Introduction to Microprocessor Architecture

 Definition of Architecture: Describes the design and operational structure of

a computer system, focusing on data organization, instruction set architecture,
memory, input/output systems, and the control unit.
 Buses: Explains the role of address, data, and control buses in transferring data
and managing memory. The width of these buses determines memory capacity
and data transfer rates.

8086 and 8088 Overview

 8086 Microprocessor: A 16-bit processor with a 20-bit address bus capable of

addressing 1 MB of memory. It introduced a 16-bit ALU, internal registers,
and instructions.
 8088 Microprocessor: Similar to the 8086 but with an 8-bit data bus, making
it compatible with older systems. Used in the IBM PC/XT.

Internal Architecture

 Bus Interface Unit (BIU): Manages data and address buses, instruction
queue, and segment registers (CS, DS, SS, ES).
 Execution Unit (EU): Executes instructions, contains general-purpose
registers (AX, BX, CX, DX), special-purpose registers, the ALU, and control
logic.

Memory Segmentation

 Organizes memory into segments (code, data, stack, extra) to enhance

modularity, memory management, and program flexibility.
 Benefits: Clear data/code separation, easier memory allocation, and increased
efficiency.

Data Types

 Supports bytes (8-bit), words (16-bit), double words (32-bit), and strings
(sequences of bytes).

Flags Register

 Tracks processor state and arithmetic/logical operation outcomes through flags

like Zero Flag (ZF), Carry Flag (CF), Sign Flag (SF), Overflow Flag (OF), etc.

The Stack

 A LIFO structure used for function calls, local variable storage, and temporary
data. Managed by the Stack Segment (SS) and Stack Pointer (SP).

Operating Modes
  Real Mode: Used by 8086/8088; allows access to the first 1 MB of memory
and handles one task at a time.
 Protected Mode: Available in advanced microprocessors for multitasking and
enhanced memory management.

Comparison: 8086 vs. 8088

 The 8088 features a narrower (8-bit) data bus compared to the 8086's 16-bit
data bus, reducing cost but affecting performance.

Multiple Choice Questions

(Choose the correct answer from the options provided.)

1)What is the maximum memory that can be addressed by the 8086 microprocessor?
a. 64 KB
b. 1 MB
c. 2 MB
d. 128 KB

Answer: b

2)Which unit in the 8086 microprocessor is responsible for fetching instructions and
managing memory addresses?
a. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
b. Execution Unit (EU)
c. Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
d. Control Unit

Answer: c

3)The width of the address bus in the 8088 microprocessor is:

a. 8 bits
b. 16 bits
c. 20 bits
d. 32 bits

Answer: c

4)What is the main difference between the 8086 and 8088 microprocessors?
a. Clock speed
b. Data bus width
c. Address bus width
d. Instruction set

Answer: b

5)What is the function of the Instruction Pointer (IP) in the 8086 microprocessor?
a. Holds data for arithmetic operations
b. Indicates the top of the stack
c. Points to the next instruction to execute
d. Manages data flow between devices

Answer: c

6)In the 8086 architecture, the code segment (CS) is primarily used for:
a. Temporary data storage
b. Storing variables
c. Holding executable instructions
d. Managing stack operations

Answer: c

7)The data bus in the 8086 microprocessor is:

a. 8-bit
b. 16-bit
c. 20-bit
d. 32-bit

Answer: b

8)Memory segmentation in the 8086/8088 microprocessor helps in:

a. Reducing the clock speed
b. Organizing memory for better modularity
c. Increasing data bus width
d. Executing multiple tasks simultaneously

Answer: b

9)Which register in the 8086 microprocessor is used as the base pointer for stack
operations?
a. SP
b. BP
c. DI
d. SI

Answer: b

10)The Flags Register is used to:

a. Store program instructions
b. Indicate processor state and operation outcomes
c. Manage memory access
d. Define segment boundaries

Answer: b

11)Which of the following is a 16-bit general-purpose register in the 8086?

a. AX
b. CS
c. IP
d. OF

Answer: a

12)The carry flag (CF) in the Flags Register is set when:

a. The result of an operation is zero
b. The result of an operation exceeds the register size
c. An overflow occurs in signed arithmetic
d. Parity is even

Answer: b

13)Which stack operation decreases the Stack Pointer (SP)?

a. Push
b. Pop
c. Add
d. Subtract

Answer: a

14)What operating mode is exclusively used by the 8086 and 8088 microprocessors?
a. Real mode
b. Protected mode
c. Enhanced mode
d. Multitasking mode

Answer: a

15)What is the primary purpose of segment registers in the 8086 microprocessor?

a. Control arithmetic operations
b. Organize and manage memory
c. Increase instruction execution speed
d. Improve flag manipulation

Answer: b

Short Answer Answers

Define architecture in the context of computer systems.

