) 180(14.54)n = C
(2) 120(109.08)n = C
180(14.54)n = 120(109.08)n
ln 180 + n ln(14.54) = ln 120 + n ln(109.08)
5.1929 + 2.677 n = 4.7875 + 4.692 n
5.1929 - 4.7875 = (4.692 - 2.677) n
0.4054 = 2.0151 n n = 0.2012
C = 180 (14.54)0.2012 C = 308.43
17.7 For the tool life plot of Figure 17.4, show that the middle data point (v = 130 m/min, T = 12 min) is
consistent with the Taylor equation determined in Example Problem 17.1.
Solution: Taylor equation calculated in Example 17.1 is: vT0.223 = 229. Consistency would be
demonstrated by using the values from the middle data point (T = 12 min at v = 130 ft/min) in the
equation and obtaining the same value of C as above (C = 229).
130(12)0.223 = 130(1.7404) = 226.3
This represents a difference of less than 1.2%, which is close enough and well within expected
random variation in typical tool life data.
17.8 In the tool wear plots of Figure 17.3, complete failure of the cutting tool is indicated by the end of
each wear curve. Using complete failure as the criterion of tool life instead of 0.50 mm flank wear,
the resulting data are: (1) v = 160 m/min, T = 5.75 min; (2) v = 130 m/min, T = 14.25 min; and (3) v
= 100 m/min, T = 47 min. Determine the parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life equation for this
data.
Solution: Let us use the two extreme data points to calculate the values of n and C, then check the
resulting equation against the middle data point.
(1) 160(5.75)n = C and (3) 100(47)n = C
160(5.75)n = 100(47)n
ln 160 + n ln 5.75 = ln 100 + n ln 47
5.0752 + 1.7492 n = 4.6052 + 3.8501 n
0.4700 = 2.1009 n n = 0.224
(1) C = 160(5.75)0.224 = 236.7
(3) C = 100(47)0.224 = 236.9 use average: C = 236.8
Check against data set (2): 130(14.25)0.224 = 235.7. This represents a difference of less than 0.5%,
which would be considered good agreement for experimental data. Better results on determining the
Taylor equation would be obtained by using regression analysis on all three data sets to smooth the
variations in the tool life data. Note that the n value is very close to the value obtained in Example
17.1 (n = 0.224 here vs. n = 0.223 in Example 17.1), and that the C value is higher here (C = 236.8
here vs. C = 229 in Example 17.1). The higher C value here reflects the higher wear level used to
define tool life (complete failure of cutting edge here vs. a flank wear level of 0.50 mm in Example
17.1).
17.9 A series of turning tests are performed to determine the parameters n, m, and K in the expanded
version of the Taylor equation, Eq. (17.4). The following data were obtained during the tests: (1)
cutting speed = 1.9 m/s, feed = 0.22 mm/rev, tool life = 10 min; (2) cutting speed = 1.3 m/s, feed =
0.22 mm/rev, tool life = 47 min; and (3) cutting speed = 1.9 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, tool life = 8

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min. (a) Determine n, m, and K. (b) Using your equation, compute the tool life when the cutting
speed is 1.5 m/s and the feed is 0.28 mm/rev.
Solution: Three equations to be solved simultaneously:
(1) (1.9 x 60)(10)n(0.22)m = K
(2) (1.3 x 60)(47)n(0.22)m = K
(3) (1.9 x 60)(8)n(0.32)m = K
(1) and (2): ln 114 + n ln 10 + m ln 0.22 = ln 78 + n ln 47 + m ln 0.22
ln 114 + n ln 10 = ln 78 + n ln 47
4.7362 + 2.3026 n = 4.3567 + 3.8501 n
0.3795 = 1.548 n n = 0.245
(1) and (3): ln 114 + 0.245 ln 10 + m ln 0.22 = ln 114 + 0.245 ln 8 + m ln 0.32
0.5646 + m (-1.5141) = 0.5099 + m (-1.1394)
-0.3747 m = -0.0547 m = 0.146
(1) K = 114(10)0..245(0.22)0.146 =114(1.7588)(0.8016) = K = 160.7
(b) v = 1.5 m/s, f = 0.28 mm/rev
(1.5 x 60)(T)0.245(0.28)0.146 = 160.7
90(T)0.245(0.8304) = 160.7
(T)0.245 = 2.151
T = 2.1511/0.245 = 22.7 min
17.10 A drilling operation is performed in which 0.5 in diameter holes are drilled through cast iron plates
that are 1.0 in thick. Sample holes have been drilled to determine the tool life at two cutting speeds.
At 80 surface ft/min, the tool lasted for exactly 50 holes. At 120 surface ft/min, the tool lasted for
exactly 5 holes. The feed of the drill was 0.003 in/rev. (Ignore effects of drill entrance and exit from
the hole. Consider the depth of cut to be exactly 1.00 in, corresponding to the plate thickness.)
Determine the values of n and C in the Taylor tool life equation for the above sample data, where
cutting speed v is expressed in ft/min, and tool life T is expressed in min.
Solution: (1) v = 80 ft/min, N = (80)/(0.5/12) = 611 rev/min
feed rate fr = (0.003)(611) = 1.833 in/min
time per hole Tm = 1.0 in/(1.833 in/min) = 0.545 min
for 50 holes, T = 50(0.545 min) = 27.25 min
Formulating the data as vTn = C, we have: 80(27.25)n = C
(2) v = 120 ft/min, N = (120)/(.5/12) = 917 rev/min
feed rate fr = (0.003)(917) = 2.75 in/min
time per hole Tm = 1.0 in/(2.75 in/min) = 0.364 min
for 5 holes, T = 5(0.364 min) = 1.82 min
Formulating the data as vTn = C, we have: 120(1.82)n = C
Setting (1) = (2): 80(27.25)n = 120(1.82)n
ln 80 + n ln 27.25 = ln 120 + n ln 1.82
4.382 + 3.3051 n = 4.7875 + 0.5978 n
2.7073 n = 0.4055 n = 0.15
C = 80(27.25)0.15 = 80(1.6417) = 131.34
C = 120(1.82)0.15 = 120(1.094) = 131.29 C = 131.32
17.11 The outside diameter of a cylinder made of titanium alloy is to be turned. The starting diameter is
400 mm and the length is 1100 mm. The feed is 0.35 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2.5 mm. The
cut will be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool whose Taylor tool life parameters are: n =
0.24 and C = 450. Units for the Taylor equation are min for tool life and m/min for cutting speed.

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Compute the cutting speed that will allow the tool life to be just equal to the cutting time for this
part.
Solution: In this problem we want Tm = T, where Tm = machining time per piece and T = tool life.
Both of these times must be expressed in terms of cutting speed.
Tm = DL/fv and T = (C/v)1/n
Tm = (400)(1100)(10-6)/0.35(10-3)v = 3949/v = 3949 (v)-1
T = (450/v)1/.24 = (450/v)4.1667 = 4504.1667(v)-4.1667 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
Setting Tm = T: 3949 v-1 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
v3.1667 = 0.2874(108)
v = {0.2874(108)}1/3.1667 = {0.2874(108)}0.3158 = 226.6 m/min
Check: Tm = 3949 (226.6)-1 = 17.4 min
T = (450/226.6)1/.24 = (450/226.6)4.1667 = 17.4 min
17.12 The workpart in a turning operation is 88 mm in diameter and 400 mm long. A feed of 0.25 mm/rev
is used in the operation. If cutting speed = 3.5 m/s, the tool must be changed every 3 workparts; but
if cutting speed = 2.5 m/s, the tool can be used to produce 20 pieces between tool changes.
Determine the cutting speed that will allow the tool to be used for 50 parts between tool changes.
Solution: (1) v = 3.5 m/s = 210 m/min
Tm = (0.088 m)(0.4 m)/(210 m/min)(0.00025 m) = 2.106 min
T = 3(2.106) = 6.32 min
(2) v = 2.5 m/s = 150 m/min
Tm = (0.088 m)(0.4 m)/(150 m/min)(0.00025 mm) = 2.949 min
T = 20(2.949) = 58.98 min
(1) 210(6.32)n = C
(2) 150(58.98)n = C
210(6.32)n = 150(58.98)n
ln 210 + n ln(6.32) = ln 150 + n ln(58.98)
5.347 + 1.844 n = 5.011 + 4.077 n
5.347 – 5.011 = (4.077 – 1.844) n
0.336 = 2.233 n n = 0.150
C = 210 (6.32)0.150 C = 277.15
Check: 150(58.98)0.150 = 277.03 ) Close enough. use C = 277.1
Set T = 50 Tm
vT0.15 = 277.1, T0.15 = 277.1/v, T = (277.1/v)1/0.15 = (277.1/v)6.646 = 1.711415(10)16/v6.646
Tm = (0.088)(0.4)/0.00025 v = 442.34/v
1.711415(10)16/v6.646 = 50(442.34/v) = 22116.8/v
1.711415(10)16/v5.646 = 22116.8
v5.646 = 1.711415(10)16/22116.8= 7.738075(10)11 = 773,807,500,000
v = (773,807,500,000)1/5.646 = (773,807,500,000)0.177122 = 127.57 m/min
Check: Tm = 442.34/127.57 = 3.468 min, 50 Tm = 173.4 min
T = (277.1/127.57)6.646 = (2.172)6.646 = 173.3 min (Close enough!)
17.13 The outside diameter of a cylinder made of a steel alloy is to be turned. The starting diameter is 300
mm and the length is 625 mm. The feed is 0.35 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2.5 mm. The cut will
be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool whose Taylor tool life parameters are: n = 0.24 and C
= 450. Units for the Taylor equation are min for tool life and m/min for cutting speed. Compute the
cutting speed that will allow the tool life to be just equal to the cutting time for three of these parts.

