Microcomputer

Organization
Irfan Rasool
Microcomputer Organization
A Microprocessor combined with memory and
input/output devices forms a microcomputer.

Therefore, the basic components of a

microcomputer are:

1) CPU

2) Program memory

3) Data memory

4) Output ports

5) Input ports

6) Clock generator.

Basic Components of Microcomputer

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Components of the CPU:
○ ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
○ Register Unit
○ Control Unit
1. ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
○ Performs arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction
○ Performs logical operations: AND, OR, XOR, rotate, compare
○ Data storage options: Registers, memory, output devices
2. Register Unit
Temporary data storage during execution Accumulator is directly connected to ALU
Types of Registers:
○ Accumulator (A): This is the most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory. It is indifferent numbers in
different microprocessors.
○ Memory Address Registers (MAR): It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory.
○ Memory Data Registers (MDR): It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed location.
○ General Purpose Registers:used to store temporary data during any ongoing operation. Its content can be accessed by assembly
programming. In 8085 (B, C, D, E, H, L)
○ Program Counter (PC), Stack Pointer (SP), Index Register, Instruction Register,
○ User-accessible and processor-only registers
3. Control Unit
○ Provides timing and control signals
○ Manages data flow between CPU and peripherals
○ Clock signal role in determining microprocessor speed
Basic CPU Functions
1. It fetches an instructions word stored in memory.
2. It decodes the instruction to determine what the instruction is telling it to do.
3. It executes the instruction. Executing the instruction may include same of the following major
tasks:
a. Transfer of data from one register to another register in the CPU itself.
b. Transfer of data between a CPU register & specified memory location or input/output
device.
c. Performing arithmetic and logical operations on data from a specific memory location or a
designated CPU register.
d. Directing the CPU to change the sequence of fetching instructions, if processing the data
created a specific condition.
e. Performing housekeeping function within the CPU itself in order to establish desired
condition at certain registers.
4. It looks for control signal such as interrupts and provides appropriate responses.
5. It provides status, control, and timing signals that the memory and input/output section can use.
Memory in Microcomputers
Understanding memory types, organization, and related components essential for microcomputer
operations.
Types of Memory
● Read-Only Memory (ROM)
○ Definition: Non-volatile memory; retains content even when powered off.
○ Usage: Stores instructions and data that do not change, e.g., monitor programs in
microcomputers.
○ Examples: ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
● Read-Write Memory (RWM)
○ Definition: Volatile memory; does not retain content when powered off.
○ Usage: Stores user programs and temporary data that may change during program execution.
○ Example: RAM (Random Access Memory).
Memory Operations
● Memory Read Operation:
○ The content of an addressed location is retrieved without destruction.
● Memory Write Operation:
○ The original content of an addressed location is overwritten with new data.
Memory Organization
● ROM and RWM are organized into words, each with a unique address.
● Access memory using the memory address and retrieve the data using content retrieval techniques.
● Memory Access Time:
● Time taken to access memory impacts computer speed.
● Typical access time ranges from nanoseconds to microseconds.
Program Memory
● Function: Stores the sequence of instructions to be executed by the CPU.
● Execution: On power-up or reset, the processor starts executing instructions from a predefined
location.
● Non-volatile Memory: Programs stored here do not change, e.g., ROM in trainer kits.
Data Memory
● Role: Temporary storage for data manipulated during program execution.
● Intermediate Storage: Used for storing intermediate results, input data, and output results.
● Types:
● Internal Registers: Small memory available within the microprocessor.
● External Data Memory: Required for larger storage needs.
Paging in Memory
● Subdividing memory into pages for efficient access.
● A page may contain between 256 to 4K words.

Advantages of Paging:

● Enables quick access to multiple locations on the same page.

● Simplifies memory addressing by using page numbers and line numbers.
Input/Output Ports And Clock Generator
Role of I/O Ports:

● Connect the microcomputer to the external environment.

