CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Phase of cell Subphase Event

cycle
Interphase/Resting phase G1 phase (Gap 1 phase): 1. Metabolically active cell grows
(23 Hrs – 95% duration of a • Chromosome number: 2n continuously
cell cycle): It is the time • DNA content: 2C 2. No DNA replication
during which the cell is 1. DNA synthesis (replication) occurs.
preparing for division by 2. Initial amount of DNA (2C) becomes
undergoing both cell S phase (Synthesis phase): double (4C)
growth and DNA • Chromosome number: 2n 3. Initial number of chromosome (2n)
replication in an orderly • DNA content: 4C remains same.
manner. 4. Animal cells: DNA replication begins
in the nucleus and centriole
duplicates in the cytoplasm.
G2 phase (Gap 2 phase): 1. Proteins are synthesized in
• Chromosome number: 2n preparation for mitosis.
• DNA content: 4C 2. Cell growth continues.
G0 stage (quiescent stage): 1. The cell remains metabolically active.
• Cells permanently 2. The cell no longer proliferates unless
arrested in this stage: called on to do so.
Heart cell, RBC, 3. The cell does not divide further and exit
Neurone, Cells of G1 phase to enter an inactive stage.
permanent tissues of 4. Some cells in the adult animals do not
plant. appear to exhibit division hence
• Cells temporarily permanently Arrested in this stage.
arrested in this stage: 5. Many other cells divide occasionally, as
Liver cell, Cambium. needed to replace cells that have been
lost because of injury or cell death.
Mitotic phase (Equational A. Karyokinesis i. Prophase (longest 1. Condensation of chromosomal material
division – 1 Hr – 5% (division of phase by to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
duration of a cell cycle): nucleus) duration): 2. Chromosomes are seen to be composed
Most dramatic period of • Chromosome of two chromatids attached together at
cell cycle, involving a major number: 2n the centromere (individuality).
reorganization of virtually • DNA content: 3. Centrosomes begin to move towards
all components of the cell. 4C opposite poles of the cell.
Number of the 4. Each centrosome radiates out
chromosome remains microtubules (asters).
same in daughter cells. 5. The two asters together with spindle
fibres forms mitotic apparatus.
6. Disappearance of Golgi complex, ER,
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.

ii. Metaphase: 1. Complete disintegration of the nuclear

Chromosomes envelope.
cen be observed 2. Spread of chromosome through the
clearly hence its cytoplasm.
morphology is 3. Completion of condensation of
most easily chromosomes.
studied during 4. Two sister chromatids of a chromosome
this phase. are held together by the centromere.

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [1]

 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
• Karyokinesis • Chromosome 5. Spindle fibres attach to the kinetochores
without number: 2n (small disc-shaped structure at the surface
cytokinesis results • DNA content: of the centromere)
into formation of 4C 6. Movement of chromosomes to spindle
cell with multiple equator.
nucleus: 7. Alignment of chromosomes along the
metaphase plate through spindle fibres to
i. Coenocyte: Found both poles.
in algae and fungi. 8. One chromatid of each chromosome
ii. Syncytium: Found connected by its kinetochore to spindle
in liquid fibres from one pole and its sister
endosperm in chromatid connected by its kinetochore to
coconut and spindle fibres from the opposite pole.
skeletal muscle iii. Anaphase 1. Splitting of centromeres.
cell. (Shortest by 2. Separation of sister chromatids from
duration): metaphase plate.
• Chromosome 3. Separated chromatids form daughter
number: 4n chromosomes of future daughter nuclei.
• DNA content: 4. Migration of daughter chromosomes
4C (sister chromatids of parent cell) to
• Chromosome opposite poles.
number in 5. The parent cell contained 2n
each pole: 2n chromosome and 4C DNA before this
• DNA content phase. Each daughter chromosome now
in each pole: contains 2C DNA as the two sister
2C chromatids separate.
6. The centromere of each chromosome
remains directed towards the pole (at the
leading edge).
7. Arms of the chromosome trail behind.
iv. Telophase 1. De-condensation (cluster formation) of
(Reverse chromosomes at each opposite spindle
prophase): poles.
2. Loss of the individuality (identity as
• Chromosome discrete elements) of the chromosomes.
number in 3. Development of nuclear envelop around
each pole: 2n the 2n number of chromosomes (having
• DNA content 2C DNA) clustered at each pole.
in each pole: 4. Formation of two daughter (2n-2C) nuclei.
2C 5. Reformation of nucleolus, Golgi complex
and ER.
B. Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm): Formation of two (2n) daughter cells.
Organelles like mitochondria and plastids get distributed between the two
daughter cells.
1. Plant cell (Cell plate formation): The formation of the new cell wall begins
with the formation of a simple precursor (cell plate) that represents the
middle lamella between the walls of two adjacent cells.
2. Animal cell (Cleavage): Appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing
the cell cytoplasm into two.
➢ Significance: Cell proliferation, Cell repair, Growth and regeneration.