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Solution: In this problem we want 3Tm = T, where Tm = machining time per piece and T = tool life.
Both of these times must be expressed in terms of cutting speed.
Tm = DL/fv and T = (C/v)1/n
Tm = (300)(625)(10-6)/0.35(10-3)v = 1683/v = 1683 (v)-1
3Tm = 3(1683 (v)-1) = 5049(v)-1
T = (450/v)1/.24 = (450/v)4.1667 = 4504.1667(v)-4.1667 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
Setting 3Tm = T: 5049v-1 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
v3.1667 = 0.2248(108)
v = {0.2248(108)}1/3.1667 = {0.2248(108)}0.3158 = 209.747 m/min
Check: 3Tm = 5049 (209.747)-1 = 24.07 min
T = (450/209.747)1/.24 = (450/209.747)4.1667 = 24.06 min (close enough)
17.14 In a turning operation using high-speed steel tooling, cutting speed = 110 m/min. The Taylor tool
life equation has parameters n = 0.140 and C = 150 (m/min) when the operation is conducted dry.
When a coolant is used in the operation, the value of C is increased by 15%. Determine the percent
increase in tool life that results if the cutting speed is maintained at 110 m/min.
Solution: Dry: 110(T)0.14 = 150
T = (150/110)1/.14 = (1.364)7.143 = 9.18 min
With coolant: 110(T)0.14 = 150(1 + 15%) = 150(1.15) = 172.5
T = (172.5/110)1/.14 = (1.568)7.143 = 24.85 min
Increase = (24.85 – 9.18)/9.18 = 1.71 = 171%
17.15 A production turning operation on a steel workpiece normally operates at a cutting speed of 125
ft/min using high-speed steel tooling with no cutting fluid. The appropriate n and C values in the
Taylor equation are given in Table 17.2 in the text. It has been found that the use of a coolant type
cutting fluid will allow an increase of 25 ft/min in the speed without any effect on tool life. If it can
be assumed that the effect of the cutting fluid is simply to increase the constant C by 25, what
would be the increase in tool life if the original cutting speed of 125 ft/min were used in the
operation?
Solution: From Table 17.2, n = 0.125 and C = 200 for dry cutting.
With cutting fluid, C = 200 + 25 = 225.
Dry: at v = 125 ft/min, T = (200/125)1/.125 = (1.6)8 = 42.95 min
With cutting fluid: at v = 125 ft/min, T = (225/125)1/.125 = (1.8)8 = 110.2 min
Increase = (110.2 - 42.95) = 67.25 min = 156.6%
17.16 A machinability rating is to be determined for a new work material using the cutting speed for a 60-
min tool life as the basis of comparison. For the base material (B1112 steel), test data resulted in
Taylor equation parameter values of n = 0.29 and C = 500, where speed is in m/min and tool life is
min. For the new material, the parameter values were n = 0.21 and C = 400. These results were
obtained using cemented carbide tooling. (a) Compute a machinability rating for the new material. (b)
Suppose the machinability criterion were the cutting speed for a 10-min tool life rather than the
present criterion. Compute the machinability rating for this case. (c) What do the results of the two
calculations show about the difficulties in machinability measurement?
Solution: (a) Base material: v60 = 500/600.29 = 152.5 m/min
New material: v60 = 400/600.21 = 169.3 m/min
MR = 169.3/152.5 = 1.11 = 111%
(b) Base material: v10 = 500/100.29 = 256.4 m/min
New material: v10 = 400/100.21 = 246.6 m/min
MR = 246.6/256.4 = 0.96 = 96%
(c) Different test conditions often result in different machinability results.
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17.17 A machinability rating is to be determined for a new work material. For the base material (B1112),
test data resulted in a Taylor equation with parameters n = 0.29 and C = 490. For the new material, the
Taylor parameters were n = 0.23 and C = 430. Units in both cases are: speed in m/min and tool life in
min. These results were obtained using cemented carbide tooling. (a) Compute a machinability rating
for the new material using cutting speed for a 30-min tool life as the basis of comparison. (b) If the
machinability criterion were tool life for a cutting speed of 150 m/min, what is the machinability
rating for the new material?
Solution: (a) Base material: v30 = 490/30.29 = 182.7 m/min
New material: v30 = 430/30.23 = 196.7 m/min
MR = 196.7/182.7 = 1.08 = 108%
(b) Base material: T150 = (490/150)1/.29 = (3.27)3.448= 59.3 min
New material: v10 = (430/150)1/.23 = (2.87)4.348 = 97.4 min
MR = 97.4/59.3 = 1.64 = 164%
17.18 A high-speed steel tool is used to turn a steel workpart that is 300 mm long and 80 mm in diameter.
The parameters in the Taylor equation are: n = 0.13 and C = 75 (m/min) for a feed of 0.4 mm/rev. The
operator and machine tool rate = $30.00/hr, and the tooling cost per cutting edge = $4.00. It takes 2.0
min to load and unload the workpart and 3.50 min to change tools. Determine (a) cutting speed for
maximum production rate, (b) tool life in min of cutting, and (c) cycle time and cost per unit of
product.
Solution: (a) Co = $30/hr = $0.50/min
vmax = 75/[(1/0.13 - 1)(3.5)].13 = 75/[6.692 x 3.5].27 = 49.8 m/min
(b) Tmax = (75/49.8)1/.13 = (1.506)7.692 = 23.42 min
(c) Tm = DL/fv = (80)(300)/(.4 x 49.8 x 103) = 3.787 min
np = 23.42/3.787 = 6.184 pc/tool life Use np = 6 pc/tool life
Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np = 2.0 + 3.787 + 3.5/6 = 6.37 min/pc.
Cc = 0.50(6.37) + 4.00/6 = $3.85/pc
17.19 Solve Problem 17.18 except that in part (a), determine cutting speed for minimum cost.
Solution: (a) Co = $30/hr = $0.50/min
vmin = 75[0.50/((1/0.13 - 1)(.50 x 3.5 + 4.00))].13 = 75[.50/(6.692 x 5.75)].13 = 42.6 m/min
(b) Tmin = (75/42.6)1/.13 = (1.76)7.692 = 76.96 min
(c) Tm = DL/fv = (80)(300)/(.4 x 42.6 x 103) = 4.42 min/pc.
np = 76.96/4.42 = 17.41 pc/tool life Use np = 17 pc/tool life
Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np = 2.0 + 4.42 + 3.5/17 = 6.63 min/pc.
Cc = 0.50(6.63) + 4.0/17 = $3.55/pc
17.20 A cemented carbide tool is used to turn a part with a length of 14.0 in and diameter = 4.0 in. The
parameters in the Taylor equation are: n = 0.25 and C = 1000 (ft/min). The rate for the operator and
machine tool = $45.00/hr, and the tooling cost per cutting edge = $2.50. It takes 2.5 min to load and
unload the workpart and 1.50 min to change tools. The feed = 0.015 in/rev. Determine (a) cutting
speed for maximum production rate, (b) tool life in min of cutting, and (c) cycle time and cost per unit
of product.
Solution: (a) vmax = C/((1/n-1)Tt)n = 1000/[(1/0.25 - 1)(1.5)].25
= 1000/[(4.0-1) x 1.5].25 = 687 ft/min
(b) Tmax = (1000/687)1/.25 = (1.456)4.0 = 4.5 min or (1/n -1) Tt = (4-1)1.5 = 4.5 min
(c) Tm = DL/fv = (4)(14)/(.015 x 687 x 12) = 1.42 min
np = 4.5/1.42 = 3.17 pc/tool Use np = 3 pc/tool life
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Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np = 2.5 + 1.42 + 1.5/3 = 4.42 min/pc.
Co = $45/hr = $0.75/min
Cc = Co (Th + Tm + Tt/np) + Ct/np = 0.75(4.42 ) + 2.5/3 = $4.15/pc
17.21 Solve Problem 17.20 except that in part (a), determine cutting speed for minimum cost.
Solution: (a) Co = $45/hr = $0.75/min
vmin = C[(n/(1-n))(Co/(CoTt + Ct))]n = 1000[(0.25/(1-0.25))(0.75/(0.75(1.5) + 2.5))]0.25 =
1000[.3333*0.75/(1.125+2.5)].25 = 1000[ .333*0.75/3.625]0.25 = 1000 [ 0.06897]0.25 = 512 ft/min
(b) Tmin = (1000/512)1/.25 = (1.953)4.0 = 14.55 min
(c) Tm = DL/fv = (4)(14)/(0.015 x 512 x 12) = 1.91 min
np = 14.55/1.91 = 7.62 pc/tool Use np = 7 pc/tool life
Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np = 2.5 + 1.91 + 1.5/7 = 4.62 min/pc.
Cc = Co (Th + Tm + Tt/np) + Ct/np = 0.75(4.62) + 2.5/7 = $3.83/pc
17.22 Disposable and regrindable tooling are to be compared. The same grade of cemented carbide tooling
is available in two forms for turning operations in a certain machine shop: disposable inserts and
brazed inserts. The parameters in the Taylor equation for this grade are: n = 0.25 and C = 300 (m/min)
under the cutting conditions considered here. For the disposable inserts, price of each insert = $6.00,
there are four cutting edges per insert, and the tool change time = 1.0 min (this is an average of the
time to index the insert and the time to replace it when all edges have been used). For the brazed
insert, the price of the tool = $30.00 and it is estimated that it can be used a total of 15 times before it
must be scrapped. The tool change time for the regrindable tooling = 3.0 min. The standard time to
grind or regrind the cutting edge is 5.0 min, and the grinder is paid at a rate = $20.00/hr. Machine time
on the lathe costs $24.00/hr. The workpart to be used in the comparison is 375 mm long and 62.5 mm
in diameter, and it takes 2.0 min to load and unload the work. The feed = 0.30 mm/rev. For the two
tooling cases, compare (a) cutting speeds for minimum cost, (b) tool lives, (c) cycle time and cost per
unit of production. Which tool would you recommend?
Solution: Disposable inserts: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $6/4 = $1.50/edge
vmin = 300[0.40/((1/0.25 - 1)(0.40 x 1.0 + 1.50))].25 = 300[0.40/(3 x 1.9)].25 = 154.4 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/0.25 - 1)(0.4 + 1.5)/0.4 = 3(1.9/0.4) = 14.25 min
(c) Tm = (62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(154.4) = 1.59 min/pc
np = 14.25/1.59 = 8.96 pc/tool life Use np = 8 pc/tool
Tc = 2.0 + 1.59 + 1.0/8 = 3.72 min/pc.
Cc = 0.40(3.72) + 1.50/8 = $1.674/pc
Regrindable tooling: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $30/15 + 5($20/60) = $3.67/edge
vmin = 300[0.40/((1/0.25 - 1)(0.40 x 3.0 + 3.67))].25 = 300[0.40/(3 x 4.87)].25 = 122.0 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/0.25 - 1)(0.4 x 3 + 3.67)/0.4 = 3(4.87/0.4) = 36.5 min
(c) Tm = (62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(122) = 2.01 min/pc
np = 36.5/2.01 = 18.16 pc/tool life Use np = 18 pc/tool
Tc = 2.0 + 2.01 + 3.0/18 = 4.18 min/pc
Cc = 0.40(4.18) + 3.67/18 = $1.876/pc
Disposable inserts are recommended. Cycle time and cost per piece are less.
17.23 Solve Problem 17.22 except that in part (a), determine the cutting speeds for maximum production
rate.
Solution: Disposable inserts: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $6/4 = $1.50/edge
vmax = 300[1.0/((1/0.25 - 1)(1.0)].25 = 300[1.0/(3 x 1.0)].25 = 228.0 m/min

