Architecture of

Regionalism in the Age

of Globalization

This book remains the defnitive introductory text on the theory and history of
regionalist architecture in the context of globalization. It addresses issues of
identity, diversity, community, inequality, geopolitics, and sustainability. From
the authors who coined the concept of Critical Regionalism, this new edition
enhances the understanding of the complex evolution of regionalism and its
rival, unchecked globalization.
Covering a rich selection of the most outstanding examples of design
from all over the world, Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis, who introduced
the concept of Critical Regionalism to architecture, present an enlightening,
concise historical analysis of the endurance of regionalism and the ceaseless
drive for globalization. New case studies include current cutting-edge projects
in Japan, Africa, China, and the United States.
Architecture of Regionalism in the Age of Globalization offers under-
graduate and graduate students of architecture, geography, history, environ-
mental studies, and other related felds an accessible, vivid, and scholarly
perspective of this major confict as it relates to the design and to the future of
the human-made environment.

Liane Lefaivre is Professor and Chair (retired) of Architectural History and

Theory at the University of Applied Arts in Vienna. Her latest book is Rebel
Modernists: Viennese Architecture since Otto Wagner, London 2017.

Alexander Tzonis is Professor Emeritus at the Technical University of Delft,

Netherlands. He has taught at Harvard, Yale, and, in Paris, the Collège de
France among others.

Among several books Lefaivre and Tzonis co-authored are Times of Creative
Destruction: Shaping Buildings and Cities in the late C20TH (Routledge 2017)
and Emergence of Modern Architecture (Routledge 2004).
Architecture of
Regionalism in the Age
of Globalization
Peaks and Valleys in the Flat World

Second Edition

Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis

Second edition published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2021 Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis

The right of Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis to be identifed as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
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invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to
infringe.

First edition published by Routledge 2011

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lefaivre, Liane, author. | Tzonis, Alexander, author.
Title: Architecture of regionalism in the age of globalization : peaks and
valleys in the fat world / Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis.
Description: 2nd edition. | New York : Routledge, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book remains the
defnitive introductory text on the theory and history of regionalist
architecture in the context of globalization. It addresses issues of
identity, diversity, community, inequality, geopolitics, and
sustainability. “-- Provided by publisher.
Identifers: LCCN 2020024625 (print) | LCCN 2020024626 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367281151 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367281168 (paperback) | ISBN
9780367281182 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Regionalism in architecture. | Architecture and
globalization.
Classifcation: LCC NA682.R44 L438 2021 (print) | LCC NA682.R44 (ebook) |
DDC 724/.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024625
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024626

ISBN: 9780367281151 (hbk)

ISBN: 9780367281168 (pbk)
ISBN: 9780367281182 (ebk)

Typeset in Univers
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Contents
Illustrations vii

Acknowledgments xiii

Preface to the New Edition: Peaks and Valleys in the Flat World:
Why Regionalism? xvii

Introduction to the New Edition: Universe Unbound, the End of the

Geography of Regions? 1

1 The Origins: Regional Architecture and the Dawn of Classical Architecture 9

2 Regional into Regionalist: Cathedrals, Palaces, and the Case of the

Casa Dei Crescenzi as a Manifesto 21

3 Searching for Identity in a Flat Archipelago of Classical Garden-Villas 29

4 The Picturesque Revolt: Liberty, the Merits of Chaos and the

‘Genius of the Place in All’ 47

5 From the Physiocrats and Rousseau to Goethe’s Regionalist Architecture 63

6 Regionalism as a Force for Liberation and National Identity 79

7 Post-Napoleonic Nationalist Regionalism, the Social Question, and

the Emergence of Environmental Architecture 93

8 Regionalism Triumphant, and Corrupted: Out-Of-Place Places,

Emporia, World-Fairs, New States, Colonial Structures, and the
Specter of Totalitarian Regimes 123

9 Global Regionalism Set Against International Style: Lewis Mumford

and his Contemporaries 143

10 De-Regionalization in Post-World War II Reconstruction, Urban

Renewal, and Fake Regionalism 161

11 The Critical Regionalist Response to Multinational De-Regionalization 181

12 Highlights of Critical Regionalism in this Dark Era of Environmental

Inequality and End-of-Diversity Wasteland 229
Contents

Coda: Re-Regionalization and Engagement in a Global World 247

Index 251

vi
Illustrations
0.01 Diagram by Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland
from von Humboldt’s Ideen zu einer Geographie der Pfanzen,
published in Tubingen (1805), showing the volcano of Chimborazo
and Cotopaxi, Ecuador, in cross-section with text indicating which
plant species were specifc to its different, ecologically defned
regions, as what he would later call ‘the cosmos.’ 4

1.01 Four regional houses, two Southern ones with fat roofs, two
Northern ones with pitched roofs, and four classical temples.
Illustration for Vitruvius’s text, Giovan Antonio Rusconi, Dell’
Architettura, 1590. 11

1.02 The Mediterranean as a distributed, polycentric net of distinct

coastal regions. A drawing by Jacobus Robyn, Amsterdam
(1694), captures this situation which had not changed since antiquity. 13

1.03 The acropolis of the Mycenaean city of Pylos, c. 1300 BCE, also
known as the Palace of Nestor, one of the more prosperous of
the regional trading centers of the Mediterranean before the ffth-
century rise of Athens. 14

1.04 Temple of Apollo, Phygalia-Bassae, otherwise known as Bassae.

Longitudinal section, showing the Doric and Ionian columns on
both sides of the temple, and, standing in the very center, the
Corinthian column. D. Svolopoulos reconstruction, B. Trizonis drawing. 17

2.01 The interior of Charlemagne’s Palatine Basilica, consecrated

in 805 CE, was inspired by Justinian’s magnifcently adorned,
octagonal Basilica San Vitale in Ravenna, completed in 547 CE. 25

2.02 Casa dei Crescenzi, Rome. Engraving by Giuseppe Barberis, 1894. 26

3.01 Papal garden of the Quirinale, engraving by Giovanni Battista

Falda, 1683. 31

3.02 Philibert de l’Orme (1567–1648), the ‘French Order’ next to the

natural order, The First Volume of Architecture. 35

3.03 The Marly-le-Roi garden and hermitage by Jules Hardouin-

Mansard and Charles Le Brun, 1677–84. 45

4.01 Matteo Ripa, ‘Morning glow on the western ridge in China,’ c.

1711–23. It expresses the naturalness and irregularity of Chinese
garden design. 51
Illustrations

4.02 Strawberry Hill, North Front. Horace Walpole, A Description of

the Villa, 1784. 53

4.03 Wenceslaus Hollar, Courtyard of Royal Exchange, (c. 1658) and

plan of Stowe Garden from Benton Seeley’s Guidebook (1744). 54

5.01 The Erménonville Park Island with Rousseau’s Tomb, J.M.

Moreau (1763–76). 67

5.02 Caffé du Reinci, Paris, Maisons Russes, imitations of Russian

isbas (log houses) designed by the Scottish gardener Thomas
Blaikie (c. 1770), along with its English garden and peasant
hamlet designed for the retreat of Marie Antoinette in the
Gardens of Versailles, designed by Richard Mique (c. 1774). 70

5.03 Leopold von Anhalt Park Wörlitz, near Dessau 1770s, the Synagogue. 72

5.04 Strasbourg with view of the Cathedral in the background,

postcard c. 1900. 75

6.01 The Cologne Cathedral, from Sulpiz Boisserée, Ansichten (1823). 91

7.01 Henry David Thoreau, Walden; or, Life in the Woods (1854), cover
illustration by Sophia Thoreau. 95

7.02 Konstantine Thon, Christ the Savior Church, Moscow, 1882. 98

7.03 Ivan Ropert Paris Exposition 1878. 100

7.04 Le palais Raichl à Subotica, Serbia (1903), designed by Ferenc Raichl. 101

7.05 Ödon Lechner, Postal Savings Bank, with its resplendent

pyrogranite ceramic roof and decorative regionalist motifs,
Budapest (1901). 104

7.06 Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Palace of Catalan Music, Barcelona

(1908), founded in order to promote Catalan music. 105

7.07 Antoni Gaudí, Casa Battlo (1904). 106

7.08 Alpine regional architecture, La Vedette, residence by Viollet-le-

Duc (1874–6). 109

7.09 John Ruskin, Modern Painters (1843), Alpine glacier, p. 81, and
Alpine profle, p. 82. 117

8.01 Cover of the monthly journal of the Bavarian State Association for
Heimat Protection Association for Folk Art and Folklore, Munich (1927). 125

8.02 Modern art equated with ‘degenerate’ people. This illustration

appeared in Paul Schultze-Naumburg’s Kunst und Rasse (1927);
and ironic cartoon equating the Weissenhof housing estate,
Stuttgart (1927), with an ‘inferior race’ Arab village. 127

