COMPUTER NETWORKS

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Network Media/ Transmission Media/Communication Media:
1. Wired / Guided Cable
(i) Twisted pair cable
a. STP - Shielded Twisted Pair
b. UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair
(ii) Co-axial cable
a. Thicknet
b. Thinnet
(iii) Optical fibre cable
a. Single node
b. Multinode
2. Wireless / Unguided Cable
(i) Radio waves (ii) Infrared waves (iii) Microwave (iv) Bluetooth
(v) Satellite

Switching Techniques:
1. Circuit Switching 2. Packet Switching 3. Message Switching

Address:
1. MAC 2. IP

Network Topology:
1. Star topology 2. Bus topology/Linear topology 3. Tree topology
4. Ring topology/Circular topology 5. Mesh topology 6. Fully connected

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Computer Network:
A computer network is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing
devices that can share and exchange information or resources.

Advantage of Computer Network:

• Sharing of Information
• Sharing of Resources(Hardware & Software)
• Reliability
• User Communication
• Access to a Remote Database

Disadvantage of Computer Network:

• Computer networks require a specific setup.
• Cost of network hardware and software.
• Lack of security.

Components of Data Communication:

• Message: The information to be communicated.
• Sender: The device that sends the message.
• Receiver: The device that receives the message.
• Transmission media: The physical path through which the message travels
from sender to receiver.
• Protocol: A set of rules that govern data communication.

Data Flow:
➢ Simplex: In this mode of communication, data is transmitted in only one
direction. The sender sends data, and the receiver only receives it without
sending any data back. Examples include devices like keyboards (input) and
monitors (output). Simplex mode uses the full bandwidth of the channel
exclusively for transmitting data in a single direction.
➢ Half Duplex: In half-duplex communication, data can be transmitted in both
directions, but not simultaneously. Only one device can send data at a time,
and then the other device must wait until it can transmit. An example is a
walkie-talkie, where communication alternates between the speaker and the
listener. The full capacity of the channel is utilized in each direction, but only
one direction at a time.

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 ➢ Full Duplex: Full-duplex communication allows data to be transmitted in both
directions simultaneously. Both the sender and receiver can send and receive
data at the same time without any delay. An example is a telephone
conversation, where both parties can talk and listen at the same time. The
capacity of the channel is shared between the two directions, often allowing
for faster, real-time communication.

Network Terminology:

➢ Hosts/Nodes: These are devices connected to a network that can send,

receive, or share resources on the network. Examples include computers,
smartphones, and servers.
➢ Client: A host computer (or device) that requests services or resources from a
server. It acts as the device that initiates a service request in a client-server
network.
➢ Server: A computer (or device) that provides and manages access to
resources, such as data, software, or hardware, to clients over the network.
➢ NIC (Network Interface Card): Also known as a Network Interface Unit,
Terminal Access Point, Network Adapter, or LAN Card. This hardware
component enables a device to connect to a network and facilitates
communication between devices in the network.
➢ Network Services: These are applications or functionalities provided over a
network, such as file sharing, email, web services, and database access.
➢ Data: Information represented in binary form (0s and 1s) within a computer
system, used for processing and transmission over the network.
➢ Signal: This refers to the electrical or electromagnetic representation of data
that is transmitted over the network. It is categorized into: Analog signal and
Digital Signal

Data Communication Terminologies:

➢ Communication Channel/Communication Media: The medium through

which data or information is transmitted from one point to another. It can be
wired (e.g., coaxial cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., radio waves,
microwaves).
➢ Baud: A unit of measurement for the number of signal changes (modulations)
per second in a communication channel. While similar to bps (bits per second),

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 baud measures the number of signal events, whereas bps measures the
number of bits transferred. In some contexts, baud rate and bit rate can be
equivalent, but they are not always synonymous.
➢ Bits per Second (bps): The standard unit for measuring data transfer speed.
It represents the number of bits transmitted per second in a communication
system.
➢ Bit Rate: The speed at which data is transmitted, expressed as the number of
bits transferred per second (bps). It directly impacts the efficiency and speed of
data transmission.
➢ Bandwidth: The range of frequencies available for data transmission over a
communication channel. It determines the maximum data transfer rate.
Broadband channels have high bandwidth and can transmit large amounts of
data quickly, while narrowband channels have lower bandwidth and support
slower data transmission.
➢ Data Transfer Rate: This refers to the amount of data that can be transferred
per second through a communication channel or by a computing/storage device.
It is usually expressed in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or
megabits per second (Mbps).