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [2]

 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
MEIOSIS
The process of cell division in which the chromosome and DNA divide once but the nucleus and
cytoplasm divide twice leading to the formation of 4 haploid (n) daughter cells (having C DNA
content) from a diploid (2n) mother cell (having 2C DNA content), i.e. the number of chromosome
is reduced to half, hence reduction division.
➢ OCCURANCE: Meiosis is seen in the gamete mother cells (2n) of sexually reproducing
organisms. This division results in the formation of 4 haploid (n) gametes.
❖ INTERPHASE: It is comprised of 3 stages same as mitosis – G1, S and G2. It is important to note
that Interphase occurs only once and no interphase occurs again in between Meiosis I and Meiosis
II. Hence DNA replication occurs only once during the entire meiotic division.
❖ MEIOSIS I (HETEROTYPIC/REDUCTION DIVISION)-
• KARYOKINESIS I- It is divisible into 4 phases.
1) PROPHASE I- It is the longest stage of meiotic division and much longer and complex than mitotic
prophase. It is further subdivide into 5 phases based on chromosomal behaviour (Lata Zara Paani
Dilaa Do).
a. LEPTOTENE- i) The chromosomes become more uncoiled and assume a long thread like shape
which appears to be more definite with a series of chromosomes occurring at irregular intervals
along their length.

ii) The nucleus increases in volume and nucleolus is attached with the NOR (Nucleolar organising
region) of a specific chromosome.
iii) The telomeres are attached to the nuclear envelope at the region pointing towards the centriole. This
specific arrangement is known as bouquet stage (proposed by Darlington)
iv) The centrioles duplicate and each daughter centriole migrates towards opposite poles of the cell. On
reaching the poles each centriole duplicates and forms diplosomes.
v) In plant cells chromosomes form a clump on one side of nucleus. This phenomenon is called
syngenesis or synaptic knot.
b. ZYGOTENE- i) The two homologous chromosomes get paired to each other laterally due to
development of nucleoprotein between them. This nucleoprotein is called synaptonemal complex.

ii) The process of pairing of homologous chromosome is known as synapsis and the paired homologous
chromosomes are called bivalents or diads.
iii) Depending upon the place of origin of pairing 3 types of synapsis have been recognized-
Proterminal synapsis (pairing starts from the telomeric region)
Procentric synapsis (pairing starts from centromeres)
Random synapsis (pairing starts at various points)

c. PACHYTENE- i) Each
homologous chromosome splits
length wise to form two
chromatids. Thus each
homologous chromosome pair
consists of 4 chromatids closely
aligned together in one complex
unit called a tetrad.

ii) The two chromatids belonging to the

same chromosome are called sister
chromatids. Chromatids belonging to the different chromosomes of a homologous pair are termed as
non-sister chromatids.