8.03 La Place du Gouvernement, the frst urban intervention by the

French colonial powers in North Africa, overlooking the sea in
the Port of Algiers (c. 1880s). A European beer tavern abuts the

viii
 Illustrations

Mosque of the Fishermen, Djeema-Djedid, a colonialist affront

to its importance in the life other indigenous traditional Islamic
community. 132

8.04 Exposition Universelle of 1878, Avenue of Nations, Russian pavilion. 134

8.05 International colonial exposition in Paris of 1931. Cover of the

special issue of L’Illustration, July 1931. Watercolor by Bazin of
the Palais du Maroc pavilion designed by Fournez et Laprade. 135

8.06 Plaza de Espaňa by Aníbal González Álvarez-Ossorio, Exposición

Iberoamericana de Sevilla (1929). 136

8.07 Exposition Universelle, 1937 (Paris). 137

8.08 The Red House, designed by William Morris and Philip Webb at
Bexleyheath in Kent (1859). 140

9.01 Bernard Maybeck, The Lumbermen’s Building and House of Hoo-

Hoo at the Panama-Pacifc International Exposition (1915); and
First Christ Church, Scientist (1910). 146

9.02 The Japanese tea house at the Chicago Columbian Exposition

(1893); and Frank Lloyd Wright, Winslow House (1894). 146

9.03 Postcard. Heimat-themed Nazi barracks Neubrandenburg (1936). 152

10.01 Albert Mayer and Andrew Nowicki’s plan for Chandigarh,

showing the hierarchy of circulation paths that Le Corbusier
would later introduce into his own plan for Chandigarh. 167

10.02 Front page of the Journal and Sentinel, the newspaper of

Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 6 April 1952, presenting
Buckminster Fuller’s design for a cotton mill in the form of a
geodesic dome as a regionalist project. 168

10.03 Paul Rudolph, the Cocoon House for the Healy family in Siesta
Key, Florida (1950). 169

10.04 Edward Durrell Stone, US Embassy, in New Delhi (1959). 173

10.05 Hassan Fathy, Mosque, New Gourna, Egypt (1945–9); and

Gordon Bundshaft with Sedad H. Eldem, Istanbul Hilton
advertisement (1956). 174

10.06 Walter Gropius on the site of the sixteenth-century Al-Kadhimain

Mosque, Baghdad, Iraq (1958); and Design by TAC and Walter
Gropius for the mosque of the University of Baghdad. 175

11.01 Bernard Rudofsky, Cover of Architecture without Architects,

MoMA exhibition catalogue, New York (1964). 182

11.02 Alvar Aalto, Säynätsalo Town Hall, Säynätsalo, Finland (1948–52). 183

11.03 Jørn Utzon, site plan of the Kingo houses in Elsinore (1956–58);
and James Stirling’s sketch of an imagined vernacular building in
the landscape (c. 1957). 183

ix
Illustrations

11.04 Giancarlo de Carlo, housing project for Matera, Italy (1957–58),

and Ernesto Rogers and BBRP, Torre Velasca, Milan (1950–58). 185

11.05 Casa Malaparte (1937); and the cover of Giuseppe Pagano,

Architettura Rurale italiana (1937). 185

11.06 George Candilis, Alexis Josic and Shadrach Woods, ‘Nids

d’abeille,’ Quartier des Carrières, Casablanca (1949). 187

11.07 Shadrach Woods, urban extension for Fort Lamy, Chad (1962),
between the colonial settlement and the casbah. 189

11.08 Edward Larrabee Barnes, Haystack Mountain School of Arts and

Crafts, Deer Island, Maine (1959–61). 190

11.09 Charles Moore, Donlyn Lyndon, William Turnbull Jr., Richard

Whitaker, and Lawrence Halprin, Sea Ranch, Big Sur, California
(1963–5). 190

11.10 Dimitris Pikionis, drawing of the road and footpath immediately

below the Acropolis, Athens (1953–7), and photograph of part of
the path leading up the Philopappos Hill. 191

11.11 Aris Konstantinidis, Weekend House, close to Cape Sounion, in

Anavyssos, (1962). 192

11.12 José Antonio Coderch, photomontage (1950s) and José Luis

Fernández del Amo, Houses in Vegaviana, Cáceres, Spain, (c. 1956). 193

11.13 Juan Antonio Fernandez-Alba, Convento del Rollo, in his

hometown of Salamanca (1962). 193

11.14 Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza, Banco de Bilbao, Madrid (1971–

8). View of the perforated louvers serving as screens shielding
the glazed walls from the intense sun of Madrid. 194

11.15 Eduardo Chillida and Luis Peña Ganchegui, El Peine del Viento,
San Sebastian, Spain (1975–7); and Pascuala Campos de
Michelena, Women’s Pavilion, Combarro, Galicia, (1971–4). 195

11.16 Ken Yeang, Guthrie Pavilion, Shah-Alam, Malaysia (2000). 196

11.17 Renzo Piano, Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre, Noumea, New

Caledonia (1993–8). 196

11.18 Juan O’Gorman, House/studio of Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo

(1929–31). 198

11.19 Juan O’Gorman, Central Library, University of Mexico (1952–3):

the mosaic-clad façade, done in collaboration with Gustavo
Saavedra and Juan Martínez de Velasco. 199

11.20 Lucio Costa, detail of the facade of the Bristol Building, Rio de
Janeiro (1950). 200

11.21 Affonso Reidy, Pedregulho housing project (1950–2). 201

x
 Illustrations

11.22 Roberto Burle Marx, garden of the Capela da Jaqueira,

Perambuco (1954) and Oscar Niemeyer, Dance Hall, Pampulha,
Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil (1942). 201

11.23 Lina Bo Bardi, another project in Salvador de Bahia, besides the

Chame Chame House: the Coatí, a restaurant and club, built as
part of a massive restoration of a larger complex, for the local
Afro-Brazilian community mostly from Benin originally, with the
help of engineer João Filgueras Lima (“Lelé”) on the Misericordia
Cliff in Salvador, Bahia, 1987. Photo: Angela Starita. 202

11.24 Kenzo Tange, City Hall, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan (1955–8). Here,
Tange attempts to preserve architectural ‘Japanness’ by adapting
a contemporary concrete building to the traditional building
techniques and landscape layout. He presented the project at the
CIAM Otterlo Meeting of 1959. 203

11.25 Wajiro Kon, and Yoshida Kenkichi, cover from their Modernology,
Tokyo (1930, republished 1986), studies in detailed micro-regional
observations of everyday life in the city as Japan became Westernized. 204

11.26 Wu Liangyong, Ju’er Hutong housing, Beijing (1987–93); and a

McDonald’s advertisement in front of the historic gate of Beijing. 208

11.27 I.M. Pei, Fragrant Hills Hotel (1982). 209

11.28 Jungtang Chinese Pavilion for Expo Shanghai (2010). 209

11.29 Wang Shu and Lu Wenyu, Zhuantang Campus of the China

Academy of Art, Hangzhou (2000–4). 210

11.30 Xiaodong Li, Bridge School, Fujian province (2010). 211

11.31 Ricardo Porro, School of Plastic Arts, Havana, Cuba (1961–5). 211

11.32 Sketch perspectives from 1934 for the Villa Weizmann, Rehovoth
near Tel Aviv, designed for the future frst President of Israel,
Chaim Weizmann. 213

11.33 Theodor Menkes, Glass House, Residence for single men, Haifa
(1930s). 214

11.34 Al Mansfeld, sketch of the Israel Museum opened in 1965,

designed with Dora Gad, and of a village near Jerusalem (c. 1965). 215

11.35 Moshe Safdie’s Hebrew Union College campus, Jerusalem (1976–88). 215

11.36 Antonin Raymond, Golconde Ashram, Pondicherry, India (1936). 217

11.37 Jean Prouvé, Maison Tropicale, frst prototype, Architecture

d’Aujourd’hui (December 1949). 218

11.38 Minnette de Silva, cost-effective terrace-housing study for

Kirillapone (1954–5), the same year she wrote her article on
modern regional architecture. Built according to indigenous
rammed-earth techniques and using local labor, the bio-climatic
tropical houses were of double height and cross-ventilated. 219

xi
Illustrations

11.39 Geoffrey Bawa, Kandalama Hotel, Dambulla, Sri Lanka (1991–3). 220

11.40 Charles Correa, study model for his Hindustan Lever Pavilion,
New Delhi (1961). 220

11.41 Tay Kheng Soon and William Lim, perspective section of Woh
Hup (Golden Mile) Complex, Singapore (1972). 222

11.42 Theng Jian Fenn and Design Link Associates, Bedok Court,
Singapore (1973). 223

12.01 Balkrishna Doshi, Aranya Low-Cost Housing, Indore, India, (1980s). 231

12.02 Balkrishna Doshi, Center for Environmental Planning and

Technology, Ahmedabad (1962). 232

12.03 Francis Kéré, Gando Primary School, 2001, Burkina Faso

©Siméon Duchoud; and Toshiko Mori, Artist Residency in
Sinthian, Senegal, completed in 2015. Photo: Iwan Baan. 233