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(b) Tmax = (1/0.25 - 1)(1.0) = 3(1.0) = 3.0 min
(c) Tm = (62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(228) = 1.08 min/pc
np = 3.0/1.08 = 2.78 pc/tool life Use np = 2 pc/tool
Tc = 2.0 + 1.08 + 1.0/2 = 3.58 min/pc.
Cc = 0.40(3.58) + 1.50/2 = $2.182/pc
Regrindable tooling: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $30/15 + 5($20/60) = $3.67/edge
vmax = 300[1.0/((1/0.25 - 1)(3.0))].25 = 300[1.0/(3 x 3.0)].25 = 173.2 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.25 - 1)(3) = 3(3.0) = 9.0 min
(c) Tm = (62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(173.2) = 1.42 min/pc
np = 9.0/1.42 = 6.34 pc/tool life Use np = 6 pc/tool
Tc = 2.0 + 1.42 + 3.0/6 = 3.92 min/pc.
Cc = 0.40(3.92) + 3.67/6 = $2.180/pc
Disposable inserts are recommended. Cycle time and cost per piece are less. Comparing the results
in this problem with those of the previous problem, note that with the maximum production rate
objective in the current problem, cycle times are less, but that unit costs are less in the previous
problem where the objective is minimum cost per piece.
17.24 Three tool materials are to be compared for the same finish turning operation on a batch of 150 steel
parts: high-speed steel, cemented carbide, and ceramic. For the high-speed steel tool, the Taylor
equation parameters are: n = 0.130 and C = 80 (m/min). The price of the HSS tool is $20.00 and it is
estimated that it can be ground and reground 15 times at a cost of $2.00 per grind. Tool change time is
3 min. Both carbide and ceramic tools are in insert form and can be held in the same mechanical
toolholder. The Taylor equation parameters for the cemented carbide are: n = 0.30 and C = 650
(m/min); and for the ceramic: n = 0.6 and C = 3,500 (m/min). The cost per insert for the carbide is
$8.00 and for the ceramic is $10.00. There are 6 cutting edges per insert in both cases. Tool change
time is 1.0 min for both tools. The time to change a part is 2.5 min. The feed is 0.30 mm/rev, and
depth of cut is 3.5 mm. The cost of machine time is $40/hr. The part is 73.0 mm in diameter and 250
mm in length. Setup time for the batch is 2.0 hr. For the three tooling cases, compare: (a) cutting
speeds for minimum cost, (b) tool lives, (c) cycle time, (d) cost per production unit, (e) total time to
complete the batch and production rate. (f) What is the proportion of time spent actually cutting metal
for each tooling? Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended.
Solution: HSS tooling: (a) Ct = $20/15 + 2.00 = $3.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmin = 80[0.667/((1/.13 - 1)(0.667 x 3.0 + 3.33))].130 = 47.7 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/.13 - 1)(0.667 x 3 + 3.33)/0.667 = 6.69(5.33/.667) = 53.4 min
(c) Tm = (73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)47.7) = 4.01min/pc
np = 53.4/4.01 = 13.3 pc/tool life Use np = 13 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 4.01 + 3.0/13 = 6.74 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(6.74) + 3.33/13 = $4.75/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(6.74) = 1161 min = 19.35 hr.
Production rate Rp = 100 pc/13.8 hr = 7.75 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 100(4.81)/828 = 0.518 = 51.8%
Cemented carbide tooling: (a) Ct = $8/6 = $1.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmin = 650[0.667/((1/.30 - 1)(0.667 x 1.0 + 1.333))].30 = 363 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/.30 - 1)(0.667 x 1 + 1.333)/0.667 = 2.333(2.0/0.667) = 7 min
(c) Tm = (73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)363) = 0.53 min/pc
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np = 7/0.53 = 13.2 pc/tool life Use np = 13 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 0.53 + 1.0/13 = 3.11 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(3.11) + 1.333/13 = $2.18/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(3.11) = 616.5 min = 10.28 hr.
Production rate Rp = 150 pc/10.28 hr = 14.59 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(0.53)/616.5 = 0.129 = 12.9%
Ceramic tooling: (a) Ct = $10/6 = $1.67/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmin = 3,500[0.667/((1/.6 - 1)(0.667 x 1.0 + 1.67))].6 = 2105 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/0.6 - 1)(0.667 x 1 + 1.67)/0.667 = 0.667(2.33/0.667) = 2.33 min
(c) Tm = (73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)2105) = 0.091 min/pc
np = 2.33/0.091 = 25.6 pc/tool life Use np = 25 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 0.091 + 1.0/25 = 2.63 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(2.63) + 1.67/25 = $1.82/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(2.63) = 544 min = 9.08 hr.
Production rate Rp = 150 pc/9.08 hr = 16.52 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(0.091)/544 = 0.025 = 2.5%
Comment: One might conclude that such a low proportion of time spent cutting would argue
against the use of the calculated cutting speed for ceramic tooling. However, note that ceramic
tooling provides a significant advantage in terms of unit cost, batch time, and production rate
compared to HSS tooling and even carbide tooling. The very small cutting time Tm and resulting
low proportion of time spent cutting for ceramic tooling focuses attention on the nonproductive
work elements in the batch time, specifically, setup time and workpart handling time; and puts
pressure on management to seek ways to reduce these nonproductive elements.
17.25 Solve Problem 17.24 except that in parts (a) and (b), determine the cutting speeds and tool lives for
maximum production rate. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended.
Solution: HSS tooling: (a) Ct = $20/15 + 2.00 = $3.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmax = 80/[(1/.13 - 1)(3.0)].130 = 80/[6.69 x 3)].130 = 54 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.13 - 1)(3) = 6.69(3) = 20.0 min
(c) Tm = (73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)54) = 3.53 min/pc
np = 20.0/3.53 = 5.66 pc/tool life Use np = 5 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 3.53 + 3.0/5 = 6.63 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(6.63) + 3.33/5 = $5.09/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(6.63) = 1144.5 min = 19.08 hr.
Production rate Rp = 150 pc/19.08 hr = 7.86 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(3.53)/1144.5 = 0.463 = 46.3%
Cemented carbide tooling: (a) Ct = $8/6 = $1.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmax = 650/[(1/.30 - 1)(1.0)].30 = 650/[(2.33 x 1.0)].30 = 504 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.30 - 1)(1.0) = 2.33(1.0) = 2.33 min
(c) Tm = (73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)504) = 0.38 min/pc
np = 2.33/0.38 = 6.13 pc/tool life Use np = 6 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 0.38 + 1.0/6 = 3.05 min/pc.
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(d) Cc = 0.667(3.05) + 1.33/6 = $2.25/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(3.05) = 607 min = 10.12 hr.
Production rate Rp = 150 pc/10.12 hr = 14.82 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(0.38)/607 = 0.094 = 9.4%
Ceramic tooling: (a) Ct = $10/6 = $1.67/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmax = 3,500/[(1/.6 - 1)(1.0)].6 = 3,500/[.667 x 1.0].6 = 4464 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.6 - 1)(1) = 0.667(1) = .667 min
(c) Tm = (73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)4464) = 0.043 min/pc
np = 0.667/0.043 = 15.58 pc/tool life Use np = 15 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 0.043 + 1.0/15 = 2.61 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(2.61) + 1.67/15 = $1.85/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(2.61) = 541 min = 9.02 hr.
Production rate Rp = 150 pc/9.02 hr = 16.63 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(0.043)/541 = 0.012 = 1.2%
Comment: One might conclude that such a low proportion of time spent cutting would argue
against the use of the calculated cutting speed for ceramic tooling. However, note that ceramic
tooling provides a significant advantage in terms of unit cost, batch time, and production rate
compared to HSS tooling and even carbide tooling. The very small cutting time Tm and resulting
low proportion of time spent cutting for ceramic tooling focuses attention on the nonproductive
work elements in the batch time, specifically, setup time and workpart handling time; and puts
pressure on management to seek ways to reduce these nonproductive elements.
17.26 A vertical boring mill is used to bore the inside diameter of a large batch of tube-shaped parts. The
diameter = 28.0 in and the length of the bore = 14.0 in. Current cutting conditions are: speed = 200
ft/min, feed = 0.015 in/rev, and depth = 0.125 in. The parameters of the Taylor equation for the cutting
tool in the operation are: n = 0.23 and C = 850 (ft/min). Tool change time = 3.0 min, and tooling cost
= $3.50 per cutting edge. The time required to load and unload the parts = 12.0 min, and the cost of
machine time on this boring mill = $42.00/hr. Management has decreed that the production rate must
be increased by 25%. Is that possible? Assume that feed must remain unchanged in order to achieve
the required surface finish. What is the current production rate and the maximum possible production
rate for this job?
Solution: At the current operating speed v = 200 ft/min:
T = (850/200)1/.23 = 540 min
Tm = (28)(14)/(200 x 12 x 0.015) = 34.2 min/pc
np = 540/34.2 = 15 pc/tool life
Tc = 12 + 34.2 + 3/15 = 46.4 min
Rc = 60/46.4 = 1.293 pc/hr
Find vmax to compare with current operating speed.
vmax = 850/[(1/.23 - 1)(3.0)].23 = 850/[(3.348 x 3.0)].23 = 500 ft/min
Tmax = (1/.23 - 1)(3.0) = 3.348(3.0) = 10.0 min
Tm = (28)(14)/(500 x 12 x 0.015) = 13.7 min/pc
np = 10/13.7 = 0.73 pc/tool life
Tc = 12 + 13.7 + 3/.73 = 29.8 min
Rc = 60/29.8 = 2.01 pc/hr
This is a 56% increase in production rate relative to the 200 ft/min cutting speed.