TYPES OF NETWORKS

1. Types of networks based on Geographical spread

2. Types of networks by Component Roles
1. Types of networks based on Geographical Spread
PAN
• PAN stands for Personal Area Network.
• It connects personal devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, printers,
etc.
• Typically covers a small area, usually within 10 meters.
• Can be wired or wireless.
• Common devices in PAN include cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth
systems.
LAN:

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 • LAN is a Local Area Network.
• It connects computers and peripheral devices in a limited area such as a
room, building, or campus.
• LANs are usually private networks.
• Examples: Home Wi-Fi, office networks.

MAN:

• MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network.

• It connects users across a city or a large town within a range of up to 50 km.
• Often used for cable TV networks or broadband internet services.
• MAN can be either private or public.
• Typically uses fiber optics or wireless technologies.
• It can transmit data in both directions simultaneously, thanks to a dual bus
setup
• Examples: Cable TV networks, city-wide Wi-Fi networks.

WAN:

• WAN covers large geographic areas, often spanning countries or continents.

• Uses commercial and private communication lines to connect devices.
• Typically not owned by a single organization but managed collectively.
• Expensive to set up and maintain due to wide coverage and complex
infrastructure.
• The most well-known WAN is the Internet.

2. Types of networks by Component Roles:

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network:

• In a peer-to-peer network, all computers have equal roles.

• Each device can act as both a client and a server.

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 • It is a decentralized system with no dedicated server, commonly used in small
networks.

Client-Server Network:

• This network structure has dedicated servers that provide services to client
computers.
• Clients access resources and services via a central server.
• Commonly used in LANs, MANs, WANs, and the Internet.
• The server is typically more powerful and handles tasks such as managing
files, databases, and user authentication.

Evolution of Networking [Timeline]:

How does Internet work?

1. The message to be sent over the Internet is broken into smaller pieces called
"packets."
2. Each packet is assigned a sequence number (like 1, 2, 3) to help reassemble
them in the correct order at the destination.
3. The packets are sent to the recipient computer, which is identified by its unique IP
address. These packets may take different routes through the network to reach the
destination.
4. The destination computer may receive the packets in a different order than they
were sent. Some packets may get lost or damaged during transmission, in which
case they are requested again (this is handled by TCP).
5. Once all packets are received, they are reassembled according to their sequence
numbers to recreate the original message.
The communication protocol used by Internet is TCP/IP.
• The TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) is responsible for dividing the
message into packets on the source computer. It is also responsible for
reassembling the received packets at the destination or recipient computer.

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 • The IP Protocol is responsible for handling the address of destination
computer so that each packet is routed to its destination.

Interspace refers to a client-server software that enables multiple users to

interact and communicate in an immersive, virtual 3D environment.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUE
The technique by which nodes of a network transmit data to other nodes, is known
as switching techniques.

There are three basic switching techniques

1.Circuit Switching:

➢ Circuit switching is a method where a dedicated communication path is

established between the sender and the receiver before data transmission
begins.
➢ Once the connection is established, the dedicated path remains active until the
communication session is terminated.
➢ A complete end-to-end path must be established before any communication
can occur.
➢ When a user wants to send data, a request signal is sent to the receiver. The
receiver then sends back an acknowledgment to confirm that the dedicated
path is available. Once this acknowledgment is received, the data is transmitted
over the established path.
➢ Circuit switching is commonly used in public telephone networks and is typically
employed for voice transmission.
2. Message Switching:

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 ➢ In message switching, the source computer first sends the data to a switching
office, where it is temporarily stored in a buffer.
➢ The switching office then searches for a free communication link to the next
switching office and forwards the data to it. This process repeats until the data is
delivered to the destination computer. This technique is known as the store and
forward method.
3. Packet Switching:

➢ Packet switching is a technique in which a message is divided into smaller units

called packets, which are sent individually over the network.
➢ Each packet is assigned a unique number to ensure correct reassembly at the
receiving end.
➢ Every packet contains important information in its headers, such as the source
address, destination address, and sequence number.
➢ Packets travel across the network independently, often taking different routes,
based on the shortest or most efficient path available.
➢ At the receiving end, the packets are reassembled in the correct order using
their sequence numbers.
➢ If any packet is missing or corrupted, the receiver will request the sender to
resend the affected packets.
➢ Once all packets have been received in the correct order, an acknowledgment
message is sent to the sender.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The media through which data is transferred from one place to another is
called transmission or communication media.
➢ Wired or Guided Media:
Wired networks use physical cables (such as Ethernet cable and coaxial cable)
to connect devices together.