12.04 Don Holohan and fellow students at the University of Hong Kong,
Shelter and Resting Place in Peitian Village, Fujian Province,
China (2017). 235

12.05 Yu Kongjian, Red Ribbon on a Garbage Dump, Qinghuangdao,

Hebei Province, China (2008). 237

12.06 Navarra Offce Walk Architecture, Strip Park, Catania, Sicily (2001). 238

12.07 James Turrell and Leslie Elkins, Quakers Oak Friends Meeting
House, Houston, Texas (1995-2001). 239

12.08 Cheng Taining, Jianchuan Museum, Sichuan Province (2006). 240

12.09 Liu Jiakun, Monument to the Victims of the 12 May 2008

Earthquake, Chengdu, China. Photo: Iwan Baan. 241

12.10 Dong Gong of Vector Architects, Yangshua Guesthouse, Guangxi

Province, China (2017). 241

12.11 Jose Antonio de los Santos Bolivar Architects, Valle del

Guadalupe, Mexico (2015); Malek Algadi and Hilary Flur of Folly/
Cohesion, Camping Resort in Joshua Tree (2018). 242

12.12 Toyo Ito, VivoCity, Harbor Front, Bukit Merah, Singapore (2006). 243

12.13 Hong Kong Housing Authority, Shui Chuen O Public Housing

Estate, Shatin, New Territories (2019). 244

12.14 Restoration of the Wok Hai Cheng Bo (Yueh Hai Ching) Temple
carried out by Yeo Kang Shua. 245

12.15 Vo Trong Noia, Training Center Campus, Ho Chi Ming City,

Vietnam (2019). 245

xii
Acknowledgments

The articles we started to publish about Critical Regionalism at the beginning of

the 1980s received a surprisingly, to us at least, positive response internation-
ally. We were often invited to lecture and work in different parts of the world
where our ideas were interpreted in different ways, often raising controversy
and challenges, given the context of the intellectual tradition of the country
and its current environmental and cultural problems. This greatly deepened and
broadened the scope of our writings over the years.
The frst major event about Critical Regionalism took place in Spain
in 1984. The invitation came from Luis Fernandez Galiano, who had translated
Alex's book, Towards a Non-Oppressive Environment, into Spanish, and from
Antonio Fernandez-Alba, a leading architect and public administrator at that
moment. What made this discussion interesting was that regionalism was
controversial in Spain because of its association with Franco's culture, but
since the nineteenth century regionalism had also been a vibrant movement,
opposing the imperialist past of Spain and advocating the emancipation of
Spanish regions. We owe a debt of gratitude also to the architectural historian
Antonio Bonet Corea for the many exchanges we had. Many publications
followed, including in El Pais, whose director, Juan-Luis Cebriàn, was particu-
larly interested in the topic in the midst of a post-dictatorial era. The newly
elected socialist government had us travel to the different regions, meet
architects involved in the regionalist renaissance, and visit projects and cities.
Some of the notable architects we met with on this subject were, Pascuala
Campos de Michelena, Antonio Velez Catrain, Ricardo Aroca, Aurelio del Pozo,
Antonio Vazquez de Castro, Juan Miguel Hernandez Leon, and the late Juan
Antonio Ramirez, poet and historian.
In 1989, the Pomona California State Polytechnic University
sponsored a three-day-long international symposium on Critical Regionalism,
organized by Spiros Amourgis and Dean Marvin Malecha. It was an extremely
exciting platform, with many architects, critics, and researchers from around
the world, most importantly Toshio Nakamura, who brought in highly valuable
information about the role of regionalism in Japanese architecture since the
nineteenth century, and the great southern Californian architect, Rafael Soriano.
Soon after, Alex was invited to organize, with Lucas Spengler,
a series of events during the 1990s at the Royal Palace of the Netherlands,
under the auspices of her Majesty Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands and the
city of Amsterdam. During these events, we were incredibly lucky to interact
Acknowledgments

with his Royal Highness Prince Claus, particularly in viewing the role of Critical
Regionalism in a geo-political context of globalization. During those meetings,
we had enriching exchanges with Neva Godwin, Stephen Toulmin, and Bruce
Mazlish.
Supported by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands
in 1998, an international conference on Tropical Regionalism, linked with our
research on the topic in Delft, was organized by Bruno Stagno in Costa Rica. It
focused on Tropical Regionalism on a global scale, in the region extending from
Singapore and Malaysia to Brazil, Central America, Africa, India, Australia, and
China, which in addition to common ecological and climatic issues presented
the challenge of creating an authentic, new architecture in a post-colonial
context. We had most germinal discussions with Ken Yeang, Roberto Segre,
Eduardo Tejeira-Davis, and Gerardo Mosquera.
Critical Regionalism in the Mediterranean world was the focus in
the early 2000s of events that Alex was asked to organize in collaboration
with Professor Michael Levin and Anna Orgel at Mishkenot Sha-ananim in
Jerusalem. During our discussions with Dani Karavan, Gabriel Kertesz, Shlomo
Aronson, Arie Rachamimoff, Enric Miralles, and Santiago Calatrava, we tried to
defne regionalism in the context of the long-range history of Mediterranean
culture, climate, unique landscape, and most complex geo-politics.
We also had the opportunity to discuss the actuality of Critical
Regionalism in countries with a similar post-colonial, tropical character such
as India, where Liane lectured and visited projects, invited by Christopher
Benninger in 2000. The invitation was repeated in 2015 by Durganand Balsavar
of the Indian Institute of Architects. Similarly, Liane in the framework of an invi-
tation by John Loomis of the AIIA, visited Cuba and studied regional projects of
the American-dominated globalization of the island, as well as current projects,
and had discussions with the late Ricardo Porro and the late Eliana Cardenas
about issues of the preservation of regional identity in architecture.
Very infuential in the formation of our ideas about Critical Regionalism
was our visit in 2012 to Brazil, following an invitation from the Ministry of
Education. In addition to studying important regionalist projects, we had exten-
sive discussions at the Federal University of Sao Paolo, the University of Rio and
Brasilia. We are grateful for the institutional hospitality and personal generosity
in showing us around to Professor Silvio Sawaya, Luciano Migliaccio, Maria
Fernanda Derntl, Felipe de Andrade, Hugo Segawa, Jose Lira, Antonio Carlos
Carpintero, and Eugenia Gorini, the director of the Pietro and Lina Bo Bardi
Archive in Sao Paolo. We were honored that the late Roberto Segre accepted
to debate with us in public. A similar series of interactions took place in Mexico
in 2013, where we were invited by the Autonomous University of Mexico and
the Universidad Iberoamericana. Sara Topelson, Louise Noelle Gras, and Jose
Luis Cortes generously shared their insights into the architectural culture and
politics of Mexico. Later in 2013, Peter Laurence organized a major event on
the occasion of South Carolina's Clemson University's centennial celebrations,
focusing on the question of Critical Regionalism in relation to current issues of
environmental and urban crises in the United States.
We had informative discussions in South Africa with Peter Rich, Ian
Low, Albie Sachs, Vanessa September, and Stella Papanicolao, and with Jelica
Jovanovitch about Serbia and what used to be Yugoslavia – both regions where

xiv
 Acknowledgments

the problem of identity from the critical point of view is posed in a post-regime
context. During the DOCOMOMO meeting of 2019 in Ljubljana, the question
was presented by us and debated following an invitation by Natasa Koselij and
Ana Tostoes.
We are most fortunate that during the last 30 years we have
been involved in researching, writing, and presenting our ideas about Critical
Regionalism, we have been in contact as visiting professors, key-note lecturers,
and participants in work seminars in Singapore, Taiwan, China, and the Hong
Kong regions, parts of the world where construction of an unprecedented scale
and innovation occurs and where the issues of identity, environmental quality,
conservation of rare resources, social cohesion, and, more recently, public
health are felt to be most pressing.
In Singapore, we are grateful for the always-generous hospitality
and precious conversations of over a decade with Heng Chye Kiang, Tay
Kheng Soon, William Lim, Liu Tai Ker, and more recently with Yeoh Kang Shua,
and also Lai Chee Kien and Jerry Hau. During the same period, in Taiwan,
Alex visited projects, and architectural and research frms, and lectured and
debated about Critical Regionalism in several universities under the auspices
of Hoang-El Jeng.
In Hong Kong we have been invited to lecture and visit projects,
public planning offces, and private frms over the last two decades. These
encounters were most infuential in helping us to understand the problem of
environmental and cultural quality, creativity, and public welfare in the context
of possibly the most globalizing corner of the world. The people who made this
possible are Eve Siu Tracy, Patrick Lay, Leslie Lu, Gary Chang, and Benny Chan,
and the leaders of the Hong Kong Institute of Architecture who confrmed Alex
as an Honorary Fellow in 2018.
In China we have been working with the China Art Academy in
Hangzhou, and having insightful exchanges about Critical Regionalism today
with Wang Shu and Li Kaisheng, and at the Tongji University in Shanghai,
Zheng Shiling, Sigfried Wu, Lu Yongyi, and Ping Kong. We have also carried out
discussions in the Southeast University in Nanjing, one of the most important
institutions in nurturing modern architecture in China since 1930. We had inten-
sive discussions with Ge Ming and Yang Jianqiang.
We are most fortunate to have been able to regularly participate
during the last 30 years in research and teaching at Tsinghua University, invited
by Professor Wu Liangyong, who has devoted his long professional life to the
problems of regional planning, identity, and community. We are grateful for
the hospitality of Dean Huang Weimin and Dean Zhu Wenyi during this time.
In setting up an international master's program, we had prolonged discussion
and collaborations with Liu Jian, Wang Lu, Xiadong Li, and Zhang Li, also with
Yu Kongjian of Peking University, who provided an ecological perspective onto
issues of regionalism.
We are immensely indebted to our university, the Technical University
of Delft, in particular under former Dean Wytze Patijn and former Dean Jurgen
Roseman, for supporting our teaching and research for over three decades in our
Design Knowledge Systems group – with brilliant doctorate students, among
them Philip Bay, Yu Li, Fang Nan, Peter Scriver, and Karina Zarzar, and with the
assistance of Leo Oorshot, Joeri van Ommeren, and Janneke Arkenstein. Bill