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [3]

 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
iii) During pachytene stage an
important genetic phenomenon
called crossing over takes place. It
involves the redistribution and
mutual exchange of genetic
material between two non-sister
chromatids of a homologous
chromosome.
iv) Chromatids of each homologous
chromosome break transversely by
endonuclease. After the breakage of
chromatids the interchange of
chromatin segments takes place
between the non-sister chromatids.
Breakage of chromatin segments is
called nicking and their reunion
called annealing occurs by another
enzyme ligase.
v) This process of interchange of
chromatin material between two non-sister chromatids of two homologous chromosomes is called
crossing over, which is accompanied by chiasmata formation.
vi) Chiasmata is the cross-like attachment of two non-sister chromatids in a bivalent resulted by crossing
over.
d. DIPLOTENE- i) The homologous chromosome repel each other, thus they get separated from each
other, but not completely, because both remain united at the point of chiasma. Chiasma formed at
the end of the chromosome is called terminal chiasma.

ii) Chiasma gradually moves to the terminal end of the chromosome and this process is called
terminalisation.
iii) The synaptonemal complex mostly disappears.
iv) Disappearance of nucleolus begins but the nuclear membrane remains intact.
e. DIAKINESIS- i) The nucleolus detaches from the NOR and ultimately disappears.

ii) Terminalisation process continues i.e. the chiasma moves from the centromere to telomere due to the
tight condensation of chromosomes. The chromatids still remain connected by the terminal chiasma and
these exist upto the metaphase I.
iii) The nuclear envelop disintegrates in this stage.

2) METAPHASE I- i) Centrioles move to 900 angle and spindle is formed between them.

ii) Chromosomes are arranged at the equatorial plate. The chromosomes of a pair of homologous
chromosome lie on either side and equidistant from the equatorial plate.
iii) The repulsive forces between homologous chromosomes increase greatly and the chromosomes
become ready to separate.
3) ANAPHASE I- i) Each homologous chromosome from every pair with its two chromatids and
undivided centromere moves towards the opposite pole of the cell. As a result the tetrad separates
as diads.

ii) The movement of chromosomes occurs along the path of their chromosomal fibres.

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [4]

 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
iii) The actual reduction of chromosome number occurs at this stage. The homologous chromosomes
which move towards the opposite poles are the chromosomes of either paternal or maternal origin.
iv) Half of the chromosomes reach one pole and other half to the opposite pole resulting in reduction
division
4) TELOPHASE I- i) The ER forms nuclear membrane around the chromosomes and the
chromosomes become uncoiled.

ii) The nucleolus reappears and the spindle fibres disintegrate.

• CYTOKINESIS I- In meiosis cytokinesis are of two types- Successive and Simultaneous.

In successive type Cytokinesis occurs twice- Cytokinesis I after Karyokinesis I and Cytokinesis II after
Karyokinesis II. Thus two haploid (n) cells are formed from one diploid (2n) cell.
In simultaneous type, Cytokinesis I does not take place. Thus two haploid (n) nuclei is formed within
a diploid (2) cell as karyokinesis occurs.
In plant cells it occurs by cell plate formation and in animal cells it occurs by cleavage.

❖ MEIOSIS II (HOMOTYPIC/EQUAL DIVISION)-

• KARYOKINESIS II- It is divisible into 4 phases.

1. PROPHASE II- This phase is not long and complicated as Prophase I.
i) In animal cell each centriole divides into two and thus two pairs of centrioles are formed.
Each paired centriole migrates to the opposite pole.
ii) The microtubules get arranged in the form of spindle.
iii) The chromatin material again becomes compact. Each chromosome longitudinally splits up
into two chromatids but remains connected by the centromere.
iv) The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
2. METAPHASE II- i) The chromosomes get arranged on the equator of the spindle.
ii) The microtubules from the opposite poles of the cell extend towards the equator and attaches
at the kinetochore of the chromatids.
3. ANAPHASE II- i) Each chromatid completely divides through the centromere.
ii) The daughter chromosomes move towards the opposite pole due to the contraction of
chromosomal microtubules.
4. TELOPHASE II- i) The chromatids migrate to the opposite poles.
ii) ER forms the nuclear membrane around the chromosomes.
iii) The nucleolus reappears due to the synthesis and accumulation of rRNA and ribosomal
protein.
• CYTOKINESIS II-

i) In successive type of cytokinesis both the daughter cells undergo independent cytokinesis after the
completion of karyokinesis II. Cytokinesis occurs by cleavage in animal cells. In plant cells cell plate
is formed by the deposition of wall material between the two protoplasts. Thus four haploid (n) cells
are formed from two haploid (n) cells.
ii) In simultaneous type, cytokinesis I is absent after karyokinesis I. So at the end of karyokinesis II 4
haploid nuclei is formed which undergo double cytokinesis and produce 4 distinct haploid cells (i.e.
gametes) by cytokinesis II.
➢ SIGNIFICANCE:
a) Maintenance of constant chromosome number
b) Variation due to genetic recombination