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17.27 As indicated in Section 17.4, the effect of a cutting fluid is to increase the value of C in the Taylor
tool life equation. In a certain machining situation using HSS tooling, the C value is increased from C
= 200 to C = 225 due to the use of the cutting fluid. The n value is the same with or without fluid at n
= 0.125. Cutting speed used in the operation is v = 125 ft/min. Feed = 0.010 in/rev and depth = 0.100
in. The effect of the cutting fluid can be to either increase cutting speed (at the same tool life) or
increase tool life (at the same cutting speed). (a) What is the cutting speed that would result from
using the cutting fluid if tool life remains the same as with no fluid? (b) What is the tool life that
would result if the cutting speed remained at 125 ft/min? (c) Economically, which effect is better,
given that tooling cost = $2.00 per cutting edge, tool change time = 2.5 min, and operator and machine
rate = $30/hr? Justify you answer with calculations, using cost per cubic in of metal machined as the
criterion of comparison. Ignore effects of workpart handling time.
Solution: Cutting dry, the Taylor tool life equation parameters are n = 0.125 and C = 200.
At v = 125 ft/min, tool life T = (200/125)1/.125 = (1.6)8 = 43 min
With a cutting fluid, the Taylor tool life equation parameters are n = 0.125 and C = 225.
The corresponding cutting speed for a 43 min tool life v = 225/430.125 = 140.6 ft/min
(b) Cutting at v = 125 ft/min with a cutting fluid gives a tool life T = (225/125)8.0 = 110 min
(c) Which is better, (1) cutting at a speed of 140.6 ft/min to give a 43 min tool life, or (2) cutting at
125 ft/min to give a 110 min tool life. Use 1.0 in3 of metal cut as the basis of comparison, with cost
and time parameters as follows: Ct = $2.00/cutting edge, Tt = 2.5 min, and Co = $30/hr = $0.50/min
(1) At v =140.6 ft/min, Tm = 1.0 in3/RMR = 1.0/(140.6 x 12 x 0.010 x 0.100) = 0.5927 min
For T = 43 min, volume cut per tool life = 43/0.5927 = 72.5 in3 between tool changes.
Ignoring work handling time, cost/in3 = 0.50(.5927) + (0.50 x 2.5 + 2.00)/72.5 = $0.341/in3.
(2) At 125 ft/min, Tm = 1.0 in3/RMR = 1.0/(125 x 12 x 0.010 x 0.100) = 0.6667 min
For T = 110 min, volume cut per tool life = 110/0.6667 = 164.9 in3 between tool changes.
Ignoring work handling time, cost/in3 = 0.50(.6667) + (0.50 x 2.5 + 2.00)/164.9 = $0.353/in3.
Conclusion: it is better to take the benefit of a cutting fluid in the form of increased cutting speed.

18 GRINDING AND OTHER ABRASIVE PROCESSES

Problems
18.1 In a surface grinding operation wheel diameter = 150 mm and infeed = 0.07 mm. Wheel speed =
1450 m/min, workspeed = 0.25 m/s, and crossfeed = 5 mm. The number of active grits per area of
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wheel surface = 0.75 grits/mm2. Determine (a) average length per chip, (b) metal removal rate, and
(c) number of chips formed per unit time for the portion of the operation when the wheel is engaged
in the work.
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (150 x 0.07)0.5 = 3.24 mm
(b) RMR = vwwd = (0.25 m/s)(103 mm/m)(5.0 mm)(0.07 mm) = 87.5 mm3/s = 5250 mm3/min
(c) nc = vwC = (1450 m/min)( 103 mm/m)(5.0 mm)(0.75 grits/mm2) = 5,437,500 chips/min
18.2 The following conditions and settings are used in a certain surface grinding operation: wheel
diameter = 6.0 in, infeed = 0.003 in, wheel speed = 4750 ft/min, workspeed = 50 ft/min, and
crossfeed = 0.20 in. The number of active grits per square inch of wheel surface = 500. Determine
(a) average length per chip, (b) metal removal rate, and (c) number of chips formed per unit time for
the portion of the operation when the wheel is engaged in the work.
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (6.0 x 0.003)0.5 = (0.018)0.5 = 0.1342 in
(b) RMR = vwwd = (50 x 12)(0.20)(0.003) = 0.36 in3/min
(c) nc = vwC = (4750 x 12)(0.2)(500) = 5,700,000 chips/min
18.3 An internal cylindrical grinding operation is used to finish an internal bore from an initial diameter
of 250.00 mm to a final diameter of 252.5 mm. The bore is 125 mm long. A grinding wheel with an
initial diameter of 150.00 mm and a width of 20.00 mm is used. After the operation, the diameter of
the grinding wheel has been reduced to 149.75 mm. Determine the grinding ratio in this operation.
Solution: GR = (volume of work material removed)/(volume of wheel removed)
Volume of work material removed = (/4)(125)(252.52 – 250.02) = 123,332 mm3
Volume of wheel removed = (/4)(20)(1502 – 149.752) = 1177 mm3
GR = 123,332/1177 = 104.8
18.4 In a surface grinding operation performed on hardened plain carbon steel, the grinding wheel has a
diameter = 200 mm and width = 25 mm. The wheel rotates at 2400 rev/min, with a depth of cut
(infeed) = 0.05 mm/pass and a crossfeed = 3.50 mm. The reciprocating speed of the work is 6
m/min, and the operation is performed dry. Determine (a) length of contact between the wheel and
the work and (b) volume rate of metal removed. (c) If there are 64 active grits/cm2 of wheel surface,
estimate the number of chips formed per unit time. (d) What is the average volume per chip? (e) If
the tangential cutting force on the work = 25 N, compute the specific energy in this operation?
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (200 x 0.05)0.5 = 3.16 mm
(b) RMR = vwwd = (6 m/min)(103 mm/m)(3.5 mm)(0.05 mm) = 1050 mm3/min
(c) nc = vwC
v = ND = (2400 rev/min)(200 mm/rev) = 1,507,964 mm/min
nc = (1,507,964 mm/min)(3.5 mm)(64 grits/cm2)(10-2 cm2/mm2)
= 3,377,840 grits/min (= chips/min)
(d) 3,377,840 grits/min = 3,377,840 chips/min
Average volume per chip = (1050 mm3/min)/( 3,377,840 chips/min) = 0.00031 mm3/chip
(e) U = Fcv/RMR
v = 1,507,964 mm/min = 1,508 m/min
U = 25(1508)/1050 = 35.9 N-m/mm3
18.5 An 8-in diameter grinding wheel, 1.0 in wide, is used in a surface grinding job performed on a flat
piece of heat-treated 4340 steel. The wheel rotates to achieve a surface speed of 5000 ft/min, with a
depth of cut (infeed) = 0.002 in per pass and a crossfeed = 0.15 in. The reciprocating speed of the
work is 20 ft/min, and the operation is performed dry. (a) What is the length of contact between the
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wheel and the work? (b) What is the volume rate of metal removed? (c) If there are 300 active
grits/in2 of wheel surface, estimate the number of chips formed per unit time. (d) What is the
average volume per chip? (e) If the tangential cutting force on the workpiece = 7.3 lbs, what is the
specific energy calculated for this job?
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (8 x 0.002)0.5 = (0.016)0.5 = 0.1265 in
(b) RMR = vwwd = (20 x 12)(0.15)(0.002) = 0.072 in3/min
(c) nc = vwC = (5000 x 12)(0.15)(300) = 2,700,000 chips/min
(d) Avg volume/chip = (0.072 in3/min)/(2,700,000 chips/min) = 0.000000026 in3 = 26 x 10-9 in3
(e) U = Fcv/RMR = 7.3(5000 x 12)/0.072 = 6,083,333 in-lb/in3 = 15.4 hp/(in3/min)
18.6 A surface grinding operation is being performed on a 6150 steel workpart (annealed, approximately
200 BHN). The designation on the grinding wheel is C-24-D-5-V. The wheel diameter = 7.0 in and
its width = 1.00 in. Rotational speed = 3000 rev/min. The depth (infeed) = 0.002 in per pass, and the
crossfeed = 0.5 in. Workspeed = 20 ft/min. This operation has been a source of trouble right from
the beginning. The surface finish is not as good as the 16 -in specified on the part print, and there
are signs of metallurgical damage on the surface. In addition, the wheel seems to become clogged
almost as soon as the operation begins. In short, nearly everything that can go wrong with the job
has gone wrong. (a) Determine the rate of metal removal when the wheel is engaged in the work.
(b) If the number of active grits per square inch = 200, determine the average chip length and the
number of chips formed per time. (c) What changes would you recommend in the grinding wheel to
help solve the problems encountered? Explain why you made each recommendation.
Solution: (a) RMR = vwwd = (20 x 12)(0.5)(0.002) = 0.24 in3/min
(b) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (7.0 x .002)0.5 = 0.1183 in
v = DN = (7.0/12)(3000) = 5498 ft/min = 65,973 in/min
nc = vwC = 65,973(0.5)(200) = 6,597,300 grits/min
(c) Changes in wheel to help solve problems cited: (1) use Al2O3 oxide abrasive rather than silicon
carbide; (2) use smaller grain size than 24; (3) use shellac bond rather than vitrified bond; and (4)
use more open structure than number 5 to reduce wheel clogging.
18.7 The grinding wheel in a centerless grinding operation has a diameter = 200 mm, and the regulating
wheel diameter = 125 mm. The grinding wheel rotates at 3000 rev/min and the regulating wheel
rotates at 200 rev/min. The inclination angle of the regulating wheel = 2.5. Determine the
throughfeed rate of cylindrical workparts that are 25.0 mm in diameter and 175 mm long.
Solution: From Eq. (18.11), fr = DrNr sin I
fr = (125)(200) sin 2.5 = 25,000(0.04362) = 3426 mm/min
Parts through-feed rate = (3426 mm/min)/(175 mm/pc) = 19.58 pc/min
18.8 A centerless grinding operation uses a regulating wheel that is 150 mm in diameter and rotates at
500 rev/min. At what inclination angle should the regulating wheel be set, if it is desired to feed a
workpiece with length = 3.5 m and diameter = 18 mm through the operation in exactly 30 sec?
Solution: From Eq. (18.11), fr = DrNr sin I
fr = 3.5 m per 30 sec = 0.11667 m/s = 7.0 m/min
fr = (150 x 10-3)(500 rev/min) sin I = 235.62 sin I (units are m/min)
7.0 m/min = 235.62 sin I m/min
sin I = 7.0/235.62 = 0.0297 I = 1.70
18.9 In a certain centerless grinding operation, the grinding wheel diameter = 8.5 in, and the regulating
wheel diameter = 5.0 in. The grinding wheel rotates at 3500 rev/min and the regulating wheel
rotates at 150 rev/min. The inclination angle of the regulating wheel = 3. Determine the
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throughfeed rate of cylindrical workparts that have the following dimensions: diameter = 1.25 in
and length = 8.0 in.
Solution: From Eq. (18.11), fr = DrNr sin I = (5.0)(150) sin 3 = 123.33 in/min
Parts feed at (8.0 in/part)/(123.33 in/min) = 0.0649 min/part = 3.9 sec/part
Throughfeed rate = 1/0.0649 = 15.4 parts per min
18.10 It is desired to compare the cycle times required to grind a particular workpiece using traditional
surface grinding and using creep feed grinding. The workpiece is 200 mm long, 30 mm wide, and
75 mm thick. To make a fair comparison, the grinding wheel in both cases is 250 mm in diameter,
35 mm in width, and rotates at 1500 rev/min. It is desired to remove 25 mm of material from the
surface. When traditional grinding is used, the infeed is set at 0.025 mm, and the wheel traverses
twice (forward and back) across the work surface during each pass before resetting the infeed.
There is no crossfeed since the wheel width is greater than the work width. Each pass is made at a
workspeed of 12 m/min, but the wheel overshoots the part on both sides. With acceleration and
deceleration, the wheel is engaged in the work for 50% of the time on each pass. When creep feed
grinding is used, the depth is increased by 1000 and the forward feed is decreased by 1000. How
long will it take to complete the grinding operation (a) with traditional grinding and (b) with creep
feed grinding?
Solution: (a) Conventional surface grinding:
Time of engagement/pass = 200 x 10-3 m/(12 m/min) = 0.01667 min = 1 s
Forward and backward stroke = 2(1 s)/50% = 4 s
Number of passes to remove 25 mm = 25/0.025 = 1000 passes
Time to complete 1000 passes = 1000(4) = 4000 s = 66.67 min
(b) Creep feed grinding:
Total length of feed = 200 mm + approach = 200 + (d(D-d))0.5
Given D = 250 mm and d = 25 mm, Total feed length = 200 + (25(250-25))0.5 = 275 mm
fr = (12 x 103 mm/min)/1000 = 12 mm/min
Time to feed = 275/12 = 22.917 min
Note: Creep feed grinding requires about 1/3 the time of conventional surface grinding

