150A Notes 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically.

1. Estimate a Limit Numerically

Create a table of values for f  x  as x approaches a given value from both sides.

x2  5x  6
Ex) Sketch the graph of f  x  
x2

Evaluate f  2 

Create a table of values for f  x  for x near 2.

𝑥 approaches 2 from the left 𝑥 approaches 2 from the right

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

x  5x  6
2
f  x  ?
x2

“Limit from Left” “Limit from Right”

𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ approaches 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ approaches

x2  5x  6
Use the values from the table to evaluate the limit: lim
x 2 x2

Limit Notation
in mathematical symbols: lim f  x   L
x c

which is read: “the limit of f  x  as x approaches c is L ” or

“the limit as x approaches c of f  x  is L ”

Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 1 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
 x4
Ex) Sketch the graph of f  x  
x 2

Evaluate f  4 

Create a table of values for f  x  for x near 4 (round to ten-thousandths).

Limit from the left Limit from the right

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 4 4.001 4.01 4.1
x4
f  x  ?
x 2

x4
Use the values from the table to evaluate the limit: lim
x4 x 2

Greatest Integer Function (also called Step Function)

Ex) Sketch the graph of f  x  

Evaluate f  1

Create a table of values for f  x  for x near -1.

Limit from the left Limit from the right

x -1.1 -1.01 -1.001 -1 -.999 -.99 -.9
f  x  ?

Use the values from the table to evaluate the limit: lim
x 1

Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 2 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
2. Find Limits from a Graph
If lim f  x   L then f  x  must approach L from both sides as x approaches c .
x c

Ex) Find each limit or function value from the graph or indicate that it does not exist.
y  f  x y  g  x

f  2   g 1 
4

lim f  x   lim g  x  
1
1 x 2 x 1
1 3
1

y  h x y  f  x

h  1  f  2 

lim h  x   lim f  x  
1 1
x  1 x 2

1 1

Ex) Sketch a possible graph of a function with the given properties.

f  2   1 f  3  DNE
lim f  x   3 lim f  x   5
x 2 x 3

Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 3 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
3. Algebra Review: Inequalities on a Number Line Involving Absolute Value
Ex) Write each solution as a single inequality involving absolute value.
Variable is x Variable is f  x 

4. Formal Definition of Limit

Let 𝑓 be a function defined on an open interval containing 𝑐 and let 𝐿 be a real number. Then,
lim f ( x)  L
x c

means the following…

For any given   0 , there exists a   0 ,

such that if x  c   , then f ( x)  L  

Ex) Find 𝛿 such that f ( x)  L  .01 whenever x  c   f  x  2x  3

Given: lim  2 x  3  7
x 5

Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 4 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
5.    Proofs
Prove that lim(4 x  3)  5
x 2

Proof: Given   0 , choose   . Then for x  2   , we get
4
 4 x  3  5  4 x  8
 4 x2
4 x2
 4
 
 4 
4


Therefore lim(4 x  3)  5
x 2

3 
Ex) Prove the limit using a    proof. lim  x  2   7

x 6 2


Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 5 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
  1 
Ex) Prove the limit using a    proof. lim  3  x   1
x 4
 2 

Ex) Prove the limit using a    proof. lim  6 x  9   3

x 1

Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 6 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
Ex) Prove the limit using a    proof. lim  x 2  3 x   10
x 5

Ex) Prove the limit using a    proof. lim  x 2  2 x  3  5

x 2

Math 150A Notes 1.2, Pg. 7 of 7

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
150A Notes 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically
1. Basic Properties of Limits
Basic Limits Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
1. lim b  b 2. lim x  c 3. lim x n  c n
x c x c x c

Ex) lim 17 

x 2
lim  x 
x 2
lim x3
x2
 
Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer, and let f and g be functions with the
following limits: lim f  x   L, lim g  x   K
x c x c

Scalar multiple: lim bf  x  

x c

Sum: lim  f  x   g  x   
x c

Difference: lim  f  x   g  x   
x c

Product: lim  f  x   g  x   
x c

f  x
Quotient: lim 
x c g  x 

lim  f  x   
n
Power:
x c

Ex) Given: lim f  x   7, lim g  x   12, lim h  x   3 . Evaluate each limit.

x  5 x  5 x  5
 2 f  x  g  x 
lim  h  x  
3
lim  
x  5
 h  x   x  5

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 1 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
2. Limits of Functions
Limit of a Polynomial Function
If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then lim p  x   p  c 
x c

Limit of a Rational Function

p  x
If r is a rational function given by r  x   and c is a real number such that q  c   0,
q  x
p c
then lim r  x   r  c  
x c q c

 x2  1 
Ex) lim  
x 1 x  1
 

Limit of a Radical Function

Let n be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for all c if n is odd, and is valid for
c  0 if n is even: lim n x  n c
x c

Ex) lim 3 22  x
x 5
 

Limit of a Composite Function

If f and g be functions such that lim g  x   L, lim f  x   f  L  , then
x c xL

 
lim f  g  x    f lim g  x   f  L 
x c x c

Ex) Given: lim p  x   3, lim q  x   q  3  10 .

x 1 x 3


Evaluate: lim  q p  x  
x 1


Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 2 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
3. Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Let c be real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.

