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The document discusses quantifiers and propositional logic, explaining how variable statements can have truth values based on substitutions or quantification. It provides examples of propositional functions using the Universe of Discourse, particularly focusing on integers and relationships among them. Additionally, it covers the negation of propositional functions and how to interpret statements before and after negation.

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Werner Heisenberg
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2 views

logic3

The document discusses quantifiers and propositional logic, explaining how variable statements can have truth values based on substitutions or quantification. It provides examples of propositional functions using the Universe of Discourse, particularly focusing on integers and relationships among them. Additionally, it covers the negation of propositional functions and how to interpret statements before and after negation.

Uploaded by

Werner Heisenberg
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MATH–131

Logic January 24, 2021


Part 3
http://people.rit.edu/jdd5747 Discrete Mathematics

Quantifiers & Propositional Logic: Variable statements such as “x+3 = 7” or “x2 +y 2 ≤ 1”,
while declarative, do not have a single, well-defined truth value. A truth value may be assigned by
either subbing in values for all of the variables or quantifying when we expect the statement to be
true (such as for all values of the variable or at least one value).

Thus far, we have only studied propositions which were very concrete. For example: 3 < 5,
today is Friday, 24 is a prime number, 3 is an odd number, 2 · 3 + 1 = 7 are all examples of valid
propositions. Recall that a proposition is a declarative sentence that has exactly one, well-defined
truth value (true or false). Suppose we use variables in our propositions, such as x < 0. Clearly,
for any particular value for x, the proposition will either be true or false. As with sets, where we
always worked in a Universal Set, we must also work in the Universe of Discourse. Basically, the
Universe of Discourse is where we can find particular values for x (aka the domain of x). Suppose
we let L(x) represent “x < 0” and we let our Universe of Discourse be all real numbers. Then valid
substitutions for x might be 3, 2.15, 3.14159, etc. If the Universe of Discourse is the integers, then
we could substitute 1, −3, or 17 for x but not 2.4 (2.4 is not an integer).

Let the Universe of Discourse be the integers. Then, the following are examples of propositional
functions:

1. ∀x L(x) which is interpreted as “for all x, x < 0.” This proposition is true if ALL possible
substitutions for x make L(x) true. Clearly this is false as 1 is an integer and 1 > 0.

2. ∃x L(x) which is interpreted as “there exists an x such that x < 0.” This is true as long as
there is AT LEAST ONE value for x that makes L(x) true. Notice that x = −1 will suffice
to prove this proposition true.

Moreover, we can use the quantifiers ∀ and ∃ iteratively. Let the Universe of Discourse be the
set of all people. Define K(x, y) as “x knows y.”

(a) ∀x∀y K(x, y) everybody knows everybody (False)

(b) ∀x∃y K(x, y) everybody knows somebody (True)

(c) ∃x∀y K(x, y) somebody knows everybody (False)

(d) ∃x∃y K(x, y) somebody knows somebody (True)

1
MATH–131
Logic January 24, 2021
Part 3
http://people.rit.edu/jdd5747 Discrete Mathematics

Let’s look at some more examples. Here, the Universe of Discourse will be the integers.
Define: Prime(x) as “x is prime” Even(x) as “x is even” Positive(x) as “x > 0”

(i) ∀x∃y [Prime(x) ∧ Even(y)] → [x < y]


This is true since for every prime number x, there exists an even number y so that x < y.
If x = 2 then y can be chosen to be y = 4. If x is a prime not equal to 2 (then x is an odd
prime), then y can be chosen as y = x + 1.

(ii) ∃x∀y [Prime(x) ∧ Even(y)] → [x < y]


There exists a prime number x such that for all even numbers y, x < y. This is false. Notice
that any prime number is greater than 1 and −2 is even. Thus x < −2 is always false when
x is greater than 1.

(iii) ∃x∃y [Prime(x) ∧ ¬Even(x)] → [x divides y]


There exists an x and there exists a y so that if x is an odd prime then x divides y.
Note: x = 3 and y = 6 shows that this is true. For “there exists” statements, we need only
find one combination which makes the statement true.

I Negation of Propositional Functions

• ¬[∀x Prime(x)] = ∃x ¬Prime(x)

• ¬[∃x Prime(x)] = ∀x ¬Prime(x)

Notice that the negation of “for all” is “there exists” and vice versa. More examples of negation:

1. ¬[∀x∃y [Prime(x) ∧ Even(y)] ∨ Positive(x + y)] = ∃x∀y [¬Prime(x) ∨ ¬Even(y)] ∧ ¬Positive(x + y)


Interpretation before negation: For all x, there exists a y such that x is prime and y is even
or the sum of x and y is greater than 0.
Interpretation after negation: There exists an x, such that for all y, x is not prime or y is odd
and the sum of x and y is less than or equal to 0 is true.

2. ¬[∃x∀y (x > 3) ∧ (y is divisible by 5)] = ∀x∃y (x ≤ 3) ∨ (y is not divisible by 5)


Before: There exists an x such that for all y, x is larger than 3 and y is a multiple of 5.
After: For every x, there exists a y so that x is less than or equal to 3 or 5 is not a multiple
of 5.

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