for the situation defined here.

18.11 An aluminum alloy is to be ground in an external cylindrical grinding operation to obtain a good
surface finish. Specify the appropriate grinding wheel parameters and the grinding conditions for
this job.
Solution: Grinding wheel specification:
Abrasive type: silicon carbide
Grain size: small - high grit size number
Bond material: shellac bond
Wheel structure: dense
Wheel grade: medium to hard
Wheel specification: C-150-E-5-B
Grinding conditions:

Wheel speed: high speed, around 1800 m/min (6000 ft/min)

Work speed: low, around 10 m/min (30 ft/min)
Infeed (depth of cut): low, around 0.012 mm (0.0005 in)
Crossfeed: low, around 1/6 of wheel width.
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18.12 A high-speed steel broach (hardened) is to be resharpened to achieve a good finish. Specify the
appropriate parameters of the grinding wheel for this job.
Solution: Grinding wheel specification:
Abrasive type: cubic boron nitride
Grain size: small - high grit size number
Bond material: vitrified bond
Wheel grade: soft to medium
Wheel specification: XX-B-150-P-XY-V-XZ-1/8, where XX, XY, and XZ are manufacturer’s
symbols.

19 NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

Problems
19.1 For the following application, identify one or more nontraditional machining processes that might
be used, and present arguments to support your selection. Assume that either the part geometry or
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is a matrix
of 0.1 mm (0.004 in) diameter holes in a plate of 3.2 mm (0.125 in) thick hardened tool steel. The
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matrix is rectangular, 75 by 125 mm (3.0 by 5.0 in) with the separation between holes in each
direction = 1.6 mm ( 0.0625 in).
Solution: Application: matrix of holes in 3.2 mm (0.125 in) thick hardened steel, hole diameter =
0.1 mm (0.004 in), separation between holes = 1.6 mm (0.0625 in). Possible processes: EBM and
LBM can make holes of this size with depth-to-diameter ratios as large as 0.125/0.004 = 31.25.
19.2 For the following application, identify one or more nontraditional machining processes that might
be used, and present arguments to support your selection. Assume that either the part geometry or
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is an
engraved aluminum printing plate to be used in an offset printing press to make 275 by 350 mm (11
by 14 in) posters of Lincoln's Gettysburg address.
Solution: Application: engraved aluminum printing press plate for 275 by 350 mm (11 by 14 in)
posters. Possible process: photochemical engraving; making a negative of the speech and
transferring this to either a silk screen or directly to the photoresist would seem to be the most
straightforward methods.
19.3 For the following application, identify one or more nontraditional machining processes that might
be used, and present arguments to support your selection. Assume that either the part geometry or
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is a
through-hole in the shape of the letter L in a 12.5 mm (0.5 in) thick plate of glass. The size of the
"L" is 25 by 15 mm (1.0 by 0.6 in) and the width of the hole is 3 mm (1/8 in).
Solution: Application: through-hole in the shape of the letter “L” drilled through 12.5 mm (0.5-in)
thick plate glass. Possible process: USM works on glass and other brittle non-metallic materials.
This is probably the best process.
19.4 For the following application, identify one or more nontraditional machining processes that might
be used, and present arguments to support your selection. Assume that either the part geometry or
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is a
blind-hole in the shape of the letter G in a 50 mm (2.0 in) cube of steel. The overall size of the "G"
is 25 by 19 mm (1.0 by 0.75 in), the depth of the hole is 3.8 mm (0.15 in), and its width is 3 mm
(1/8 in).
Solution: Application: the letter “G” drilled to a depth of 3.8 mm (0.15 in) in a cube of steel.
Possible processes: ECM and EDM would be useful for pocketing operations such as this.
19.5 A furniture company that makes upholstered chairs and sofas must cut large quantities of fabrics.
Many of these fabrics are strong and wear-resistant, which properties make them difficult to cut.
What nontraditional process(es) would you recommend to the company for this application? Justify
your answer by indicating the characteristics of the process that make it attractive.
Solution: Water jet cutting would be an ideal process for this application. WJC cuts through fabrics
quickly and cleanly, and the process could be readily automated.
19.6 The frontal working area of the electrode in an ECM operation is 2000 mm2. The applied current =
1800 amps and the voltage = 12 volts. The material being cut is nickel (valence = 2). (a) If the
process is 90% efficient, determine the rate of metal removal in mm3/min. (b) If the resistivity of the
electrolyte = 140 ohm-mm, determine the working gap.
Solution: (a) From Table 19.1, C = 3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s
From Eq. (19.6) RMR = frA = (CI/A)A = CI = (3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(1800 A)
= 6156 x 10-2 mm3/s = 61.56 mm3/s = 3693.6 mm3/min
At 90% efficiency RMR = 0.9(3693.6 mm3/min) = 3324.2 mm3/min
(b) Given resistivity r = 140 ohm-mm, I = EA/gr in Eq. (19.2). Rearranging, g = EA/Ir

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g = (12 V)(2000 mm2)/(1800 A)(140 ohm-mm) = 0.095 mm
19.7 In an electrochemical machining operation, the frontal working area of the electrode is 2.5 in2. The
applied current = 1500 amps, and the voltage = 12 volts. The work material is pure aluminum. (a) If
the ECM process is 90 percent efficient, determine the rate of metal removal in in3/hr. (b) If the
resistivity of the electrolyte = 6.2 ohm-in, determine the working gap.
Solution: (a) From Table 19.1, C = 0.000126 in3/A-min
RMR = frA = (CI/A)(A) = CI
RMR = CI = 0.000126(1500) = 0.189 in3/min at 100% efficiency.
At 90% efficiency RMR = 0.189(0.90) = 0.1701 in3/min = 10.206 in3/hr.
(b) I = EA/gr; Rearranging, g = EA/Ir = 12(2.5)/(1500 x 6.2) = 0.0032 in
19.8 A square hole is to be cut using ECM through a plate of pure copper (valence = 1) that is 20 mm
thick. The hole is 25 mm on each side, but the electrode used to cut the hole is slightly less that 25
mm on its sides to allow for overcut, and its shape includes a hole in its center to permit the flow of
electrolyte and to reduce the area of the cut. This tool design results in a frontal area of 200 mm2.
The applied current = 1000 amps. Using an efficiency of 95%, determine how long it will take to
cut the hole.
Solution: From Table 19.1, C = 7.35 x 10-2 mm3/A-s
From Eq. (19.6) fr = CI/A = (7.35 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(1000 A)/(200 mm2) = 0.3675 mm/s
At 95% efficiency, fr = 0.95(0.3675 mm/s) = 0.349 mm/s
Time to machine = (20 mm)/(0.349 mm/s) = 57.3 s
19.9 A 3.5 in diameter through hole is to be cut in a block of pure iron (Valence = 2) by electrochemical
machining. The block is 2.0 in thick. To speed the cutting process, the electrode tool will have a
center hole of 3.0 in which will produce a center core that can be removed after the tool breaks
through. The outside diameter of the electrode is undersized to allow for overcut. The overcut is
expected to be 0.005 in on a side. If the efficiency of the ECM operation is 90%, what current will
be required to complete the cutting operation in 20 minutes?
Solution: Electrode frontal gap area A = 0.25(3.52 - 3.02) = 2.553 in2
From Table 19.1, C = 0.000135 in3/A-min
fr = CI/A = 0.000135 I/2.553 = 0.0000529 I in/min at 100% efficiency.
At 90% efficiency fr = 0.9(0.0000529 I) = 0.0000476 I in/min
To cut through a 2.0 inch thickness in 20 minutes requires a feed rate fr = 2.0/20 = 0.1 in/min
fr = 0.1 = 0.0000476 I
I = 0.1/0.0000476 = 2101 A.
19.10 An electric discharge machining operation is performed on two work materials: tungsten and tin.
Determine the amount of metal removed in the operation after one hour at a discharge current of 20
amps for each of these metals. Use metric units and express the answers in mm3/hr. Use Table 3.10
to determine melting temperatures for tungsten and tin.
Solution: From Table 3.10, the melting temperatures for tungsten and tin are 3410C and 232C,
respectively. For tungsten, using Eq. (19.7), RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 664(20)/(34101.23) = 13,280/22,146
= 0.5997 mm3/s = 2159 mm3/hr
For tin, RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 664(20)/(2321.23) = 13,280/812 = 16.355 mm3/s = 58,878 mm3/hr
19.11 An electric discharge machining operation is being performed on two work materials: iron and zinc.
Determine the amount of metal removed in the operation after one hour at a discharge amperage =
15 amps for each of these metals. Use U.S. Customary units and express the answer in in3/hr. Use
Table 3.10 to determine melting temperatures for iron and zinc.