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 (i)Ethernet Cable or Twisted Pair Cable :
• Two wires are twisted together and insulated, with an outer protective layer
called a jacket.
• One wire carries the data signals, and the other acts as a ground reference.
The twisting helps to reduce noise from electromagnetic interference.
• Despite the twisting, these cables can still be susceptible to electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and crosstalk.
Types of Twisted-Pair Cables:
1. STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): STP cables have an additional shielding
around each pair of wires, which helps protect the signal from external
interference and reduces crosstalk between pairs.
2. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): UTP cables consist of two unshielded wires
twisted around each other. The lack of shielding makes them more vulnerable
to interference compared to STP, but they are lighter and more flexible.

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

• It is the least expensive medium of transmission for short distances.
• It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.
• It is flexible and lightweight.
• It is easy to set up and install.
Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable
• Due to high attenuation, signals cannot be transported over a long distance
without using repeaters.
• It offers poor noise immunity as the result of signal distortion is too much.
• STP, or shielded twisted pair cable, is more difficult to connect to a
terminating block.

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(ii) Co-axial cable:

• A coaxial cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by foil shields,

conducting braid, or wire mesh, all separated by a plastic insulator.
• The inner solid wire core carries the signal through the network, while the
shield provides earthing or grounding.
• Coaxial cable is commonly used to transport multi-channel television signals
in urban areas.
Types of Coaxial Cable:
1. Thicknet: This type of coaxial cable is thicker, with segment lengths of up to
500 meters.
2. Thinnet: This type is thinner, allowing nodes to be connected at a maximum
distance of 185 meters.
Advantages of Co-axial Cable
• The transmission quality of coaxial cable is superior to that of twisted-pair
cable.
• It is effective for shared cable networks.
• Coaxial cable can transmit multiple channels simultaneously, making it
suitable for broadband transmission.
• It offers high bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Co-axial Cable
• It is expensive compared to twisted pair cable.
• These are difficult to manage and reconfigure as compared to twisted pair
cable.

(iii) Optical fibre cable :

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 Optical fiber, or fiber optic cable, consists of thin threads made of glass or
glass-like materials that can carry light signals from a source at one end to another.
At the source, there are either Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs)
that modulate the data into a light beam using frequency modulation techniques. At
the receiver’s end, the signals are demodulated.

Main Parts of Optical Fiber:

(i)Core: This is the central section through which data travels in the form of light.
(ii)Cladding: The cladding is the covering of the core. Its function is to reflect
light back into the core, as it is a denser medium.
(iii) Protective Coating: This is the outer cover of the cladding, providing
protection to the optical fiber.

Types of Fibre-Optic Cable:

1. Single Mode It supports a segment length of up to 2 km and a bandwidth
of up to 100 Mbps.
2.Multi Mode The maximum segment length of multimode is up to 100 km
and the bandwidth is up to 2 Gbps.

Advantages of Fibre optic:

• Higher bandwidth
• Less signal attenuation
• Immune to cross-talk
• Lifespan of over 100 years
• Capable of long-distance transmission
• Highly suitable for harsh industrial environments

Disadvantage of Fibre optic:

• Unidirectional propagation
• High initial cost
• Complexity in installation and maintenance
• The fiber joining process is expensive and requires skilled labor
• Challenging to locate errors

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 ➢ Wireless or Unguided Media:
Wireless or unguided media refers to a type of communication in which
computers in a network are interconnected, and data is transmitted through
electromagnetic waves instead of physical cables
(i)Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that allows devices to communicate and
exchange data over short distances, typically within a range of about 10 meters. It
is commonly used for connecting devices such as smartphones, headphones,
speakers, and computers without the need for wires.
Advantages of Bluetooth:
• Wireless Connection
• Multiple Connections
• Low Power Consumption
Disadvantages of Bluetooth
• Limited Range
• Lower Data Transfer Speed
• Security Risks