xv
Acknowledgments

Porter, the late Stan Anderson, and the late Donald Schön joined our research
on behalf of MIT. In 2014, Marta Rota organized a one-day symposium at the
TUDelft, and among the invitees were Andreas Faludi and Dirk van Gameren
who gave insightful overviews of the dilemmas of current architectural practice
in the context of globalization and critical regionalism.
A great inspiration of our work was the research carried out by
Manfred Bietak, the great Egyptologist and member of the Austrian Academy
of Science; Alberto Villar-Movellan, the leading historian of regionalism in
Spain; and Donald Watson, founder of the MED program at the Yale School of
Architecture. Early on, we benefted from discussions in Greece with Dimitris
Fatouros, Dimistris and Suzanna Antonakakis, Nikos Kalogirou, the architect
Aris Konstantinidis, the poetess Elli Papadimitriou, the novelist Dimitris Hadzis,
and at Harvard with Jerzy Soltan and Eduard Sekler. We had highly fruitful
interactions with the architects Giancarlo de Carlo, Balkrishna Doshi, Ed Barnes,
Charles Correa, Flora Reuchat, Giovanni Buzzi, Zhang Ke, Moshe Safdie, Doug
Kelbaugh, Jacques Ferrier, and Rahul Mehrotra; and with the academics Richard
Pommer, Gwendolyn Wright, Murray Fraser, Gerhard Fehl, Isben Onen, Tian
Sun, Michelangelo Sabatino, Ishan Bilgin, Vikram Bhatt, Francois Chaslin, Yushi
Uehara, and Karla Britton. Fritz Schoeder always offered valuable critical insights
over the years. Special mention goes to Andre Schimmerling, admirer of the
regionalist Patrick Geddes, the founder of Le Carré Bleu, and the renowned
photographer of post-war Le Corbusier, Lucien Hervé, who is closely linked to
the journal, for their immense intellectual and personal support going back to
the early 1970s.
We have had the special fortune to have been able to collaborate
with Anthony Alofsin, Rick Diamond, and Rebecca Caso Donadei as co-authors.
We must also express our thanks to the publishers of our writings on Critical
Regionalism: Angeli Sachs, Maggie Toy, Anthony Tischhauser, Jean Francois
Drevon, the late Orestis Domains, Li Ge, our editor at the China Architecture
& Building Press, and our translators and assistants Qingyun Huang and Sun
Yuchen.
Without the support, and also the challenges, of these colleagues,
this publication would not have been materialized.
Our greatest indebtedness goes to our publisher Routledge and
Taylor and Francis, and to the members of the staff for their enduring support:
Caroline Mallinder, editor of our Roots of Modern Architecture where many of
the ideas of the current book originate, Fran Ford, Georgina Johnson, Jennifer
Schmidt, Julia Pollacco, Grace Harrison, Allie Waite, and Laura Williamson.
Krystal LaDuc worked creatively with us on the frst phase of the production
of the book, and Christine Bondira followed the development of this text with
great patience and expertise, continuously encouraging us through these hard
times.

xvi
Preface to the
New Edition
Peaks and Valleys in the Flat World: Why Regionalism?
‘Regionalism?’
‘Yes, regionalism,’ answered Lucius.
This exchange took place at Harvard, at the GSD, where Professor
Lucius Burckhardt had delivered a keynote speech for a conference Alex had
organized to celebrate the German Werkbund on 12 April 1980.1
Burckhardt was asking us to contribute an essay to his forthcoming
book, Another Architecture, published in 1981, focusing on regionalism and
‘ecological design.’2 We accepted, and it was in this publication that we
introduced the idea of Critical Regionalism.
Neither our acceptance nor Burckhardt's proposal were unrelated
to the conference, whose underpinning theme was ‘what is happening to
modern architecture,’ an echo of Mumford's agenda for the renowned MoMA
symposium of 1948 that we will discuss later in this book. The intension
was to challenge postmodernism, a trend spreading at the time that in turn
claimed to be displacing ‘modernism,’ responsible, postmodernists alleged, for
dysfunctional and unsightly projects since the end of World War II which were
uncaring to urban and landscape contexts. By the time of our meeting, how-
ever, it was clear that postmodernism, propelled by globalization, was respon-
sible for equally bad projects, and indifferent to regional identity.
Burckhardt was professor at the University of Kassel.3 We had
known him since the time he was Professor at the ETH in the late 1960s. He
arranged for the publication of Alex's Non-Oppressive Environment in German
(1972), and had published in his magazine Werk our long article on ‘The Populist
Movement in Architecture’ (1975), the frst text we wrote together where we
discussed the ‘people-based’ architecture overcoming the global imposition of
top-down universal norms.4
Alex's involvement with regionalism went back to the period when
he was a private student of the regionalist painter Spiros Papaloukas and the
architect Dimitris Pikionis (1955–7), a vibrant period dominated culturally by a
renewed regionalism in Greece. In 1960, he was the art director of Never on
Sunday, a flm with Melina Mercouri and Hadzidakis's music, directed by Jules
Dassin, a story about the subjugation of women but also about globalization
infringing on the culture of a region, Greece.
Preface to the New Edition

In mid-60s, Alex was researching and teaching with Serge Chermayeff

at Yale. The idea of regionalism (in the sense, that of Patrick Geddes and Louis
Mumford, as we will discuss later) played an important role in coining the term
‘Third Ecology’ and the expression ‘shape of community’ (a phrase of Martin
Buber's that Alex suggested as the focus and title for their future book, The
Shape of Community [1972], published with a Preface by the Viennese cyber-
netics theoretician Heinz von Foerster).
From 1969 to 1972, now at Harvard, collaborating with Walter
Isard, the founder of Regional Science, and his assistant Ovadia Salama,
Alex expanded these ideas while seeking to ground them on new analytical
methods.
In 1969, he invited Mumford (an admirer of Pikionis's Acropolis
Path5) to open an exhibition that he organized at the Graduate School of Design
(1969) on the Israeli regionalist architect and pioneer regional planner, Artur
Glikson (inspired by Geddes), to be discussed later.6
Liane, an undergraduate when they started collaborating on the art-
icle on ‘Populism,’ had come of age in Montreal in the 1960s, marked, like many
cities worldwide, by the optimism and subsequent turbulence of the time, but
also by the issues of community, multi-culturalism, and regionalist nationalism
that were dominant.
The article on regionalism Burkhardt commissioned us to contribute
was published alongside the work of young German architects.7
Later we wrote about Critical Regionalism in Greece (Dimitris
Pikionis, Aris Konstandinidis, and Suzanna and Dimitris Andonakakis), more
extensively about regionalism in Spain, at that time going through an especially
creative period, and later about architects all over the world.8
We chose the term ‘regionalist’ instead of ‘local’ or ‘contextual’ to
link the new architectural developments to a long history of ‘peaks and valleys'
of diverse regions opposing globalization, which was responsible for creating
a desert fatland, with historical amnesia, without ecological and cultural diver-
sity, although with rising peaks of prosperity and deepening valleys of poverty.9
We approached contemporary regionalism as a thinking tool within
an exceptionally broad historical ‘horizon,’ to borrow Husserl's expression, and
a ‘meta’ overview – that is, from a higher level – that made it ‘critical.’
We chose the term critical regionalism because we found that the
current regionalism was critical not only of the abuses of globalization, but also
of regionalism itself, at least as it had come to be seen by the early 1980s,
which was one of the nadir points in the history of its appeal, as we will see.
‘Critical’ thinking was developed in history, among others, by
Socrates, Maimonides, Montaigne, Descartes, Marx, and Freud – to name a
few. The two major representatives in architecture were Claude Perrault and
Carlo Lodoli. In one way or another, all stood against the idolatry of ‘false Gods'
or fetishes and false ideals. Today, the term is usually attributed to Kant. His
work has been infuential internationally, including in America, especially on the
Transcendentalists, among them Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller.
Their views on regionalism, on Critical Regionalism, again as we will see,
inspired the US regionalist movement in the early twentieth century, especially
Lewis Mumford.10