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [5]

 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
MEIOSIS
Stages Phases Events
Interphase G1 • Same as mitosis.
(2n4c) S • A gamete mother cell becomes ready for meiotic division.
G2 • Chromosome number (2n) remains same but DNA content increases from 2C to 4C.
LEPTO • Chromosomes become gradually visible under the light microscope.
TENE • The compaction of chromosomes continues.
ZYGO • Synapsis: Association of homologous chromosomes i.e. chromosomes start pairing.
TENE • Formation of synaptonemal complex: A special nucleoprotein helps in synapsis.
• Bivalent/Tetrad formation: Complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous
chromosomes.
PACHY • Clear appearance of tetrad: Four chromatids of each bivalent chromosomes become
TENE distinct.
P (Longer) • Appearance of recombination nodule: The sites at which crossing over occurs.
R
• Crossing over: Exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of two
O
homologous chromosomes and this is mediated by enzyme recombinase.
P
• Recombination: Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material between
H
homologous chromosomes and this process is completed by the end of pachytene.
M A
• Chromosomes remain linked at the sites of crossing over
E S
I E
DIPLO • Dissolution of synaptonemal complex:
O (I)
TENE • Tendency of the recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalent to separate
S from each other except at the site of crossovers.
I (2n • Chiasmata formation: The X-shaped structures at the site of crossovers.
S 4C) • In oocytes of some vertebrates this stage can last for months or years. The division of
(I) primary oocyte gets arrested in this stage and doesn’t proceed until puberty hits.
2X(n2C) DIA • Terminalisation of chiasmata: Chiasmata moves towards telomeric regions.
KINESIS • Chromosomes are fully condensed
• The meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous chromosomes for
separation.
• Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down by the end of this phase.
• This phase represents transition from prophase I to metaphase I.
METAPHASE • The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
(I) • The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the
(2n4c) kinetochore of homologous chromosomes.
ANAPHASE (I) • Homologous chromosomes separate.
(2n4C) • Sister chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.
TELOPHASE • Nucleolus reappears.
(I) • Nuclear envelope regenerates.
(2n4C)
CYTOKINESIS • Dyad of cells: Two haploid (n) daughter cells are formed each having single set of
(I) chromosomes but each chromosome contains two recombined sister
2X(n2C) chromatids.
• This is a short-lived stage between the two meiotic divisions (I and II).
• No DNA replication occurs
INTER- 2X(n2C) • In many cases the chromosomes do undergo some dispersion.
KINESIS • Chromosomes do not reach the extremely extended state of interphase nucleus.
• It is followed by prophase II that is a much simpler phase than prophase I.

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [6]

 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
• It starts before the chromosomes have fully elongated.
PROPHASE II • It resembles a normal mitotic prophase.
2X(n2C) • The nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear by the end of this phase.
• The chromosomes (now haploid in each cell) again become compact.
METAPHASE • The haploid (n) sets of chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.
II • The microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the
2X(n2C) kinetochores of sister chromatids
M ANAPHASE II • Simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome.
E 2X(2n2C) • Movement of sister chromatids (as daughter chromosomes) toward opposite
I
poles of the cell by shortening of microtubules attached to kinetochores.
O
TELOPHASE II • End of Meiosis II.
S
2X(2n2C) • Two groups of haploid chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear
I
envelope.
S
(II) • Tetrad of cells: Four haploid daughter (n) cells are formed from the two haploid
4X(nC) (n) cells.
CYTOKINESIS • Each daughter cell (gamete) has haploid set of chromosomes (n) and C DNA
II content.
4X(nC) • The chromosomes in each gamete may be
a) non-crossed or parental: Chromatids that did not take part in crossing over
b) Crossed or recombinant: Chromatids that took part in crossing over

NOTE COMPILATION: SOUMYAPRABHA GANGULY (SG BIO) [7]