Architecture refers to the conceptual design and operational structure of a computer
system, including its data organization, instruction set, memory structure, input/output
systems, and control unit.

Explain the primary difference between the 8086 and 8088 microprocessors.
The 8086 has a 16-bit data bus, allowing it to transfer 2 bytes of data at a time, while
the 8088 has an 8-bit data bus, transferring 1 byte at a time.
What is the role of the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) in the 8086 microprocessor?
The BIU manages communication with memory and I/O devices, handles the address
and data buses, and prefetches instructions to improve execution speed.

Describe memory segmentation and its benefits in the 8086/8088 microprocessor.

Memory segmentation divides memory into segments (code, data, stack, extra),
enhancing modularity, simplifying memory management, and preventing data
conflicts.

What is the function of the Flags Register, and name two key flags it contains.
The Flags Register indicates the state of the processor and results of operations. Key
flags include the Zero Flag (ZF) and Carry Flag (CF).

Explain the importance of the stack in the 8086/8088 microprocessor and how it
operates.
The stack is used for managing function calls, local variables, and temporary data. It
operates on a LIFO principle, where the Stack Pointer (SP) tracks the top of the stack.

List and describe the function of any two general-purpose registers in the 8086
microprocessor.

AX (Accumulator Register): Used for arithmetic and data transfer

operations.

BX (Base Register): Used for addressing and storing base addresses of

data.

What is the significance of the width of the data bus in a microprocessor?

The width determines how much data can be transferred at once. A wider data bus
increases data transfer rates and improves overall performance.

How does the Instruction Pointer (IP) contribute to the execution of instructions
in the 8086/8088?
The IP holds the address of the next instruction to execute, enabling the processor to
fetch and execute instructions sequentially.

Compare the real mode operation of the 8086 with the protected mode available
in later microprocessors.

1. Real mode: Only addresses the first 1 MB of memory and supports

single-tasking.
2. Protected mode: Allows multitasking, improved memory
management, and addressing beyond 1 MB.
Summary of Chapter 3: Addressing Modes
Key Concepts

Addressing Modes Overview:

1. Addressing modes define how operands (data or instructions) are

located and accessed in memory or registers.
2. Each instruction consists of an operation (e.g., ADD, MOV) and
operands (data on which the operation is performed).

Data Addressing Modes:

1. Register Addressing: Transfers data between registers. For example,

MOV CX, DX.
2. Immediate Addressing: Loads immediate data directly into a register
or memory. For example, MOV AL, 22H.
3. Direct Addressing: The memory address of the operand is explicitly
stated. For example, MOV AX, [1234H].
4. Register Indirect Addressing: The memory address is specified by a
register. For example, MOV AX, [BX].
5. Base-Plus-Index Addressing: Combines a base register and an index
register to calculate the effective address. For example, MOV AX, [BX
+ SI].
6. Register Relative Addressing: Adds a displacement to a base register
to calculate the effective address. For example, MOV AX, [BX + 4].
7. Base Relative-Plus-Index Addressing: Combines a base register,
index register, and offset for complex data structures. For example,
MOV AL, [BX + SI + 1].
8. Scaled-Index Addressing: Multiplies an index register by a scale
factor (1x, 2x, 4x, 8x) for advanced memory access. For example,
MOV EDX, [EAX + 4 * EBX].

Program Memory Addressing Modes:

1. Direct Program Memory Addressing: The exact address of the

instruction is specified. For example, JMP 10000H.
2. Relative Program Memory Addressing: Uses an offset relative to the
current instruction pointer. Useful for loops and conditional jumps.
3. Indirect Program Memory Addressing: The target address is stored
in a register or memory location. For example, JMP EAX.