xviii
 Preface to the New Edition

Within this historical-critical horizon that binds contemporary

problems with past events, regionalism appears as having facilitated political,
socio-economic, technological, and cultural campaigns with a long-term con-
tinuity of struggles to defend the communities and the natural and cultural
resources of regions from globalization.
We can see also globalization evolving as a movement, almost in
parallel with that of regionalism. It spread with the aid of empires, universal
religions, colonization campaigns, and, more recently, economic conglomerates,
international political movements, intellectual trusts, and unprecedented geo-
political and technological developments. It spread with the promise of lib-
erating regions, dissolving barriers, shrinking distances between locations
and resources, people, ideas, knowledge, funds, and materials essential for
creativity.
Globalism as liberator promised unmatched abundance, a universe
where everything was available everywhere and for everybody. An inviting
utopia. But did it happen?
It did, but mostly in the short run, and, as we will see, while spoiling
rare resources, and diminishing available environmental staples such as air,
water, sunshine, fowers, and human dialogue.
More than ever, since the book was frst published, fueled by the
mindless growth of cities and senseless gigantic constructions, globalization
has proved to be more libertine than liberating, producing next to the peaks of
environmental opulence valleys of environmental poverty.
And, as we are working on this new text, the news about the envir-
onmental crisis, the waves of immigrants, migrants, fugitives, mass-tourists,
along with super-fres, mega climate-changes, the monstrous pandemic,
demonstrated the perversity of globalization as allowed to be spread today but
also, as we will discuss, the limitations of critical regionalist architecture as we
conceived it before this crisis.
Equally pathetic as well as destructive are more recent suggestions
of ‘uncritical neo-regionalisms' urging ‘resistance’ and ‘exit’ from regions out of
globalization structures (that, as we will see in our book, did sustain in the past
the diversity of regions improving human life) and fundamentalist, uncritical
‘neo-regionalism,’ blowing up ‘impure’ regional heritage.
Next to these uninviting alternatives, we try to show in our book the
possibility of Critical Regionalism, far from being a spent project, redefned in
a framework of Critical Globalization within which regions, with their diversity
sustained and enabled, are engaged in a co-evolving system of regions, not left
to chance but designed by plan, and a new way of planning, as incubators of
ecological, economic, social, and cultural creativity.

Notes
1. 12 April 1980, The German Werkbund, the Pleasures of Form and the Realities of Life, G.S.D.
Harvard University, among the participants and audience: Julius Posener, the frst post-World
War II president of the Werkbund; Ise Gropius; Professor Christian Schädlich, from Weimar,
East Germany; and Professor Willo von Moltke, whose brother was executed for conspiring to
assassinate Hitler in 1945. Harvard students assisting the organization of the event: Anthony

xix
Preface to the New Edition

Alofsin and Eleanor Hight, who curated an exhibition of Werkbund works from the Bush-Reisinger
Museum of Harvard.
2. Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Anthony Alofsin. ‘Die Frage des Regionalismus,’ in M.
Andritzky, L. Burckhardt, and O. Hoffmann (eds.), Fur eine andere Architektur, Vol. 1, Frankfurt,
1981.
3. Lucius Burckhardt was a pioneering activist in the feld of participatory urban planning who
published and worked on the theme of urban planning ecology and democracy. In Kassel, he also
participated in the organization of the Documenta art exhibition with Joseph Beuys. President
of the Werkbund and editor-in-chief, along with Annemarie Burckhardt, of the magazine Werk,
and, fnally, a Rousseauist ecologist/artist/writer whose themes were ‘Dirt,’ ‘Strollology,’ and the
‘science of walking’ through ecologically devastated landscapes. Still, his reference to ‘region-
alism’ came as a surprise.
4. Reprinted in: Tzonis, Alexander, and Liane Lefaivre. Times of Creative Destruction: Shaping
Buildings and Cities in the late C20TH, London, 2017.
5. City in History, New York, 1961.
6. Lewis Mumford, Arthur Glikson, ed. Lewis Mumford. The Ecological Basis of Planning, The
Hague, 1971.
7. Gernot Minke, Rudolf Doernach, Ot Hoffmann, and Gerald Blomeyer.
8. ‘El regionalismo crítico y la arquitectura española actual.’ Arquitectura y Vivienda 3, (October)
1985.
9. One of the reasons we chose the expression ‘fat’ was in response to the pro-globalization book
by Thomas L. Friedman, The World Is Flat, 2005.
10. Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre. ‘Lewis Mumford's Regionalism,’ Design Book Review 19,
(Fall) 1991.

xx
Introduction to the
New Edition
Universe Unbound, the End of the Geography
of Regions?
Geography as an inquiry and a domain of knowledge emerged
within regions at an early time to grasp and map the regions’ relations with
other regions, how far they were from each other, what were the intervening
‘peaks,,’ ‘valleys,’ and ‘fat’ lands (geographical concepts that we have used in
this book) or water between them that made travel between them harder or
easier, affecting the possibility of regions to be invaded by other regions, and
become enslaved, deprived of their resources, homes, and of their way of life
(regional aspects that geography became increasingly involved in mapping their
‘peaks’ and ‘valleys’), but also enabling the opportunity of exchanging people,
materials, and knowledge that would enrich them, enhancing environmental
happiness, culture and creativity.
Geography has proven to be a highly important instrument in
describing, but also predicting and planning, the regionalization and globaliza-
tion of the world.
It is important, therefore, in this recent period of devastating social,
inequality, ecological, and health crisis, that ‘new geography,’ mapping how
regionalism, next to globalization, advances in all their aspects, including archi-
tecture, predicts that the world is getting increasingly ‘fat,,’ perhaps unavoid-
ably so,1 and all efforts to sustain regionalism, including regionalist architecture,
are fatal.
By ‘fat,’ geographers mean an ideal environment where obstacles
to interaction such as distance – ‘peaks and valleys’ – are eliminated. The
idea of a fat world emerged in early nineteenth-century Germany, and largely
remained the purview of German geographers up until World War II. The frst
person to use the concept was the early nineteenth-century Johann Heinrich
von Thünen, a German landowner and writer, one of the pioneers of modern
regional science and planning. In his germinal The Isolated State (1826), he
imagined an ideal, highly abstract, and reductive state with no obstructions
to the circulation of the inhabitants. The state’s middle was occupied by a
center that contained a market, and the surrounding land was divided into con-
centric zones at increasing distance from the center. The frst yielded fruits,
vegetables, and dairy products; the second materials for fuel and construction;
the third feld crops; and the last animals for slaughter. Peasants traveled on
foot carrying goods and animals.
Introduction to the New Edition

This abstract description was a good representation of most of

the globalizing German-speaking world at that time, and it was able to help
the landlords to better organize and plan their estates. It was reductive but it
introduced key planning categories such as ‘center,’ ‘location,’ and ‘zones of
land’ differentiated by use, rent, and yield. More importantly, it related distance
between places with cost and beneft.
According to the American Nobel Prize-winning economist Paul
Krugman, von Thünen’s work is still a good point of departure for economists
and planners. If you substitute farmers with commuters, he argues, the model
helps us to understand better the spatial structure of cities and territories, and
the implications of centralization or decentralization of regions on land values
and on the quality of life.
The model, with its agricultural origins, was unable to grasp the
entirety of people’s lives and the complexity of contemporary buildings, cities,
and regions as they evolved in space and time. Many researchers tried to go
beyond these limitations, limitations that refected those of a closed agricultural
economy.
One of them was another German, the geographer Walter Christaller.
He developed an ingenious model consisting of a hierarchy of nested hexagonal
patterns refecting the multiplicity of scale of modern human settlements. Like
Von Thünen’s, Christaller’s model assumed a physically fat land which, rare as
it may be, was suited to the naturally fat regions of Poland and the Ukraine.
The Nazi army used it to colonize both areas in the early 1940s, with the help of
Christaller’s ideas in their plans of globalization during WWII.2
Like Von Thünen’s, Christaller’s model served as a major inspir-
ation for a new generation of regional scientists, planners, and urbanists of
the 1950s that became involved with the study of regions preoccupied with
modern problems of urbanization, growth, and sprawl.3 They tried to build less
abstract and more realistic models, capable of representing ‘non-fat’ regional
landscapes, with their intangible political, legal, and cultural ‘frictions’ that
resisted the forces of globalization fattening the world, still approaching the
problem from an analytical point of view.
One of the most important contributors to this was the American
Walter Isard,4 who established a new scientifc discipline, Regional Science, in
the 1950s at Harvard and then at the University of Pennsylvania.
Isard extended the scope of the ‘input-output’ macro-economic
system that shows how mutually productive industrial units interrelate in
an economy,5 discovered by Nobel-winning Wassily Leontief, while he was
working under Leontief at Harvard.
Thus, combining the discoveries of Leontief with the work of German
regional geographers, Isard discovered how regions, their people, and their
products interdepend systematically on each other and interrelate with other
regions within a global context. His fndings were benefcial for the economy of
regions, but they were also important for understanding better the complexity
of ecology and culture.
In addition, being a committed pacifst, besides trying to optimize the
economic effciency, he also aimed at making regional planning into a method
for resolving confict and bringing about ecological, economic, and social equity
as well as world peace.

