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Cellular respiration notes

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy (ATP) through aerobic or anaerobic pathways, involving glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. The overall reaction can be summarized by the equation C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP, resulting in approximately 32 ATP per glucose molecule. In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic respiration occurs, yielding only 2 ATP through fermentation processes.

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24 views

Cellular respiration notes

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy (ATP) through aerobic or anaerobic pathways, involving glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. The overall reaction can be summarized by the equation C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP, resulting in approximately 32 ATP per glucose molecule. In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic respiration occurs, yielding only 2 ATP through fermentation processes.

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What is Cellular Respiration?

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and other organic molecules
into energy (ATP). It involves a series of biochemical reactions that break down glucose in the
presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or without oxygen (anaerobic respiration).

General Equation for Cellular Respiration

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP (energy)\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\
text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP (energy)}

This reaction can be broken into three major stages:

1. Glycolysis
2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation

Stage 1: Glycolysis

 Location: Cytoplasm of the cell.


 Purpose: Splits one glucose molecule (6 carbons) into two pyruvate molecules (3
carbons each).
 Process:
1. Energy Investment Phase:
 2 ATP molecules are consumed to phosphorylate glucose and form
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
 This step traps glucose in the cell and destabilizes it for cleavage.
2. Cleavage Phase:
 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into two 3-carbon molecules:
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(DHAP).
 DHAP is quickly converted into another G3P, so there are 2 G3P
molecules.
3. Energy Payoff Phase:
 Each G3P is oxidized to 3-phosphoglycerate, producing 2 ATP (substrate-
level phosphorylation) and reducing 1 NAD⁺ to NADH.
 Final product: 2 pyruvate molecules.
 Net Products:

o 2 ATP (4 produced - 2 consumed).


o 2 NADH.
o 2 Pyruvate molecules.
Stage 2: Pyruvate Oxidation

 Location: Mitochondrial matrix (in eukaryotic cells).


 Purpose: Converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA for entry into the citric acid cycle.
 Process:
o Pyruvate (3C) is decarboxylated to form a 2-carbon acetyl group.
o Acetyl group is attached to coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl-CoA.
o 1 NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH.
o 1 CO₂ is released per pyruvate.
 Net Products (per pyruvate):
o 1 NADH.
o 1 CO₂.
o 1 Acetyl-CoA.

Stage 3: Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

 Location: Mitochondrial matrix.


 Purpose: Completes the oxidation of glucose by breaking down acetyl-CoA into CO₂,
generating high-energy molecules (NADH, FADH₂).
 Process:
1. Acetyl-CoA (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C).
2. Citrate undergoes a series of reactions:
 Isomerized to isocitrate.
 Oxidative decarboxylation produces 1 CO₂ and 1 NADH, forming α-
ketoglutarate (5C).
 Another decarboxylation produces 1 CO₂ and 1 NADH, forming succinyl-
CoA (4C).
3. Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, producing 1 ATP (or GTP) via substrate-
level phosphorylation.
4. Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, reducing 1 FAD to FADH₂.
5. Fumarate is converted to malate, which is then oxidized to regenerate
oxaloacetate, reducing 1 NAD⁺ to NADH.
 Net Products (per acetyl-CoA):

o 3 NADH.
o 1 FADH₂.
o 1 ATP (or GTP).
o 2 CO₂.

Note: Since 2 acetyl-CoA molecules are produced per glucose, the cycle runs twice per glucose.
Stage 4: Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation

 Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane.


 Purpose: Generate ATP by using the energy from NADH and FADH₂ to create a proton
gradient across the membrane.
 Process:
1. Electron Transport:
 NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to the ETC at Complex I and
Complex II, respectively.
 Electrons are passed through a series of protein complexes (I to IV),
releasing energy to pump protons (H⁺) from the matrix into the
intermembrane space.
 O₂ serves as the final electron acceptor, forming water (H₂O) at Complex
IV.
2. Proton Gradient:
 Proton pumping creates a high H⁺ concentration (low pH) in the
intermembrane space compared to the matrix.
3. ATP Synthesis:
 Protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase (chemiosmosis),
which uses this energy to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.
 Net Products:

o Each NADH produces ~2.5 ATP.


o Each FADH₂ produces ~1.5 ATP.
o Total ATP yield from ETC: ~28 ATP (depends on the efficiency of the system).

Overall ATP Yield from Cellular Respiration

Stage ATP Produced


Glycolysis 2 ATP
Citric Acid Cycle 2 ATP
ETC/Oxidative Phos. ~28 ATP
Total ~32 ATP (per glucose)

Anaerobic Respiration

 Definition: Respiration in the absence of oxygen.


 Pathways:
o Lactic Acid Fermentation: Pyruvate is reduced to lactate (e.g., in muscle cells).
o Alcoholic Fermentation: Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO₂ (e.g., in
yeast).
 Energy Yield: Only 2 ATP per glucose (from glycolysis).
Key Concepts

 Cellular respiration is highly efficient due to the coupling of exergonic and endergonic
reactions.
 ATP is the cell’s primary energy currency, powering cellular processes like muscle
contraction, active transport, and biosynthesis.
 The process is tightly regulated by feedback mechanisms (e.g., ATP inhibits glycolysis
enzymes like phosphofructokinase).

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