1. lim sin x  sin c 2. lim cos x  cos c 3. lim tan x  tan c

x c x c x c
4. lim csc x  csc c 5. lim sec x  sec c 6. lim cot x  cot c
x c x c x c

Ex) lim sin 2 x  lim tan x  lim x cos x 

 5 2
x x x
3 4 3

4. Find a Limit by Factoring and Canceling (Dividing Out Technique)

If lim f  x  cannot be found directly, but f  x   g  x  for all x  c in an open interval
x c
containing c and lim g  x  exists, then lim f  x   lim g  x 
x c x c x c

x2  x  6
Ex) lim
x 2 x2

Write a simpler function that agrees with

the given function at all but one point.

2x
Ex) lim
x 0 x  4 x 2

Write a simpler function that agrees with

the given function at all but one point.

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 3 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
  x  x 2   x  x   5   x 2  x  5
Ex) lim
x 0 x

1 1

Ex) lim x  4 4
x 0 x

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 4 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
 x3  1
Ex) lim
x 1 x  1

5. Find a Limit using a Conjugate (Rationalizing Technique)

If f  x  is a rational function containing a radical, and lim f  x  cannot be found directly, try
x c
multiplying f  x  by 1 in the form of the conjugate of either the numerator or denominator over
itself. Then find the limit of the new function.

1 x
Ex) lim
x 1 x  1

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 5 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
 x 1  2
Ex) lim
x 3 x3

2 x  2
Ex) lim
x 0 x

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 6 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
6. Squeeze Theorem
Assume f  x   g  x   h  x  for all values of x near c ,

except possibly at c . If lim f  x   lim h  x   L,

x c x c

then lim g  x   L
x c

Ex) Suppose that  x  8 x  13  f  x   x  8 x  19 for all x , find lim f  x  .

2 2
x 4

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 7 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
Two special limits involving Sine and Cosine
sin x 1  cos x
lim 1 lim 0
x 0 x x 0 x
Note: the argument of the Trig function must exactly match the denominator in order to apply the
special limit property.

To prove these two special limits, we’ll use the Unit Circle and the Squeeze Theorem…

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
(1, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
(1,0) 1 1 1

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑔 ∆ ≥ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ≥ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚 ∆

1 1 2 1
bh r bh
2 2 2

1 1 2 1
1 tan    1    1 sin  
2 2 2
tan     sin 
1 
  1
cos sin 
sin
cos   1


sin 
Ex) Prove: lim  1.
 0 
 sin 
lim  cos   lim    lim 1
 0  0    0

 sin 
1  lim    1
 0   

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 8 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
 1  cos
Ex) Prove: lim  0.
 0 
sin
cos   1

sin 2
cos sin    sin 

1  cos 2 
cos sin    sin 

cos sin  
1  cos 1  cos   sin 

cos sin 

1  cos  
sin 
1  cos  1  cos
cos sin  1  cos sin 
lim  lim  lim
  0 1  cos   0    0 1  cos 
1 0   lim 1  cos 
0
11  0  11
1  cos
0  lim  0
 0 

sin 5 x
Ex) lim
x 0 x

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 9 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
 tan x
Ex) lim
x 0 x

1  cos
Ex) lim
 0 3

1  cos 2 x
Ex) lim
x 0 x

Math 150A Notes 1.3, Pg. 10 of 10

Professor Morvan, Cypress College
150A Notes 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits
1. Notation for One-Sided Limits and Existence of a Limit

One-Sided Limits lim f  x  is read, “the limit as x approaches c from the right”
x c

lim f  x  is read, “the limit as x approaches c from the left”

x c

Existence of a Limit lim f  x   L exists if and only if these two conditions are met:
x c

lim f  x   L and lim f  x   L

x c x c

Ex) Find each value using the graph at right.

g  5  g 10   g 15  
4 𝑔(𝑥)
lim g  x   lim g  x   lim g  x   3
x 5  x 10 x 15
2
1
lim g  x   lim g  x   lim g  x  
x 5 x 10 x 15
-1 5 10 15

lim g  x   lim g  x   lim g  x   -2

x 5 x 10 x 15

Ex) Evaluate each limit.

lim x7
x 7

lim x7
x 7

lim x  7
x 7

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 1 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
2. Definition of Continuity (Continuity Checklist)
For f  x  to be continuous at c , what three conditions must be met?

1. f  c  exists
2. lim f  x  exists
x c

3. lim f  x   f  c 
x c

Ex) Use the Definition of Continuity to explain why f  x  is continuous at x  4 .