2
 Introduction to the New Edition

He imagined a future ideal, fattened, globalized universe where,

thanks to regional science, interaction between regions would be maximized
while resistance was minimized; where, thanks to transportation and electronic
communication – including the internet and the web – there would be none of
the distinctions between center and periphery that cause so much misery in
the world.6 This was a world where national borders, state regulations, and bur-
eaucratic controls no longer enslaved people; where every region was effort-
lessly, instantly, equally accessible from any other region. This is how Friedman
thought of it.
The same idea, that a fattened, globalized world leads to a better
life, a life free from the cost and pain of having to surmount hurdles and
distances to be in contact with other regions, had other adherents in the
twentieth century. In this context, globalization promised to liberate regions,
dissolve barriers and distances, and produce unmatched abundance. Karl Ernst
Haushofer (1869–1946), for example, a theoretical geographer, developed the
theory of ‘Geopolitik,’ stimulated by the search of Germany to acquire global
markets and resources and establish a Eurasian spatial-economic order in the
1930s. He believed Germany needed new regions to survive, and ended up
justifying its right to create a unilaterally global empire governed from the top.
Karl August Wittfogel (1896–1988) developed a theory, also justifying authori-
tarian globalization, explaining the genesis of quasi-global ‘despotic’ empires
(Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Roman, Chinese) in the past had needed ‘totali-
tarian’ regimes for the construction of mega ‘hydraulic’ projects serving a
multitude of tribal regions.
The fatness school of thought reached a paroxysm with Atlantropa,
an ideal world conceived by the German architect Herman Sörgel in the 1920s.7
Sörgel intended to control the level of the Mediterranean Sea by building four
giga-hydroelectric dams, including one mega-dam across the Strait of Gibraltar,
generating eternal energy and making available cultivation land between Europe
and Africa. The Nazi government thought it was not a bad idea and supported
him offcially. As they lost the war, the idea did not materialize.
This brings us to another development in the discussion of regions
opposed to top-down, reductive, abstract, analytical, or utopian fattening
endeavors: they favored a ground-up empirical, approach focusing on the of
‘peaks and valleys’ singularity of the regions, but also searching for the under-
lying globality of the ‘kosmos.’
Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) is the frst major representa-
tive of this tendency (see Figure 00.01). He wished to embrace the hills and
valleys of the world as a global complex system he called ‘the cosmos.’ It
derives from Kosmos, an ancient Greek term that means the (ordered) ‘univer-
sality’ of the world. Humboldt introduced it in his book of the same title, Das
Kosmos, during and after the days of the Napoleonic expeditions to globalize
the world, as the title of his multivolume masterpiece, mobilizing the multi-
media of his time, text, fgures, and dazzling multicolored illustrations, he tried
to map, in addition to its spatial morphology, the ‘Kosmos’ as encompassing
the infnite diversity of the natural environment (including human-made climate)
and its human-made ‘simultaneous cultivation of all branches of culture’ within
an ‘internal chain of the general with the particular,’ ‘the interaction of forces in
a natural whole.’8

3
4

Introduction to the New Edition

Figure 00.01 Diagram by Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland from von Humboldt’s Ideen zu einer Geographie der Pfanzen, published in Tubingen (1805), showing the volcano
of Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, Ecuador, in cross-section with text indicating which plant species were specifc to its different, ecologically defned regions, as what he would later call ‘the
cosmos.’
 Introduction to the New Edition

On a much smaller scale, many researchers in the growing feld

of human geography in the twentieth century have focused on the ‘hills and
valleys’ and the particularity of regions, natural and urban areas, to map and
investigate not only natural aspects and cultural artifacts but also what Paul
Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) called ‘way of life,’ (genre de vie) developments,
as we will see later in our book, linked with ‘nationalist-regionalist’ movements.
The Japanese architect and anthropologist Kon Wajirō9 invented a
new discipline, modernology, in 1930 with a book under the same title. The
regions he was interested in were the micro-regions of a city, in this case
Tokyo. He was not interested in redesigning regions globally or in globalizing
the globe in a top-down way. His goal was to develop a new method of studying
and mapping the singularity of traditional urban Japanese society’s adaptation
to ‘modern times’ in his search to develop useful ways to adapt the modern
world to the local one.
Soon after World War II, in a manner similar to that of Kon Wajirō,
William Bunge (1928–2013), a German-born American geographer, was intent
on focusing on the reality of modern urban regions, both physical and human,
with the hills and valleys refecting the inequalities between affuence and pov-
erty, economic and environmental. He began documenting poor areas around
Chicago. His approach was more systematic than Kon’s. In portraying the sprawl
of garbage and broken glass, he structured his data, employing advanced
mathematical tools. Furthermore, next to the text and drawing survey, he
recorded and analyzed dialogues with the residents, making vocal their views
of the region, possibly distinct from the biased impressions of the geographer.
His work was in concert with projects of young participatory and advocacy
architects around the world involved in feld studies and experimenting with
new means of identifying regional specifcities, particularly in silent and invis-
ible regions in crisis.10
Concurrently, in France, Chombart de Lauwe developed new ways of
describing urban micro-regions according to changing environmental conditions,
water supply, acoustic milieu, clean air, and especially the conditions that affect
communication between people under which ‘workers,’ including women, lost
the opportunity to carry out a democratic, everyday life that is equality of oppor-
tunities.11 Henri Lefebvre too, a sociologist, spoke about the right to the city
as part of human rights and its implications for planning,12 while Guy Debord,
a philosopher-activist, drawing from the work of Chombart de Lauwe and
Lefebvre, tried to develop ‘psychogéographiques,’ new ways of documenting
urban regions, capturing socio-psychological environmental constraints.13
During the same period, Gaston Bachelard, a philosopher psycholo-
gist, discussed dreamed environments.14
All of these micro-regionalist writers were opposed to ‘fattening’
the world, seeing the uniqueness, identity, and diversity of regions as a human
right. Their arguments were political, normative, and critical, but remained non-
historical. They trusted ground-up ‘utopian’ ideas and remained suspicious of
professional practitioners and ‘long-range’ planning.
In the chapters to come, we will try to investigate the opposition
between the anti-regionalist fatteners and the regionalist believers in ‘hills
and valleys,’ set in a historical panorama. We will trace the evolution of region-
alism, encountering it frst it in the Mediterranean world, when archaic regions

5
Introduction to the New Edition

were demarcated and guarded by physical boundaries reinforced by mythical

tribal identities, but also in dialogue and exchanges with other regions, for-
ging alliances that turned into globalizing empires that in turn declined and fell,
to be succeeded by a de-regionalized world and again, some centuries later,
re-globalized by empire-aspiring powers.
In the historical oscillations between regionalism and globaliza-
tion, architecture played a very important role. Temples, palaces, gardens,
cathedrals, villas, and later other types of public and private buildings enhanced
and enabled globalization, but also regionalist movements.
We will follow further the blooming of regionalism in the eighteenth,
nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, when it became increasingly a leading
cultural movement, frst in England, subsequently in Germany, France, Spain,
Russia, soon in America, Asia, and fnally, the world over. Confronting globalizing
regimes, regionalism grows into a key cultural expression supporting emanci-
pation and nation building, struggling against globalizing ‘ancient regimes,’ and,
fnally, colonization.
However, during the same period, we witness regionalism in archi-
tecture to be recruited by the European court culture and the rising market
economy, to be diverted to advance phantom realms of consumerism that had
very little to do with the long tradition of the movement. Also, in nineteenth-
century architecture there was the faking of regionalism, enrolled to serve
socio-political chauvinist campaigns, undoing the long-term tradition of the
movement.
But, as we will see, reacting to these diversions, around the end
of the disastrous World War II, emerges a mutation of regionalism, a Critical
Regionalism, as we have called it, which contests in theory and practice the
brute force of advanced globalization, in reconstruction, urban renewal, and
post-colonial ventures, all suppressing the reality of regions.
We will try to explain why the future of mindless globalization, ‘the
end of regions,’ together with a more recent development, the intolerant neo-
regionalism of fundamentalist separatists, are not so certain. Regionalism,
renewing its critical self, engaging peaks and valleys of ecological, ways of life,
and cultural diversity with what we have called a Critical Globalism, might be an
alternative worth exploring and considering.
To delve into this evolving new reality, tracking our historical-critical
path, it might be good to turn to the roots of regionalism in discord, but also in
dialogue with globalization.