(ii) Infrared
Infrared (IR) technology uses infrared radiation to transmit data wirelessly
over short distances. It typically involves sending signals through infrared light,
which is invisible to the human eye. Infrared is commonly used in remote controls,
wireless devices, and some types of data transfer
Advantages of Infrared
• Simple and Inexpensive
• Secure Connection
• Low Power Consumption
Disadvantages of Infrared
• Limited Range
• Line of Sight Required
• Slow Data Transfer

(iii) Radio waves:

• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer
than those of visible light. They utilize radio frequencies—specific ranges of

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 electromagnetic radiation—to transmit data wirelessly over long distances.
This makes them suitable for applications such as radio broadcasts, television
signals, and wireless communication, including Wi-Fi and mobile phones.
• Private citizens and business users are licensed to operate within a range of
about 10 miles.
• As omni-directional waves, radio waves can propagate in all directions and
can penetrate walls, allowing for effective communication in various
environments.
• The radio wave transmission setup consists of two main components: the
transmitter and the receiver. Devices that transmit signals are known as
transmitters, while those that receive signals are referred to as receivers.
Both the transmitter and receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the
radio signals. These waves are commonly used in AM and FM radio, television,
and cordless phones.

Advantages of Radio wave

• Penetration (They can penetrate through buildings, trees, and other
obstacles)
• Cost-Effective
• Ease of Access
• Multiple Applications (Radio waves are used in a wide range of
applications, including AM and FM radio, television broadcasts, mobile
phones, and satellite communications.)

Disadvantages of Radio wave

• Security Risks
• Limited Bandwidth
• Weather Impact(Radio wave transmission can be impacted by weather
conditions, including rain, storms, and thunder)
(iv) Microwaves [Terrestrial Microwave) :
• Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter
than those of radio waves but longer than those of infrared radiation.
• They are commonly used for communication, such as satellite signals and Wi-
Fi, and for heating food in microwave ovens.
• Microwaves transmit data without the use of cables, utilizing high-frequency
radio signals for long-distance communication.

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 • The microwave transmission system consists of a transmitter, receiver, and
the atmosphere. The transmitter and receiver are typically mounted on very
high towers to ensure they are in line of sight with each other.
• Like radio waves, microwave signals can pass through obstacles such as
buildings and mountains; however, the curvature of the Earth and other
structures can block this line of sight. As a result, several repeater stations
are often required for long-distance transmission.
• This makes microwaves particularly effective for long-distance telephonic
communications.
Advantages of Microwave
• Cost-Effective Transmission
• Land Acquisition Freedom
• Global Communication Capability(Microwaves can effectively communicate
over oceans, facilitating long-distance communication across large bodies
of water)
Disadvantages of Microwave
• Security Risks
• Weather Sensitivity
• High Implementation Costs
• Limited Range (Microwaves typically require line-of-sight, which can limit
their effective range, especially in hilly or obstructed areas.)

(v) Satellites
• Satellite communication occurs when data is transmitted between two Earth
stations via a satellite.
• In this process, electromagnetic waves serve as carrier signals, transmitting
information such as voice, audio, video, or other types of data between the
ground and space and vice versa.
• Satellites are positioned at an altitude of approximately 36,000 kilometers
(22,000 miles) above the equator, where their orbital speed matches the
Earth's rotation. This allows them to remain fixed in the same position
relative to the Earth.
• Satellites receive data from an Earth station, amplify it, and then send it to
another Earth station.
• This setup enables data to be transmitted across the globe in a single step.

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 • Most communication satellites are equipped with multiple independent
reception and transmission devices called transponders.
Advantages of Satellite Communication
• Global Coverage
• Wide Range of Applications (Satellites can be used for various applications,
including telecommunications, broadcasting, weather monitoring, navigation
(like GPS), and scientific research)
• Fast Data Transmission
• Flexibility
• Broadcasting Capabilities (Satellites can broadcast signals to a wide audience
simultaneously, making them ideal for television and radio broadcasts.)
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
• High Initial Costs
• Weather Sensitivity
• Dependency on Ground Stations (While satellites cover large areas, they still
rely on ground stations for sending and receiving signals, which can be a
point of failure)
• Security Concerns
(vi) Laser:
A laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device
that emits light through a process of optical amplification. The light produced by
lasers is coherent, monochromatic, and can be focused into a narrow beam.

Note:
Crosstalk: The bleeding of a signal from one wire to another can corrupt signal and
cause network errors. This form of signal interference is called crosstalk.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its
topology.
TYPES OF TOPOLOGY:
1.Star Topology
Star topology is a network configuration in which all nodes (computers and
devices) are connected to a central device, known as a hub or switch. In this setup,
data is transmitted from one node to the central hub, which then forwards it to the
appropriate destination node.