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Solution: From Table 4.1, the melting temperatures of iron and zinc are 2802F and 787F,
respectively. For iron, using Eq. (19.7), RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 5.08(15)/(28021.23) = 76.2/17,393
= 0.00438 in3/s = 15.77 in3/hr
For zinc, RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 5.08(15)/(7871.23) = 76.2/3648 = 0.02089 in3/s = 75.20 in3/hr
19.12 Suppose the hole in Problem 19.9 were to be cut using EDM rather than ECM. Using a discharge
current = 20 amps (which would be typical for EDM), how long would it take to cut the hole? Use
Table 3.10 to determine the melting temperature of pure iron.
Solution: From Table 3.10, the melting temperature of iron is 2802F. Using Eq. (19.7), RMR = 5.08
I/Tm1.23 = 5.08(20)/28021.23 = 101.6/17,393 = 0.00584 in3/min
Cross-sectional area of tool area A = 0.25(3.52 - 3.02) = 2.553 in2
fr = RMR/A = 0.00584/2.553 = 0.002293 in/min
Time to machine the 2.0 inch thickness Tm = 2.0/0.002293 = 874.3 min = 14.57 hr.
19.13 A metal removal rate of 0.01 in3/min is achieved in a certain EDM operation on a pure copper
workpart. What metal removal rate would be achieved on nickel in this EDM operation, if the same
discharge current were used? Use Table 3.10 to determine the melting temperatures of copper and
nickel.
Solution: From Table 3.10, the melting temperatures of copper and nickel are 1981F and 2651F,
respectively. For iron, RMR = 5.08 I/19811.23 = 5.08 I/11,354 = 0.000447 I in3/min
Given that RMR = 0.01 in3/min
0.000447 I = 0.01
I = 0.01/0.000447 = 22.35 A.
For = nickel, RMR = 5.08(22.35)/26511.23 = 113.54/16,248 = 0.007 in3/min
19.14 In a wire EDM operation performed on 7-mm-thick C1080 steel using a tungsten wire electrode
whose diameter = 0.125 mm, past experience suggests that the overcut will be 0.02 mm, so that the
kerf width will be 0.165 mm. Using a discharge current = 10 amps, what is the allowable feed rate
that can be used in the operation? Use a melting temperature of 1500C for 1080 steel.
Solution: Given Tm = 1500C for 1080 steel
Using Eq. (19.7), RMR = 664(10)/(15001.23) = 6640/8065 = 0.8233 mm3/s
Frontal area of kerf A = 0.165(7.0) = 1.155 mm2
fr = 49.4/1.155 = 42.79 mm/min
19.15 A wire EDM operation is to be performed on a slab of ¾-in-thick aluminum using a brass wire
electrode whose diameter = 0.005 in. It is anticipated that the overcut will be 0.001 in, so that the
kerf width will be 0.007 in. Using a discharge current = 7 amps, what is the expected allowable feed
rate that can be used in the operation? The melting temperature of aluminum is 1220F.
Solution: Using Eq. (19.7), RMR = 5.08(7)/12201.23 = 35.56/6255 = 0.005685 in3/min
Frontal area of kerf A = 0.75(0.007) = 0.00525 in2
fr = 0.005685/0.00525 = 1.083 in/min
19.16 Chemical milling is used in an aircraft plant to create pockets in wing sections made of an
aluminum alloy. The starting thickness of one workpart of interest is 20 mm. A series of
rectangular-shaped pockets 12 mm deep are to be etched with dimensions 200 mm by 400 mm. The
corners of each rectangle are radiused to 15 mm. The part is an aluminum alloy and the etchant is
NaOH. Use Table 19.2 to determine the penetration rate and etch factor for this combination.
Determine (a) metal removal rate in mm3/min, (b) time required to etch to the specified depth, and
(c) required dimensions of the opening in the cut and peel maskant to achieve the desired pocket
size on the part.
Solution: From Table 19.2, the penetration rate = 0.025 mm/min and the etch factor = 1.75.
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(a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of 200 mm by
400 mm, and that the material removal rate (RMR) would therefore increase during the cut as the area
increased, area A = 200 x 400 – (30 x 30 - (15)2) = 80,000 – 193 = 79,807 mm2
RMR = (0.025 mm/min)(79,807 mm2) = 1995.2 mm3/min
(b) Time to machine (etch) Tm = 12/0.025 = 480 min = 8.0 hr.
(c) Given Fe = 1.75, undercut u = d/Fe = 12/1.75 = 6.86 mm
Maskant opening length = L – 2u = 400 – 2(6.86) = 386.28 mm
Maskant opening width = W – 2u = 200 – 2(6.86) = 186.28 mm
Radius on corners = R – u = 15 – 6.86 = 8.14 mm
19.17 In a chemical milling operation on a flat mild steel plate, it is desired to cut an ellipse-shaped pocket
to a depth of 0.4 in. The semiaxes of the ellipse are a = 9.0 in and b = 6.0 in. A solution of
hydrochloric and nitric acids will be used as the etchant. Use Table 19.2 to determine the
penetration rate and etch factor for this combination. Determine (a) metal removal rate in in3/hr, (b)
time required to etch to depth, and (c) required dimensions of the opening in the cut and peel
maskant required to achieve the desired pocket size on the part.
Solution: From Table 19.2, the penetration rate = 0.001 in/min and the etch factor = 2.0.
(a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of 9 in by 6 in,
and that the material removal rate (RMR) would therefore increase during the cut as the area
increased, area of an ellipse A = ab = (9.0)(6.0) = 54 = 169.65 in2
RMR = (0.001 in/min)(169.65 in2) = 0.16965 in3/min = 10.18 in3/hr
(b) Time to machine (etch) Tm = 0.4/0.001 = 400 min = 6.67 hr.
(c) Given Fe = 2.0, undercut u = d/Fe = 0.4/2.0 = 0.2 mm
This must be doubled to determine the effect on a and b.
Maskant opening a’ = a – u = 9.0 – 2(0.2) = 8.6 in
Maskant opening b’ = b – u = 6.0 – 2(0.2) = 5.6 in
19.18 In a certain chemical blanking operation, a sulfuric acid etchant is used to remove material from a
sheet of magnesium alloy. The sheet is 0.25 mm thick. The screen resist method of masking was
used to permit high production rates to be achieved. As it turns out, the process is producing a large
proportion of scrap. Specified tolerances of 0.025 mm are not being achieved. The foreman in the
CHM department complains that there must be something wrong with the sulfuric acid. "Perhaps
the concentration is incorrect," he suggests. Analyze the problem and recommend a solution.
Solution: The problem in this chemical blanking operation is that the screen resist method of
masking cannot achieve the tolerances specified. The photoresist method should have been used,
and the process should be changed over to adopt this method.
19.19 In a chemical blanking operation, stock thickness of the aluminum sheet is 0.015 in. The pattern to
be cut out of the sheet is a hole pattern, consisting of a matrix of 0.100 in diameter holes. If
photochemical machining is used to cut these holes, and contact printing is used to make the resist
(maskant) pattern, determine the diameter of the holes that should be used in the pattern.
Solution: From Table 19.2, Fe = 1.75.
In chemical blanking, etching will occur on both sides of the part. Therefore, the effective hole
depth on each side = one-half of the stock thickness = 0.015/2 = 0.0075 in.
Undercut u = 0.0075/1.75 = 0.0043 in
Diameter of opening = 0.100 - 2(0.0043) = 0.0914 in

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21 SURFACE PROCESSING OPERATIONS