𝑓(𝑥)

Two types of Discontinuities

Removable Discontinuity – occurs when lim f  x  exists but is NOT equal to f  c  .
x c

f  x  could be continuous if we redefine f  c   lim f  x 

x c

Nonremovable Discontinuity – occurs when lim f  x  does not exist

x c

Ex) Use the Definition of Continuity to explain why each graph is not continuous, and then name
which type of discontinuity it is.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)

7 17
4 6 13

8 12
5

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 2 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
Ex) Discuss the continuity of each function using the Definition of Continuity (Continuity Checklist).

x2  2 x  3
f  x 
x 1

3
g  x 
x2

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 3 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
Ex) Discuss the continuity of each function using the Definition of Continuity (Continuity Checklist).
 x, x3
h x  
 x  6, x  3

x2  1
f  x 
x 2  3x  4

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 4 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
Ex) Discuss the continuity using the Definition of Continuity (Continuity Checklist).
x7
g  x 
x7

Ex) Find a and b so that f is continuous for all values of x.

8 x  2

f  x   ax  b 2  x  1
 2
x  1 x 1

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 5 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
3. Continuity on a Closed Interval
f  x  is continuous on the closed interval  a, b  if what three conditions are met?
1. f  x  is continuous on  a, b 
2. lim f  x   f  a  (the function value at the left endpoint must equal the limit coming in from the right)
x a

3. lim f  x   f  b  (the function value at the right endpoint must equal the limit coming in from the left)
x b

Ex) Use the theorem for Continuity on a Closed Interval to explain why f  x  is continuous on the
interval 1,3 .
𝑓(𝑥)

1 3

Ex) Name the intervals on which each function is continuous.

ℎ(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

4 4 4

2 2 2

1 3 1 3 1 3

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 6 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
4. Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) 𝑓(𝑥)
If these conditions are met…
𝑓(𝑎)
1. f  x  is continuous on  a, b 
2. f  a   f b 
𝑓(𝑏)
3. k is between f  a  and f  b 
Then, it is guaranteed that there exists c   a, b  such that f  c   k . 𝑎 𝑏

Ex) Use the IVT to prove f  x   x  x  13 has a root in the interval  2,3 or explain why it fails.
3

x3  2
Ex) Use the IVT to prove f  x   has a root in the interval 1,2 or explain why it fails.
x4

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 7 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
 x2  1
Ex) Find the value of c guaranteed by the IVT for f  x   on the interval  0,3 where
x6
5
f  c   or explain why it fails.
8

Math 150A Notes 1.4, Pg. 8 of 8

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
150A Notes 1.5 Infinite Limits
1. Behavior of Graphs and Infinite Limits

1
Consider f  x   1
x
-1 1

x approaches x approaches
x -.1 -.01 -.001 0 from Left 0 0 from Right .001 .01 .1
f ( x) -10 -100 -1000 DNE 1000 100 10

 1 1
as x  0 ,  as x  0 ,


x x

1
Consider f  x   
x 1
-1 1

x approaches x approaches
x -.1 -.01 -.001 0 from Left 0 0 from Right .001 .01 .1
f ( x) 10 100 1000 -1000 -100 -10

 1 1
as x  0 ,   as x  0 , 


x x

Infinite Limits
1 1
lim  lim 
x  0 x x  0 x

1 1
lim  lim 
x  0 x x  0 x

In all cases, the limit does not exist (DNE).

Math 150A Notes 1.5, Pg. 1 of 4

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
 Ex) Evaluate each limit from the graph. y  g  x
lim g  x   lim g  x  
x   2 x  1

1
lim  g  x   lim g  x  
x 2 x 1 -2 1

lim g  x   lim g  x  
x 2 x 1

Algebra Review: Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function

f ( x)
The function, h( x)  , will have VA when
g ( x)

2. Definition of Vertical Asymptote (this is the Calculus definition – used on your exams!)
The line x  c is a vertical asymptote of f ( x) if either of these limits occurs:

lim f  x    or lim f  x   
x c  x c 

Ex) Prove any VAs or removable discontinuities using calculus.

2 x2  7 x  4
g  x 
x 2  16

Math 150A Notes 1.5, Pg. 2 of 4

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
Ex) Prove any VAs or removable discontinuities using calculus.
sin x
f  x 
x 2  3x

3. Properties of Infinite Limits

Let c and L be real numbers, and f and g be functions such that

lim f  x   , lim g  x   L, lim h  x    K

x c x c x c

1. lim  f  x   g  x   
x c

2. lim  f  x  g  x   
x c

lim  f  x  h  x   
x c

 g  x 
3. lim  
x c f  x 
 

Math 150A Notes 1.5, Pg. 3 of 4

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College
 Ex) Evaluate each limit.
1
lim 
x  2 2  x

x 1

 
lim
x 1 x 2  5  x  1

 5 
lim  3  
x   2 
  x  2  
2

  x  2 
lim  x   
x  1   x  1  

3  2cos x
lim 
x   sin x

x 
lim 
 cos x
x
2

Math 150A Notes 1.5, Pg. 4 of 4

Prof. Morvan, Cypress College