Stack Memory Addressing Modes:

1. The stack operates in a last-in, first-out (LIFO) manner and is used for
function calls, local variables, and temporary storage.
2. Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack and updates
automatically during PUSH and POP operations.
3. Implicit Addressing: Operates directly on the stack pointer without
specifying operands. For example, POP AX.
 4. Explicit Addressing: Allows access to data relative to the stack
pointer or base pointer. For example, MOV AX, [BP - 4].

Highlights of Instructions

 Data Movement Instructions: MOV, PUSH, POP, XCHG, etc.

 Program Flow Instructions: CALL, JUMP, RET for modifying the
execution flow.

Importance of Addressing Modes

 Addressing modes enable efficient memory access, modular programming,

and flexible handling of data structures, arrays, and stack-based operations.
They are essential for implementing complex programs and optimizing
performance.

Multiple Choice Questions

(Choose the correct answer from the options provided.)

1) What is an addressing mode in microprocessor architecture?

a. A way of specifying operands in instructions
b. A method to increase clock speed
c. A feature for multitasking
d. A debugging tool

Answer: a

2)In the instruction MOV AX, [1234H], the addressing mode used is:
a. Register addressing
b. Immediate addressing
c. Direct addressing
d. Register indirect addressing

Answer: c

3)Which of the following instructions uses register addressing?

a. MOV BX, 1234H
b. MOV CX, DX
c. MOV AX, [BX]
d. MOV AL, 22H

Answer: b

4)In immediate addressing, the operand is:

a. Stored in memory
b. Specified as part of the instruction
c. Found using a register
d. Accessed indirectly
 Answer: b

5)What is the effective address in register indirect addressing?

a. A constant value in the instruction
b. Calculated using the program counter
c. Stored in a register like BX, SI, or DI
d. The sum of two registers

Answer: c

6)In base-plus-index addressing, the effective address is calculated as:

a. Base register + Index register
b. Base register - Offset
c. Index register × Scale factor
d. Displacement + Instruction pointer

Answer: a

7)Which addressing mode combines a register with a displacement value?

a. Scaled-index addressing
b. Register relative addressing
c. Base-plus-index addressing
d. Immediate addressing

Answer: b

8)The scaled-index addressing mode is only available on:

a. 8086 microprocessors
b. 80386 and later processors
c. 8088 processors
d. Pentium 4 and earlier processors

Answer: b

9)What is the role of the stack pointer (SP) in stack memory addressing?
a. Holds the address of the top of the stack
b. Manages function calls
c. Stores operands temporarily
d. Points to the base of the stack

Answer: a

10)Which operation adds data to the top of the stack?

a. POP
b. PUSH
c. MOV
d. CALL

Answer: b
11)In program memory addressing, a CALL instruction is used for:
a. Looping
b. Conditional branching
c. Subroutine invocation
d. Data transfer

Answer: c

12)Which addressing mode specifies the exact address of the next instruction?
a. Relative program memory addressing
b. Indirect program memory addressing
c. Direct program memory addressing
d. Scaled-index addressing

Answer: c

13)What does relative program memory addressing use to determine the next
instruction?
a. Register contents
b. Instruction pointer + offset
c. A hardcoded memory address
d. Displacement + base register

Answer: b

14)Which instruction retrieves the address from a register to jump in program

memory?
a. JMP AX
b. JMP [BX]
c. JMP EAX
d. CALL AX

Answer: c

15)In stack memory addressing, the PUSH operation:

a. Adds data to a higher memory address
b. Removes data from the stack
c. Adds data to a lower memory address
d. Transfers data between registers

Answer: c

Short Answer Answers

1)Define addressing mode and explain its purpose in microprocessors.

Addressing mode refers to the technique used to locate and access data or operands in
memory or registers during program execution. It specifies how the processor
identifies the location of data it needs to process, allowing efficient program
execution.
2)What is the difference between register addressing and immediate addressing?

1. Register addressing: Operands are stored in registers, and data is

directly transferred between registers.
2. Immediate addressing: The operand is directly provided as part of the
instruction (e.g., a constant value).

3)Describe how direct addressing mode works with an example.