Problems
21.1 What volume (cm3) and weight (g) of zinc will be deposited onto a cathodic workpart if 10 amps of
current are applied for one hour?
Solution: From Table 21.1, C = 4.75 x 10-2 mm3/A-s, cathode efficiency E = 95%.
Volume V = ECIt = 0.95(4.75 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(10 A)(1 hr)(3600 s/hr) = 1624.5 mm3
= 1.6245 cm3
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Density of zinc from Table 3.10  = 7.15 g/cm3. Weight W = 1.6245(7.15) = 11.615 g
21.2 A sheet metal steel part with surface area = 100 cm2 is to be zinc plated. What average plating
thickness will result if 15 amps are applied for 12 minutes in a chloride electrolyte solution?
Solution: From Table 21.1, C = 4.75 x 10-2 mm3/A-s, cathode efficiency E = 95%.
Volume V = ECIt = 0.95(4.75 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(15 A)(12 min)(60 s/min) = 487.35 mm3
Area A = 100 cm2 = 10,000 mm2
Plating thickness d = 487.35 mm3/10,000 mm2 = 0.049 mm
21.3 A sheet metal steel part with surface area = 15.0 in2 is to be chrome plated. What average plating
thickness will result if 15 amps are applied for 10 minutes in a chromic acid-sulfate bath?
Solution: From Table 21.1, C = 0.92 x 10-4 in3/A-min, cathode efficiency E = 15%.
Volume V = ECIt = 0.15(0.92 x 10-4)(15)(10) = 0.00207 in3.
Plating thickness d = 0.00207/15 = 0.000138 in.
21.4 Twenty-five jewelry pieces, each with a surface area = 0.5 in2 are to be gold plated in a batch
plating operation. (a) What average plating thickness will result if 8 amps are applied for 10 min in
a cyanide bath? (b) What is the value of the gold that will be plated onto each piece if one ounce of
gold is valued at $1000? The density of gold = 0.698 lb/in3.
Solution: (a) From Table 21.1, C = 3.87 x 10-4 in3/A-min, cathode efficiency E = 80%.
Volume V = ECIt = 0.80(3.87 x 10-4)(8)(10) = 0.02477 in3.
With Q = 25 pieces and average area per piece = 0.5 in2, total area A = 25(0.5) = 12.5 in2
Plating thickness d = 0.02477/12.5 = 0.00198 in.
(b) Given density for gold  = 0.698 lb/in3
Weight of plated gold = (0.698 lb/in3)(0.02477 in3) = 0.01729 lb = 0.277 oz.
At $1000/oz, the total value of plated gold = $1000(0.277) = $277
The value per piece is $277/25 = $11.08
21.5 A part made of sheet steel is to be nickel plated. The part is a rectangular flat plate that is 0.075 cm
thick and whose face dimensions are 14 cm by 19 cm. The plating operation is carried out in an acid
sulfate electrolyte, using a current = 20 amps for a duration = 30 min. Determine the average
thickness of the plated metal resulting from this operation.
Solution: From Table 21.1, C = 3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s, cathode efficiency E = 95%.
Volume V = ECIt = 0.95(3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(20 A)(30 min)(60 s/min) = 1169.6 mm3
Area A = 2(19 x 14) + 0.075 x 2(19 + 14) = 536.95 cm2 = 53,695 mm2
Plating thickness d = 1169.6/53,695 = 0.022 mm
21.6 A steel sheet metal part has total surface area = 36 in2. How long will it take to deposit a copper
plating (assume valence = +1) of thickness = 0.001 in onto the surface if 15 amps of current are
applied?
Solution: From Table 21.1, C = 2.69 x 10-4 in3/A-min, cathode efficiency E = 98%.
Required volume of plate metal = 36(0.001) = 0.036 in3
Plated volume V = ECIt = 0.98(2.69 x 10-4 in3/A-min)(15 A) t = 0.003954 t in3
0.003954 t = 0.036 t = 0.036/0.003954 = 9.1 min.

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22 FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
Problems
22.1 A heat source can transfer 3500 J/sec to a metal part surface. The heated area is circular, and the
heat intensity decreases as the radius increases, as follows: 70% of the heat is concentrated in a
circular area that is 3.75 mm in diameter. Is the resulting power density enough to melt metal?
Solution: Area A = (3.75)2/4 = 11.045 mm2
Power P = 0.70(3500) = 2450 J/s = 2450 W.
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Power density PD = 2450 W/11.04472 = 222 W/mm2. This power density is most probably
sufficient for melting the metal.
22.2 A welding heat source is capable of transferring 150 Btu/min to the surface of a metal part. The
heated area is approximately circular, and the heat intensity decreases with increasing radius as
follows: 50% of the power is transferred within a circle of diameter = 0.1 inch and 75% is
transferred within a concentric circle of diameter = 0.25 in. What are the power densities in (a) the
0.1-inch diameter inner circle and (b) the 0.25-inch diameter ring that lies around the inner circle?
(c) Are these power densities sufficient for melting metal?
Solution: (a) Area A = (0.1)2/4 = 0.00785 in2
150 Btu/min = 2.5 Btu/sec.
Power P = 0.50(2.5) = 1.25 Btu/sec
Power density PD = (1.25 Btu/sec)/0.00785 in2 = 159 Btu/sec-in2
(b) A = (0.252 - 0.12)/4 = 0.0412 in2
Power P = (0.75 - 0.50)(2.5) = 0.625 Btu/sec
Power density PD = (0.625 Btu/sec)/0.0412 in2 = 15.16 Btu/sec-in2
(c) Power densities are sufficient certainly in the inner circle and probably in the outer

ring for welding.

22.3 Compute the unit energy for melting for the following metals: (a) aluminum and (b) plain low
carbon steel.
Solution: (a) From Table 22.2, Tm for aluminum = 930 K (1680 R)
Eq. (22.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (930)2 = 2.88 J/mm3
-5 2
Eq. (22.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10 )Tm Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
(b) From Table 22.2, Tm for plain low carbon steel = 1760 K (3160 R)
Eq. (22.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
-5 2
Eq. (22.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10 )Tm Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3160)2 = 146.5 Btu/in3
22.4 Compute the unit energy for melting for the following metals: (a) copper and (b) titanium.
Solution: (a) From Table 22.2, Tm for copper = 1350 K (2440 R)
Eq. (22.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1350)2 = 6.07 J/mm3
Eq. (22.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2 Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (2440)2 = 87.3 Btu/in3
(b) From Table 22.2, Tm for titanium = 2070 K (3730 R)
Eq. (22.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33(10-6)Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (2070)2 = 14.27 J/mm3
Eq. (22.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467(10-5)Tm2 Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3730)2 = 204.1 Btu/in3
22.5 A fillet weld has a cross-sectional area of 25.0 mm2 and is 300 mm long. (a) What quantity of heat
(in joules) is required to accomplish the weld, if the metal to be welded is low carbon steel? (b)
How much heat must be generated at the welding source, if the heat transfer factor is 0.75 and the
melting factor = 0.63?
Solution: (a) Eq. (22.2) for SI units: Um = 3.33 x 10-6 Tm2
From Table 22.2, Tm for low carbon steel = 1760° K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
Volume of metal melted V = 25(300) = 7500 mm3
Hw = 10.32(7500) = 77,360 J at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.75 and f2 = 0.63, H = 77,360/(0.75 x 0.63) = 163,700 J at source.

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22.6 A groove weld has a cross-sectional area = 0.045 in2 and is 10 inches long. (a) What quantity of
heat (in Btu) is required to accomplish the weld, if the metal to be welded is medium carbon steel?
(b) How much heat must be generated at the welding source, if the heat transfer factor = 0.9 and the
melting factor = 0.7?
Solution: (a) Eq. (22.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 Tm2
From Table 22.2, Tm for medium carbon steel = 3060 R
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (3060)2 = 137.4 Btu/in3
Volume of metal melted V = 0.045(10) = 0.45 in3
Hw = 137.4(0.45) = 61.8 Btu at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.9 and f2 = 0.7. H = 61.8/(0.9 x 0.7) = 98.1 Btu at source.
22.7 Solve the previous problem, except that the metal to be welded is aluminum, and the corresponding
melting factor is half the value for steel.
Solution: (a) Eq. (22.2) for USCS units: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 Tm2
From Table 22.2, Tm for aluminum = 1680 R
Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1680)2 = 41.4 Btu/in3
Volume of metal melted V = 0.045(10) = 0.45 in3
Hw = 41.4(0.45) = 18.6 Btu at weld
(b) Given f1 = 0.9 and f2 = 0.35. H = 18.6/(0.9 x 0.35) = 59.1 Btu at source.
22.8 The welding power generated in a particular arc-welding operation = 3000 W. This is transferred to
the work surface with a heat transfer factor = 0.9. The metal to be welded is copper whose melting
point is given in Table 22.2. Assume that the melting factor = 0.25. A continuous fillet weld is to be
made with a cross-sectional area = 15.0 mm2. Determine the travel speed at which the welding
operation can be accomplished.
Solution: From Table 22.2, Tm = 1350K for copper.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1350)2 = 6.07 J/mm3
v = f1 f2 RH/UmAw = 0.9(0.25)(3000)/(6.07 x 15) = 7.4 mm/s.
22.9 Solve the previous problem except that the metal to be welded is high carbon steel, the
cross-sectional area of the weld = 25.0 mm2, and the melting factor = 0.6.
Solution: From Table 22.2, Tm = 1650K for high carbon steel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6(1650)2 = 9.07 J/mm3
v = f1 f2 RH /UmAw = 0.9(0.6)(3000)/(9.07 x 25) = 7.15 mm/s.
22.10 A welding operation on an aluminum alloy makes a groove weld. The cross-sectional area of the
weld is 30.0 mm2. The welding velocity is 4.0 mm/sec. The heat transfer factor is 0.92 and the
melting factor is 0.48. The melting temperature of the aluminum alloy is 650C. Determine the rate
of heat generation required at the welding source to accomplish this weld.
Solution: Um = 3.33 x 10-6(650 + 273)2 = 2.84 J/mm3
f1 f2 RH = UmAw v
RH = Um Aw v/f1 f2 = 2.84(30)(4)/(0.92 x 0.48) = 771 J/s = 771 W.
22.11 The power source in a particular welding operation generates 125 Btu/min, which is transferred to
the work surface with heat transfer factor = 0.8. The melting point for the metal to be welded =
1800F and its melting factor = 0.5. A continuous fillet weld is to be made with a cross-sectional
area = 0.04 in2. Determine the travel speed at which the welding operation can be accomplished.
Solution: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (1800 + 460)2 = 74.9 Btu/in3
v = f1 f2 RH /UmAw = 0.8(0.5)(125)/(74.9 x 0.04) = 16.7 in/min

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22.12 In a certain welding operation to make a fillet weld, the cross-sectional area = 0.025 in2 and the
travel speed = 15 in/min. If the heat transfer factor = 0.95 and melting factor = 0.5, and the melting
point = 2000F for the metal to be welded, determine the rate of heat generation required at the heat
source to accomplish this weld.
Solution: Um = 1.467 x 10-5 (2000 + 460)2 = 88.8 Btu/in3
v = 15 = f1 f2 RH/UmAw = 0.95(0.5)RH /(88.8 x 0.025) = 0.214 RH
RH = 15/0.214 = 70.1 Btu/min