● Input Ports:
○ Allow data entry from external sources (e.g., keyboards, switches).
● Output Ports:
○ Send processed data to output devices (e.g., LEDs, printers).
● Peripherals:
○ Devices like A/D and D/A converters facilitate communication with physical quantities (e.g., temperature,
speed).
Clock Signal Generation
Ensures systematic execution of instructions.

Types of Clock Generators:

● Some microprocessors (e.g., 8085A) have internal clock generators.

● Others (e.g., 8086) require external clock generators.
How the microprocessor is connected
to other components
 Bussed Architecture
One possibility is that all the memory
chips and ports are connected
separately to CPU
Problems with Direct Connections:
● Complexity: Direct connections
require numerous address, data,
and control lines.
● Limited Expandability: Once a
CPU is fabricated with
connections for a certain number
of devices, adding more becomes
difficult or impossible.
● Increased Size: A larger number
of lines increases the physical
size of the CPU and the
complexity of the system design.

Separate Connection of Memory and I/O Devices with CPU

Bussed Architecture
A bus is a set of parallel lines that transmit data, addresses, or control signals between components.

● Data Bus: Transfers actual data.

● Address Bus: Specifies the location of the data or instruction.
● Control Bus: Sends control signals like read/write instructions.

Advantages of Bus Architecture:

● Simplified Design: Reduces the number of connections between the CPU and other devices.
● Expandability: Easy to add new devices to the system without altering the CPU design.
● Shared Resources: Devices can share the same lines for data transfer, making the system more efficient.

Data Bus Shared by ‘N’ Devices

Example of Shared Data Bus
In a shared bus system, multiple devices (memory, I/O) share the same data bus.

● Data Transfer Conditions:

○ The device sending data (e.g., device ‘1’) must know when the receiving device (e.g., device ‘2’) is ready to
accept the data. Signaling between devices is essential for this synchronization.
○ Only the sending device should output data on the bus during transmission to avoid conflicts.
○ Only the intended receiving device should accept the data from the bus.
● Bus Contention (multiple devices trying to use the bus at the same time) is avoided using techniques
like bus arbitration.
The Microcomputer Bus
● Address Bus:
○ Carries the address of memory locations or I/O devices.
○ Unidirectional, from CPU to devices.
○ In the 8085A processor, it is a 16-bit bus (A0-A15), allowing up to 65,536 addressable memory locations or I/O
ports.
○ The address bus carries the address for:
■ Memory locations: Where the data or instructions are stored.
■ I/O devices: Peripheral devices like keyboards or displays.
○ The address placed on the bus is decoded by logic circuits (decoders) in the system, which determines the
exact memory location or I/O port involved in the data transfer.
Bus Types in Microcomputers
● Data Bus:
○ Transmits data between the CPU and memory or I/O devices.
○ Bidirectional (data can flow both ways).
○ The 8085A processor uses an 8-bit data bus, allowing data transfer of 8 bits (1 byte) at a time.
○ In some microprocessors (like the 8085A), the data bus is multiplexed with the lower bits of the address bus
(AD7-AD0), which means that the same lines are used for both address and data but at different times.
○ This reduces the number of pins required on the processor chip.
Bus Types in Microcomputers
Control Bus:

● Sends control signals such as read/write operations, indicating whether the processor is sending or
receiving data.
● Control Bus carries signals that manage and coordinate the actions of the CPU and other
components.
● Examples of control signals:
○ RD̅ (Read): The processor is reading data from memory or an I/O device.
○ WR̅ (Write): The processor is writing data to memory or an I/O device.
○ IO/M̅: Differentiates between memory and I/O operations.
● Bidirectional Control Bus: Some control signals are sent by the processor, while others are received
by it.
○ For example, the CPU sends a read signal to a memory device, and the memory responds by putting data on
the data bus.
● Some control lines are bidirectional, others are unidirectional based on their specific function.
Bussed Architecture of Microprocessor
END