In direct addressing, the instruction specifies the exact memory address of the
operand.
Example: MOV AX, [1234H] moves the contents of memory location 1234H into
register AX.

4)Explain the significance of base-plus-index addressing mode in accessing

arrays.
Base-plus-index addressing allows accessing array elements by combining a base
register (pointing to the array start) with an index register (offset for the desired
element). It is efficient for iterating over arrays.

5)What is the advantage of using scaled-index addressing in modern processors?

Scaled-index addressing allows multiplying an index register by a scale factor (e.g.,
2x, 4x, 8x), making it ideal for accessing elements of data structures like arrays with
variable sizes.

6)How does relative program memory addressing save memory?

By specifying an offset relative to the instruction pointer (IP) rather than a full
memory address, relative program memory addressing uses fewer bits and saves
memory.

7)Why is the stack pointer (SP) essential for stack memory addressing?
The stack pointer (SP) holds the address of the top of the stack and automatically
updates during PUSH and POP operations, ensuring proper stack operation.

8)Provide an example of indirect program memory addressing and explain its

operation.
Example: JMP EAX
The processor retrieves the address stored in the EAX register and jumps to that
location. This allows dynamic program flow.

9)Describe the difference between the PUSH and POP operations in stack
memory.

1. PUSH: Adds data to the stack by decrementing the stack pointer and
storing the value at the new address.
2. POP: Removes data from the stack by retrieving the value at the
current stack pointer and incrementing it.

10)How does register relative addressing differ from direct addressing?

 1. Register relative addressing: Combines a base register with a
displacement value to calculate the effective address.
2. Direct addressing: Specifies the exact memory address of the operand
in the instruction.

Summary of Chapter 4: Instructions

Key Topics and Instructions

Data Movement Instructions:

1. MOV: Transfers data between registers, memory, or immediate values.

2. PUSH/POP: Used for stack memory management; PUSH stores data
on the stack, and POP retrieves it.

Arithmetic Instructions:

Addition (ADD): Adds data between registers, memory, or immediate

values. Variants include:

1. Register Addition: Adds values stored in registers (e.g., ADD

AX, BX).
2. Immediate Addition: Adds a constant value to a register (e.g.,
ADD DL, 33H).
3. Memory-to-Register Addition: Adds memory contents to a
register.
4. Increment (INC): Adds 1 to a register or memory location.
5. Add with Carry (ADC): Adds two values along with the carry
flag.

Subtraction (SUB):

1. Variants include register, immediate, and memory-to-register

subtraction.
2. Decrement (DEC): Subtracts 1 from a register or memory
location.
3. Comparison (CMP): Performs subtraction without modifying
the operands and updates flags.

Multiplication (MUL):

1. Unsigned multiplication of bytes, words, or doublewords.

2. Results are stored in registers like AX, DX–AX, or EDX–EAX.
3. Signed multiplication uses IMUL.

Division (DIV):

1. Divides a double-width dividend by a divisor.

 2. Results include a quotient (stored in AX or EAX) and a
remainder (stored in AH or EDX).

Logic Instructions:

3. AND: Performs bitwise logical AND between operands.

4. OR: Performs bitwise logical OR.
5. XOR: Performs bitwise logical Exclusive-OR.
6. NOT: Performs bitwise complement (1’s complement).
7. NEG: Produces the 2’s complement of an operand (negates its value).

Special Instructions:

8. Exchange and Add (XADD): Adds source to destination and stores

the result in the destination while copying the original destination to
the source.
9. Compare and Exchange (CMPXCHG): Compares the destination
with the accumulator; if equal, replaces the accumulator with the
source; otherwise, copies the destination to the accumulator.

Flags and Carry:

1. Arithmetic and logical operations modify flags like Zero Flag (ZF),
Carry Flag (CF), Sign Flag (SF), Overflow Flag (OF), and Parity Flag
(PF).

Key Takeaways:

 Arithmetic and logical instructions provide flexibility in handling a variety of

data operations, including signed and unsigned numbers.
 Data movement instructions ensure efficient memory access and stack
management.
 The use of flags facilitates decision-making and program control through
conditional jumps and loops.
 Modern processors (e.g., Pentium 4 and Core2) support advanced instructions
for 32-bit and 64-bit data handling.