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Advantages of Star Topology
• Easy to Install and Configure
• Fault Isolation
• Scalability (Additional nodes can be easily added)
• Centralized Management.
• Improved Performance.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Dependency on Central Hub.
• Higher Cost
• Cable Length Limitations
2. Bus topology:[Linear Topology]

• In bus topology, all nodes (computers and devices) are connected to a single
cable, known as the backbone or bus. This cable serves as the primary path
for data transmission within the network, allowing data to be sent in both
directions. Each node can send and receive messages to and from the bus. To
prevent signal reflections that can interfere with communication, both ends of
the backbone are equipped with terminators. These terminators absorb
signals and ensure smooth data flow along the cable, maintaining network
integrity
Advantages of Bus Topology
• Easy to Install
• Minimal Cable Usage
• Low Setup Costs

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• Single Point of Failure (If the main bus cable fails or is damaged, the entire
network goes down)
• Data Collision (Multiple nodes attempting to transmit data simultaneously can
lead to data collisions)
• Difficult Troubleshooting

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3. Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each node (computer or device) is connected to exactly

two other nodes, forming a circular pathway for data transmission. Data travels in
one direction (unidirectional) or both directions (bidirectional) around the ring,
passing through each node until it reaches its destination.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• Easy to Install
• Simple Data Transmission
• Scalability (Adding or removing nodes can be done without significantly
affecting the network's overall performance.)

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• Limited Number of Nodes
• Difficult Troubleshooting
• Single Point of Failure (The failure of one node can disrupt the entire network,
as data cannot complete its circular path, leading to a complete shutdown.)
• Not Suitable for Large Networks
• Low Security
• Unidirectional Data Flow
4.Tree Topology

A tree topology is a special type of network structure where multiple

connected elements are arranged like the branches of a tree. This topology
combines features of both star and bus topologies, creating a hierarchical
framework. It is particularly well-suited for applications that require a hierarchical

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flow of data, as it allows for organized management of nodes and connections. In
tree topology, data transmission occurs in a manner similar to that of bus topology,
with data flowing along the central bus and branching out to the connected nodes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
• High Scalability
• Fault Isolation (If one node fails, it does not affect the other nodes in the
network)
• Organized Structure (The hierarchical arrangement makes it easier to manage
and visualize the network layout, which can be beneficial for large networks.)

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• Large Cabling Requirements
• Single Point of Failure (If a hub (central node) fails, it can lead to the failure
of the entire network segment connected to it.)
• Complex Configuration.
5. Mesh Topology/Completely Interconnected topology:

Mesh topology is a network configuration where each communicating device is

interconnected with every other device in the network. In this setup, every node
has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other node, ensuring that data can
be transmitted directly between any two devices
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• High Reliability (If one link or node fails, the data can be routed through
alternate path.)
• Easy Troubleshooting
• High Performance.
• Robustness (The network is robust, as it does not rely on a single point of
failure. Multiple connections provide redundancy.)
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• High Cost
• Difficult Maintenance

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Identifying nodes on a computer network
IP Address:
✓ IP Address stands for Internet Protocol Address.
✓ It is a unique address used to identify each device on a network
✓ It is a logical address.
✓ An IP address consists of 4 bytes (32 bits for IPv4).
✓ Internet Service Providers (ISPs) assign IP addresses.
Two Versions of IP Address:
1. IPv4:
o Consists of a 4-byte (32-bit) decimal number.
o The numbers range from 0 to 255 and are separated by periods ‘ . ‘
(e.g., 192.168.1.20).
2. IPv6:
o Consists of a 16-byte (128-bit) hexadecimal number.
o The numbers are separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0DC8:E004:0001:0000:0000:F00A:0001)

MAC (Media Access Control) address:

➢ A MAC address is a unique 6-byte (48-bit) address assigned to each Network
Interface Card (NIC) by the manufacturer.
➢ The first 3 bytes contain the manufacturer’s ID, known as the Organizational
Unique Identifier (OUI).
➢ The last 3 bytes represent the serial number assigned to the card by the
manufacturer.
➢ It is a physical address.
➢ The MAC address is formatted as MM:MM:MM:SS:SS
(where MM represents the manufacturer’s ID and SS represents the serial
number).

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