Notes
1 Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, New York, 2005.
2 Christaller, Walter, Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland, Jena, 1933.
3 Lösch, ‘Law of Minimum Effort,’ 1954; ‘Principle of Least Effort,’ George Kingsley Zipf, Human
Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort, Boston, 1949; John Q. Stewart and William Warntz,
‘Physics of Population Distribution,’ Journal of Regional Sciences 1, 1958.
4 Paul Krugman, ‘Interegional and International Trade,’ Walter Isard, Location and Space-Economy,
1956.
5 The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, 1973.
6 Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System, New York, 1974.

6
 Introduction to the New Edition

7 Alexander Gall, The Atlantropa Project. The Story of a Failed Vision. Herman Sörgel and the
Subsidence of the Mediterranean, Frankfurt am Main, 1998.
8 Alexander Humboldt, Cosmos. Potsdam, 1884.
9 Kon Wajirō, What Is Modernology, 1927.
10 William W. Bunge, Fitzgerald: Geography of a Revolution, Cambridge, MA, 1971.
11 Alternative explorations about the nature of regions in modern times were carried out in France,
among others, by Élisée Reclus (1830–1905) and Paul Vidal de la Blanche (1845–1918).
12 Henri Lefebvre, The Right to the City, 1966;Henri Lefebvre The Production of Space, 1974.
13 Guy Debord, The Naked City, Paris, 1957; Guy Debord, Society and the Spectacle, Paris, 1967;
Guy Debord, La fn des villes, Paris, 1982.
14 Gaston Bachelard, Le droit de rêver, Paris, 1973.

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Debord, Guy. The Naked City. Paris, 1957.
Friedman, Thomas. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century. New York, 2005.
Hammer, C., and F.C. Iklé. ‘Intercity Telephone and Air-Born Traffc Related to Distance and the
‘Propensity to Interact,’ Sociometry 20, 1957.
Von Humboldt, Alexander. Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Equinoctial Regions of the New
Continent, New York, 1995.
Kon, Wajiro. ‘What Is Modernology (1927),’ in Ignacio Adriasola (trans.), Review of Japanese Culture
and Society 28, 2016, 62–73.
Lefebvre, Henry. The Production of Space. Paris, 1974.
Lefebvre, Henry. The Right to the City. Paris, 1968.
Levy, Jacques, et al. Théorie de la Justice Spatiale. Paris, 2018.
Long, Wesley H. ‘City Characteristics and the Demand for Interurban Air Travel,’ Land Economics,
(May) 1968.
Mountz, Alison, and William W. Bunge. Fitzgerald: Geography of a Revolution. Cambridge, MA, 1971.
Stewart, John Q., and William Warntz. ‘Physics of Population Distribution,’ Journal of Regional
Sciences 1, 1958.
Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World-System. New York, 1974.
Zipf, George Kingsley. Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort. Boston, 1949.