Multiple Choice Questions

(Choose the correct answer from the options provided.)

1)What does the MOV instruction do?

a. Adds two registers
b. Transfers data between registers, memory, or immediate values
c. Compares two values
d. Performs a logical AND operation

Answer: b
2)Which instruction adds the carry flag (CF) to the result of an addition?
a. ADD
b. ADC
c. INC
d. XADD

3)In the instruction PUSH BX, the value of BX is:

a. Removed from the stack
b. Added to another register
c. Stored on the stack
d. Exchanged with another value

Answer: c

4)Which flag is affected when a subtraction results in a zero?

a. Carry Flag (CF)
b. Zero Flag (ZF)
c. Overflow Flag (OF)
d. Sign Flag (SF)

Answer: b

5)What is the result of the instruction NEG AX when AX = 1234H?

a. 0000H
b. FFFFH
c. EDCCH
d. FFFCH

Answer: c

6)In the instruction MUL BL, what does the AL register hold after execution?
a. The product of the multiplication
b. The divisor
c. The remainder
d. The quotient

Answer: a

7)What does the CMP instruction do?

a. Adds two operands
b. Compares two operands and updates the flags
c. Exchanges the values of two registers
d. Subtracts and stores the result

Answer: b

8)The instruction XCHG AX, BX will:

a. Add the values of AX and BX
b. Exchange the values of AX and BX
c. Compare AX and BX
d. Perform a logical AND operation

Answer: b

9)What is the purpose of the INC instruction?

a. Subtracts 1 from a value
b. Adds 1 to a value
c. Multiplies two values
d. Compares two values

Answer: b

10)The DIV instruction is used for:

a. Adding signed numbers
b. Multiplying unsigned numbers
c. Dividing signed or unsigned numbers
d. Comparing numbers

Answer: c

11)Which instruction performs a logical Exclusive-OR operation?

a. XOR
b. OR
c. AND
d. NOT

Answer: a

12)The NOT instruction performs:

a. 2’s complement of the operand
b. 1’s complement of the operand
c. Logical AND operation
d. Logical OR operation

Answer: b

13)In the instruction CMP AL, 10H; JAE NEXT, the jump occurs if:
a. AL is less than 10H
b. AL is greater than or equal to 10H
c. AL is exactly 10H
d. AL is not equal to 10H

Answer: b

14)What is the result of the instruction AND AX, BX if AX = 32H and BX = 11H?
a. 33H
b. 10H
c. 11H
d. 32H
 Answer: b

15)Which instruction both adds two operands and stores the original destination value
in the source?
a. ADD
b. XADD
c. ADC
d. INC

Answer: b

Short Answer Answers

1)Explain the purpose of the MOV instruction with an example.

The MOV instruction transfers data from a source operand to a destination operand.
Example: MOV AX, BX transfers the value in the BX register to the AX register
without modifying BX.

2)What is the difference between ADD and ADC instructions?

1. ADD: Adds two operands without considering the carry flag.

2. ADC: Adds two operands and includes the carry flag (CF) in the
operation.

3)Describe the role of the stack pointer (SP) during the execution of PUSH and
POP instructions.

1. PUSH: Decrements the SP and stores the data at the new stack
location.
2. POP: Retrieves data from the stack location pointed to by SP and
increments the SP.

4)Provide an example of the CMP instruction and explain how it affects flags.
Example: CMP AX, BX compares AX and BX by subtracting BX from AX without
storing the result.

1. Flags affected: Zero Flag (ZF), Carry Flag (CF), Sign Flag (SF), and
Overflow Flag (OF).

5)How does the MUL instruction work with an 8-bit multiplier?

For 8-bit multiplication, the operand is multiplied with the value in the AL register.
The result (a 16-bit product) is stored in the AX register.

6)Compare the XCHG and XADD instructions.

1. XCHG: Exchanges the values of two operands.

2. XADD: Adds the source to the destination, stores the sum in the
destination, and moves the original destination value to the source.
7)What is the significance of the Overflow Flag (OF) in arithmetic operations?
The Overflow Flag (OF) indicates whether an arithmetic operation has resulted in a
value that exceeds the range of the signed data type.

8)How does the NEG instruction calculate the 2’s complement of a value?