23 WELDING PROCESSES
Problems
23.1 A shielded metal arc-welding operation is performed on steel at a voltage = 30 volts and a current =
225 amps. The heat transfer factor = 0.90 and melting factor = 0.75. The unit melting energy for
steel = 10.2 J/mm3. Determine (a) the rate of heat generation at the weld and (b) the volume rate of
metal welded.
Solution: (a) RHW = f1f2EI = (0.90)(0.75)(30)(225) = 4556 W
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(b) RWV = (4556 W)/(10.2 J/mm3) = 447 mm3/sec.
23.2 A GTAW operation is performed on low carbon steel, whose unit melting energy is 10.3 J/mm3.
The welding voltage is 22 volts and the current is 135 amps. The heat transfer factor is 0.7 and the
melting factor is 0.65. If filler metal wire of 3.5 mm diameter is added to the operation, the final
weld bead is composed of 60% volume of filler and 40% volume base metal. If the travel speed in
the operation is 5 mm/sec, determine (a) cross-sectional area of the weld bead, and (b) the feed rate
(mm/sec) at which the filler wire must be supplied.
Solution: (a) RHW = f1f2EI = UmAwv
Aw = f1f2EI/(Umv) = 0.7(0.65)(22)(135)/(10.3x5.0) = 26.24 mm2
(b) Volume of weld = Awv = 26.24(5.0) = 131.2 mm3/s
Filler wire A = D2/4 = (3.5)2/4 = 9.62 mm2
At 60% filler metal, feed rate of filler wire = 131.2(0.60)/9.62 = 8.18 mm/s
23.3 A flux-cored arc-welding operation is performed to butt weld two austenitic stainless steel plates
together. The welding voltage is 21 volts and the current is 185 amps. The cross-sectional area of
the weld seam = 75 mm2 and the melting factor of the stainless steel is assumed to be 0.60. Using
tabular data and equations given in this and the preceding chapter, determine the likely value for
travel speed v in the operation.
Solution: From Table 23.1, f1 = 0.9 for FCAW.
From Table 22.2, Tm = 1670K for austenitic stainless steel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3
f1f2EI = UmAwv
v = f1f2EI/UmAw = 0.9(0.6)(21)(185)/(9.29 x 75) = 3.01 mm/s
23.4 A gas metal arc-welding test is performed to determine the value of melting factor f2 for a certain
metal and operation. The welding voltage = 25 volts, current = 125 amps, and heat transfer factor is
assumed to be = 0.90, a typical value for GMAW. The rate at which the filler metal is added to the
weld is 0.50 in3 per minute, and measurements indicate that the final weld bead consists of 57%
filler metal and 43% base metal. The unit melting energy for the metal is known to be 75 Btu/in3.
(a) Find the melting factor. (b) What is the travel speed if the cross-sectional area of the weld bead
= 0.05 in2?
Solution: (a) f1f2EI = UmAwv
Awv = welding volume rate = RWV = (0.50 in3/min)/0.57 = 0.877 in3/min = 0.01462 in3/sec.
Therefore, f1f2EI = Um(RWV)
1 Btu/sec = 1055 J/s = 1055 W, so 75 Btu/sec = 79,125 W
f2 = Um(RWV)/f1EI = 79,125(0.01462)/(0.9 x 25 x 125) = 0.41
(b) Given that Aw = 0.05 in2, v = (RWV)/Aw = 0.877/0.05 = 17.54 in/min
23.5 A continuous weld is to be made around the circumference of a round steel tube of diameter = 6.0
ft, using a submerged arc welding operation under automatic control at a voltage of 25 volts and
current of 300 amps. The tube is slowly rotated under a stationary welding head. The heat transfer
factor for SAW is = 0.95 and the assumed melting factor = 0.7. The cross-sectional area of the weld
bead is 0.12 in2. If the unit melting energy for the steel = 150 Btu/in3, determine (a) the rotational
speed of the tube and (b) the time required to complete the weld.
Solution: (a) f1f2EI = UmAwv
v = f1f2EI/UmAw
1 Btu/sec = 1055 J/s = 1055 W, so 150 Btu/sec = 158,250 W
v = 0.95(0.7)(25)(300)/(158,250 x 0.120) = 0.263 in/sec = 15.76 in/min
Circumference C = D = 12 x 6 = 226.2 in/rev.

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Rotational speed N = (15.76 in/min)/(226.2 in/rev) = 0.06967 rev/min
(b) Time to weld around circumference = C/v = (226.2 in/rev)/(15.76 in/min) = 14.35 min
23.6 An RSW operation is used to make a series of spot welds between two pieces of aluminum, each
2.0 mm thick. The unit melting energy for aluminum = 2.90 J/mm3. Welding current = 6,000 amps,
and time duration = 0.15 sec. Assume that the resistance = 75 micro-ohms. The resulting weld
nugget measures 5.0 mm in diameter by 2.5 mm thick. How much of the total energy generated is
used to form the weld nugget?
Solution: H = I2Rt = (6000)2(75 x 10-6)(0.15) = 405 W-sec = 405 J
Weld nugget volume V = D2d/4 = (5)2(2.5)/4 = 49.1 mm3
Heat required for melting = UmV = (2.9 J/mm3)(49.1 mm3) = 142.4 J
Proportion of heat for welding =142.4/405 = 0.351 = 35.1%
23.7 The unit melting energy for a certain sheet metal is 9.5 J/mm3. Thickness of each of the two sheets
to be spot welded is 3.5 mm. To achieve required strength, it is desired to form a weld nugget that is
5.5 mm in diameter and 5.0 mm thick. The weld duration will be set at 0.3 sec. If it is assumed that
the electrical resistance between the surfaces is 140 micro-ohms, and that only one-third of the
electrical energy generated will be used to form the weld nugget (the rest being dissipated),
determine the minimum current level required in this operation.
Solution: Hm = UmV
V = D2d/4 = (5.5)2(5.0)/4 = 118.8 mm3
Hw = 9.5(118.8) = 1129 J
Required heat for the RSW operation H = 1129/(1/3) = 3386 J
H = I2Rt = I2(140 x 10-6)(0.3) = 42 x 10-6 I2 = 3386 J
I2 = 3386/(42 x 10-6) = 80.6 x 106 A2
I = 8.98 x 103 = 8,980 A
23.8 A resistance spot-welding operation is performed on two pieces of 0.040 in thick sheet steel (low
carbon). The unit melting energy for steel = 150 Btu/in3. Current = 9500 A and time duration = 0.17
sec. This results in a weld nugget of diameter = 0.19 in and thickness = 0.060 in. Assume the
resistance = 100 micro-ohms. Determine (a) the average power density in the interface area defined
by the weld nugget, and (b) the proportion of energy generated that went into formation of the weld
nugget.
Solution: (a) PD = I2R/A
A = D2/4 = (0.19)2/4 = 0.02835 in2
I2R = (9500)2 (100 x 10-6) = 9025 W
1 Btu/sec = 1055 W, so 9025 W = 8.554 Btu/sec
PD = 8.554/0.02835 = 302 Btu/sec-in2
(b) H = I2Rt = (9500)2 (100 x 10-6)(0.17) = 1534 W-sec = 1.454 Btu
Weld nugget volume V = D2d/4 = (0.19)2(0.060)/4 = 0.0017 in3
Heat required for melting = UmV = (150 Btu/in3)(0.0017) = 0.255 Btu
Proportion of heat for welding = 0.255/1.454 = 0.175 = 17.5%
23.9 A resistance seam-welding operation is performed on two pieces of 2.5-mm-thick austenitic
stainless steel to fabricate a container. The weld current in the operation is 10,000 amps, the weld
duration = 0.3 sec, and the resistance at the interface is 75 micro-ohms. Continuous motion welding
is used, with 200-mm-diameter electrode wheels. The individual weld nuggets formed in this
RSEW operation have diameter = 6 mm and thickness = 3 mm (assume the weld nuggets are
disc-shaped). These weld nuggets must be contiguous to form a sealed seam. The power unit
driving the process requires an off-time between spot welds of 1.0 s. Given these conditions,
determine (a) the unit melting energy of stainless steel using the methods of the previous chapter,
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(b) the proportion of energy generated that goes into the formation of each weld nugget, and (c) the
rotational speed of the electrode wheels.
Solution: (a) From Table 29.2, Tm = 1670K for austenitic stainless steel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3.
(b) Hw = UmV
V = D2d/4 = (6.0)2(3.0)/4 = 84.82 mm3
Hw = (9.29 J/mm3)(84.82 mm3) = 788 J
H = I2Rt = (10,000)2(75 x 10-6)(0.3) = 2225 J
Proportion of heat for welding =788/2225= 0.354 = 35.4%
(c) Total cycle time per weld Tc = 0.3 + 1.0 = 1.3 sec.

Distance moved per spot weld in order to have contiguous spot welds for the seam = D = 0.6 mm.
Therefore, surface speed of electrode wheel v = 6.00 mm/1.3 sec = 4.61 mm/s = 276.9 mm/min.
N = v/D = (276.9 mm/min)/(200 mm/rev) = 0.441 rev/min
23.10 The voltage in an EBW operation is 45 kV. The beam current is 60 milliamp. The electron beam is
focused on a circular area that is 0.25 mm in diameter. The heat transfer factor is 0.87. Calculate the
average power density in the area in watt/mm2.
Solution: Power density PD = f1EI/A
Power P = f1EI = 0.87(45 x 103)(60 x 10-3) = 2349 W
Area A = D2/4 = (0.25)2/4 = 0.0491 mm3
PD = 2349/0.0491 = 47,853 W/mm2
23.11 An electron-beam welding operation is to be accomplished to butt weld two sheet-metal parts that
are 3.0 mm thick. The unit melting energy = 5.0 J/mm3. The weld joint is to be 0.35 mm wide, so
that the cross section of the fused metal is 0.35 mm by 3.0 mm. If accelerating voltage = 25 kV,
beam current = 30 milliamp, heat transfer factor f1 = 0.85, and melting factor f2 = 0.75, determine
the travel speed at which this weld can be made along the seam.
Solution: Available heat for welding RHW = f1f2EI = UmAwv
Travel velocity v = f1f2EI/UmAw
Cross sectional area of weld seam Aw = (0.35)(3.0) = 1.05 mm2
v = 0.85(0.75)(25 x 103)(30 x 10-3)/(5.0 x 1.05) = 91.05 mm/s
23.12 An electron-beam welding operation uses the following process parameters: accelerating voltage =
25 kV, beam current = 100 milliamp, and the circular area on which the beam is focused has a
diameter = 0.020 in. If the heat transfer factor = 90%, determine the average power density in the
area in Btu/sec in2.
Solution: Power density PD = f1EI/A
Area in which beam is focused A = D2/4 = (0.020)2/4 = 0.000314 in3
Power P = 0.90(25 x 103)(100 x 10-3)/1055 = 2.133 Btu/sec
PD = 2.133/0.000314 = 6792 Btu/sec-in2

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