1. NEG computes the 2’s complement by first inverting the bits (1’s
complement) and then adding 1 to the result.

9)Explain the difference between NOT and NEG instructions with examples.

1. NOT: Computes the 1’s complement (inverts the bits).

Example: NOT AX inverts all bits of AX.
2. NEG: Computes the 2’s complement (inverts the bits and adds 1).
Example: NEG AX negates the value in AX.

10)Describe how the DIV instruction handles division and stores the quotient
and remainder.

1. DIV divides a double-width dividend by a divisor.

2. Quotient: Stored in AL (8-bit), AX (16-bit), or EAX (32-bit).
3. Remainder: Stored in AH (8-bit), DX (16-bit), or EDX (32-bit).

Workout Questions

Addition with Flags

Let AX = 1234H, BX = 5678H, and the Carry Flag (CF) = 1. Perform the
following instructions and determine the result in AX and the state of the Zero
Flag (ZF), Sign Flag (SF), and Carry Flag (CF):

ADD AX, BX

ADC AX, BX

Addition with Flags

You have the initial values:

 AX = 1234H,
 BX = 5678H,
 Carry Flag (CF) = 1.

You perform the following instructions:

ADD AX, BX
  AX = 1234H + 5678H = 68ACh
 Since there’s no overflow beyond 16-bit limits, the Carry Flag (CF) will be 0.
 Zero Flag (ZF) = 0 (since result is not 0).
 Sign Flag (SF) = 1 (because the most significant bit of 68AC is 1, indicating a
negative number in two's complement).

ADC AX, BX

 AX = 68ACh + 5678H + 1 (Carry) = C0ACh

 The Carry Flag (CF) will be 1 since the result exceeds the 16-bit value limit
(overflow).
 Zero Flag (ZF) = 0 (since result is not 0).
 Sign Flag (SF) = 1 (since the most significant bit of C0AC is 1).

2) Stack Operations
Given the initial stack contents:

Address Data

1004H 12H

1002H 34H

1000H 56H

The Stack Pointer (SP) points to 1000H.

 Perform PUSH AX (AX = 78H) and POP BX.

 What are the final contents of the stack and the values of SP, AX, and BX?

2. Stack Operations

Given the initial stack contents:

Addre Dat
ss a
1004H 12H
1002H 34H
1000H 56H

The Stack Pointer (SP) points to 1000H.

Perform PUSH AX (AX = 78H)

 The value 78H is pushed onto the stack.

 The Stack Pointer (SP) is decremented by 2 (stack grows downwards).
 New stack layout:
Addre Dat
ss a
1004H 12H
1002H 34H
1000H 56H
0FFEH 78H

 SP = 0FFEH.

Perform POP BX

 The value at the top of the stack (78H) is popped into BX.
 The Stack Pointer (SP) is incremented by 2.
 Final stack:

Addre Dat
ss a
1004H 12H
1002H 34H
1000H 56H

 SP = 1000H
 BX = 78H.

3) Logical Operations
Let AX = 3F4CH and BX = 12A3H. Perform the following instructions and
determine the final value in AX:

AND AX, BX

OR AX, BX

XOR AX, BX

NOT AX

Given:

 AX = 3F4CH
 BX = 12A3H

Instruction 1: AND AX, BX

 AX = 3F4C AND 12A3 = 0000H

Instruction 2: OR AX, BX

 AX = 0000H OR 12A3H = 12A3H

Instruction 3: XOR AX, BX

  AX = 12A3H XOR 12A3H = 0000H

Instruction 4: NOT AX

 AX = NOT 0000H = FFFFH (since we are dealing with 16-bit values)

Final Value in AX:

 AX = FFFFH

4)Multiplication
Perform an 8-bit multiplication operation where AL = 5H and BL = 6H.

 Write the assembly code.

 Determine the contents of the AX register after the operation.

MOV AL, 5H ; Load 5H into AL

MOV BL, 6H ; Load 6H into BL

MUL BL ; AL * BL -> AX

After the operation:

 AX = 5H * 6H = 30H.

5)Division with Remainder

Given AX = 005AH and BL = 0AH, perform the division DIV BL.

 Write the assembly code.

 What are the values of AL (quotient) and AH (remainder) after the operation?