7
Notes

Chapter 1 The Origins

1 Kott 1974.
2 Vitruvius 1970.
3 Lucretius, 1910 (frst century BCE)
4 Hippocrates (ch. 14–22), see also Férez 1994.
5 Vitruvius 1970.
6 Herodotus 2009.
7 Plutarch De Malignate Herodoti (On the Malice of Herodotus), (12.1).
8 Plutarch De Malignate Herodoti, (12.1).
9 Hamlin 1940.
10 Martin Heidegger, Aufenthalte, Frankfurt am Main,1989.
11 Burkert 1992.
12 Burkert 1992.
13 Schwandner 1990, 292.
14 Shiloh and Horowitz 1975, 37–48. Gebhard, 2001, 47.
15 Mitchell 1997. Betancourt 1977, 46–9.
16 Burkert 1992.
17 Vernant 1965.
18 Horden 2000, 275.
19 Snodgrass 1977.
20 De Polignac 1995.
21 De Polignac 1995.
22 Morgan 1997, 29.
23 Strauss Clay 1989
24 Malkin 1987.
25 Morgan 1990.
26 De Queiroz and Ziolkowski 1994, 1–35.
27 Tzonis and Lefaivre 1986, see also Tzonis and Giannisi 2004.
28 Vernant 1965.
Chapter 2 Regional into Regionalist
1 Sereni 1961.
2 Focillon 1971
3 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004, 34–7.
4 Klibansky 1939.
5 Riegl 1901.
6 Thunø 2002, see also Goodson 2010.
7 Krautheimer 1980, 120–1.
8 Carruthers 1990; 2009.
9 Eginhard 1999.
10 Tzonis 2013.
11 Krautheimer 1980, 120–1.
12 Heckscher 1937–8, 204–20. The Casa dei Crescenzi is also discussed in Weiss 1973, 10. Also in
Krautheimer 1980, 312.
13 Heydenreich 1965, 87, see also Calvesi 1983, 34–65.
14 Calvesi 1983, 34–65; Heydenreich 1965.
15 Heydenreich 1965, 87.
16 Krautheimer 1980, 198.
17 Brooke 1975.
18 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004, 32–3.
19 Riegl 1901.
Chapter 3 Searching for Identity in a Flat Archipelago of
Classical Garden-Villas
1 Coffn 1991, 7.
2 Coffn 1991, 61.
3 Tzonis and Lefaivre 1984.
4 Coffn 1991, 165.
5 Coffn 1991, 71.
6 Blunt 1958; Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004.
7 Pérouse de Montclos 1977.
8 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004.
9 Philibert de l’Orme 1567. Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004, 141–50.
10 Goubert 1960
11 Porshnev 1972.
12 Mousnier 1968.
13 Orsenna 2000.
14 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004.
15 Herrmann 1958; 1973; Tzonis et al. 1973; Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004; Tzonis 1972.
16 Marx 1967. Vol.1, Ch. 3, p. 140.
Chapter 4 The Picturesque Revolt
1 Addison 1711.
2 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004.
3 Temple 1712; Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004, 273.
4 Stone 1965, 15.
5 Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland, 1775.
6 Pevsner 1944, 139–46. (Pevsner was one of the frst art historians to stress the political signif-
cance of the Picturesque.)
7 Mason 1783.
Chapter 5 From the Physiocrats and Rousseau to Goethe’s
Regionalist Architecture
1 Kimball, Fiske, The Creation of the Rococo, 1943.
2 See Charles Nicolas Cochin, quoted in Lefaivre and Tzonis, The Origins of Modern Architecture,
London: 2004.
3 Fiske 1943.
4 See J.-F. Blondel, quoted in Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004, 327.
5 Jean Bodin, Six Livres de la république, 1 576.
6 Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, 1748, XIV, ii.
7 Ibid., XXIX, xviii.
8 Watelet 1774, 7.
9 Charles Castel de Saint-Pierre, Ouvrage de morale et de politique, 1733-1740, p. 140.
10 Pierre-Samuel du Pont, Physiocratie (Governance of Nature), 1768.
11 John Shovlin, The Political Economy of Virtue. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2007, 115.
12 Pierre Guillet de Monthoux, The Moral Philosophy of Management: From Quesnay to Keynes.
London: Routledge, 2016.
13 Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis, Emergence of Modern Architecture: A Documentary History,
from 1000 to 1800. London: Routledge, 2004.
14 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Projet de Constitution pour la Corse, 1765, 947.
15 Ibid. 948.
16 Louis Carrogis Carmontelle, Le Jardin de Monceau, 1779.
17 Jurgis Baltrusaitis, Le Jardin en France 1760–1820. Paris: Hotel de Sully, 1977.
18 Alexander Pope, Moral Essays: Epistle to Lord Burlington, 1731, in Lefaivre Tzonis, 300.
19 Tzonis 1977.
20 Johann Jacob Volkmann, Neueste Reisen Durch England, 1782.
21 W.D. Robson-Scott, The Literary Background of the Gothic Revival in Germany. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1965.
22 Horace Walpole, The History of the Modern Taste in Gardening, 1771–80.
23 Johann Georg Jacobi, Neueste Reisen Durch England, 1782. John Alexander Kelly, England and
the Englishman in German Literature of the Eighteenth Century, 1921.
24 Justus Möser, The Patriotische Phantasien, 1774–8; Jerry Z. Muller, The Mind and the Market,
2002; Jonathan B. Knudsen, Justus Möser and the German Enlightenment, 1986.
25 Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis, Emergence of Modern Architecture: A Documentary History,
from 1000 to 1800. London: Routledge, 2004.
26 Robson-Scott 1965,80.
27 Robson-Scott 1965, 80.
Chapter 6 Regionalism as a Force for Liberation and National
Identity
1 Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, Sturm und Drang, 1776.
2 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
3 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
4 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
5 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
6 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
7 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
8 Herder (1784–91), (abridged) Herder and Manuel 1968.
9 Gossman 1968.
10 Le Roy 1758.
11 Godechot 1981 (vol I), 254.
12 Tocqueville 1856.
13 Godechot 1981, see also Gauthier 1977.
14 Börsch-Supan, Helmut. Caspar David Friedrich. New York 1974.p. 140.
15 Deutsch 1969.
16 Humboldt 1790.
17 In the entries ‘Baukunst’ (1792) and later ‘Kirche’ (1796), in Enzyklopädie (1792–8), see also
Robson-Scott 1965.
18 Robson-Scott 1965, 245.
19 Robson-Scott 1965, 306.
Chapter 7 Post-Napoleonic Nationalist Regionalism, the Social
Question, and The Emergence of Environmental
Architecture
1 Hobsbawm 1962; Hobsbawm 1975; Hobsbawm 1987.
2 Pierre Patte, ‘A Report on the Most Important Objects,’ 1769, in Liane Lefaivre and Alexander
Tzonis, The Emergence of Modern Architecture. London: 2004, p. 377–84.
3 Matthiessen 1941.
4 Damion Sears (ed.). Henry David Thoreau: The Journal 1837–1861. Reprinted 2009.
5 Fuller 1843. Ch 6.
6 Fuller 183, Ch 6
7 Fuller 1843. Ch 6.
8 Kouteinikova 2004.
9 Venturi 1962.
10 Herzen 1852–1870.
11 An event was planned to celebrate the retreat of Napoleon from Moscow in 1812 by Tsar
Alexander I, but it took 70 years to complete. against Napoleon’s army. A powerful icon, it was
demolished by Stalin in 1931 and rebuilt between 1995 and 2000.
12 Viollet-le-Duc 1877.
13 lBelinski 1847.
14 Woodhouse 1965.
15 Tzonis and Rodi 2012, Chapter 1.
16 Tzonis and Rodi 2012.
17 Alexander Pushkin,‘Tyrtaeus, Byron, and Righas,’ translated and quoted by D. Farsolas. ‘Alexander
Pushkin: His attitude toward the Greek revolution 1821-1829,’ Balkan Studies,1971. See https://
ojs.lib.uom.gr/index.php/BalkanStudies/article/view/883
18 Tzonis and Rodi 2012, 22–3.
19 Louis Constant Wairy, Mémoires Intimes de Napoleon I, vol. II. Paris, reprinted 1909.
20 Hamann 1978.
21 Haman 1978, 227.
22 Lefaivre 2017.
23 Moravánszky 1998 (see Chapter 6, ‘The search for a national style’), 217–84; Wiebenson and Sisa
1998; Lambrichs 2003; Popescu 2004.
24 Lambrichs 2003, 15–16.
25 Lechner 1988 (Translation in French); Lambrichs 2003, 22.
26 Moravánszky 1998 (see Chapter 6, ‘The search for a national style’), 217–284; Lambrichs 2003,
22; Wiebenson and Sisa 1998.
27 Sisa 2014.
28 Domenech i Montaner 1991; Fabregas 2016.
29 Alexander Tzonis, ‘L’Académie Royale’ …,in El Arte de Las Cortes del Siglo 18, ed. Antonio Bonet
Correa, Madrid, 1989.
30 Hugo 1825, ‘Chaque jour quelques vieux souvenirs de la France s’en va avec la pierre sur laquelle
il était écrit.’
31 Hugo 1831, see Chapter III.
32 Viollet-le-Duc, 2019.
33 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2004, 411, 442, 444, 456.
34 Loyer and Toulier (eds.) 2001.
35 Vigato 1994.
36 Wright 2003.
37 Mistral 2016.
38 Barrès 1899.
39 Thompson 1955.
40 Carlisle 1843, Book III, ch. 9 (cited in Thomson 1995, 29.)
41 Hill 2007.
42 Pugin 1898.
43 Pugin 1898, 61.
44 Ruskin 1851-1853
45 Ruskin 151-1853
46 Ruskin 1849, ‘Lamp of memory.’
47 Ruskin 1849.
48 Thompson 1976, 143–226.
Chapter 8 Regionalism Triumphant, and Corrupted
1 Hobsbawm 1991.
2 Applegate 1990.
3 Applegate 1990
4 Otto 1983, Nerdinger 2011.
5 Paul Schultze-Naumburg, UHU, no. 7 (April 1926), 30–40.
6 Paul Schultze-Naumburg, Northern Beauty (Nordische Schoenheit), 1937.
7 Haeckel 1866, Hermand 1977, Hermand 1992.
8 Tessenow 1919.
9 Storm 2012, Storm 2003.
10 Jean-Louis Giraud-Soulavie, Histoire naturelle de la France méridionale, 1780–4.
11 Vidal de la Blache 1903, Vidal de la Blache 1904, Vidal de la Blache 1910, Claval 1992, Claval 1998,
Claval 2003.
12 Walter Isard, Paul Krugman.
13 Hochschild 1998, Peck 2000.
14 Crinson 1996.
15 Crinson 1996.
16 Wright 1991.
17 Paul Rabinow, French Modern. Cambridge, MA: 1989.
18 Rabinow 1989.
19 Samuel Phillips, Guide to the Crystal Palace and Park, 1854; Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas:
The Expositions Universelles, Great Expositions and World’s Fairs, 1851–1939. Manchester:
1988.
20 Alfred Normand, L’Architecture des nations étrangères: étude sur les principales constructions du
parc à l’Exposition universelle de Paris, 1867.
21 Ibid. Alberto Villar Movelan, Arquitectura del regionalismo en Sevilla (1900–1935). Seville : 2010;
M. Trillo de Leyva, La Exposición Iberoamericana: la transformación urbana de Sevilla. Seville :
1980.
22 Whalen 2007, Peer 1989, Peer 1998, Feldman 2007.
23 Storm 2012.
24 Richardson 1983.
25 Richardson 1983.
26 Gavin Stamp 2012.
27 Fortnightly Review, March 1903.
28 Morris 2015.
Chapter 9 Global Regionalism Set Against International Style
1 Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage, ‘Opportunities and Responsibilities of Leisured Women, 1993’
(1905–11), content.lib.auburn.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/sage/id/53/rec/1. See also
Ruth Crocker, Mrs. Russell Sage: Women’s Activism and Philanthropy in the Gilded Age and
Progressive Era America. Bloomington, 2006.
2 Lucarelli 1995.
3 Taliaferro 2019, Clayton 2019, Dorman 1998, 5–45.
4 Dorman 1998, 173–240.
5 Dorman 1998, 105–171, Clayton 2019.
6 Beveridge 2015, 87.
7 Fein 1972 ; Olmsted, Fein 1968, Landscapearchitecture.org.uk/history-of-landscape-architecture
8 Lubove 1967, 79.
9 Lubove 1967, 79.
10 Benton MacKaye, ‘An Appalachian Trail: A Project in Regional Planning,’ Journal of the American
Institute of Architects 9 (October 1921): 325–30.
11 Dorman 1993, 52 ; Steiner 2015.
12 Scully 1974. The best examples being the Mary Fiske Stoughton House in Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1882.
13 Mumford 1924, 117.
14 Mumford 1931, 119–20.
15 Wright 1957, reproduced in Kaufman, Raeburn 1960, 18–36.
16 Wright 1957, reproduced in Kaufman, Raeburn 1960, 29.
17 Christopher Reed, All th World is Here! The Black Presence at White City. Indianapolis, 2002.
18 Burrows.com/founders/furniture.html
19 Wright 1954, reproduced in Kaufman, Raeburn 1960, 298–300.
20 Henderson Floyd, Margaret, Henry Hobson Richardson. New York: 1997, 191–200.
21 Banham December 1969, 512–19.
22 Wright (An Autobiography) 1932, 309–10.
23 Wright (The Disappearing City) 1932.
24 Mik 1973. Henry Ford put the idea into practice in the 1920s.
25 Addams 1910, Addams 1902.
26 Wright 1957, reproduced in Kaufman, Raeburn 1960, 18–36, 29.
27 Miller 1988, 192.
28 Maumi 2015.
29 Among the negative criticism were Bauer (26 January) 1933, 99–100 and Shapiro (March) 1938,
42–8. Among the positive ones was Alexander (18 June) 1935, 28, that declared Wright was
‘as one of the important forces of progressive American architectural thinking.’ The review is
mentioned in Catherine Maumi 2015, 65–70.
30 Mumford (December) 1962. And in Mumford 1938, ‘New Urban Types,’ 30.
31 Library.upenn.edu/collections/rbm/mumford/a.html.
32 See Mumford 1946, Intr.
33 Mumford 1922.
34 Mumford 1938.
35 Mumford 1982, 282–3.
36 Mumford 1924.
37 Lorentz. 1936.
38 Whiston Spirn 2008; Howard Greenberg Gallery Online Exhition, ‘One-Third of a Nation.’ April 2019,
https://artdaily.cc/news/122661/Howard-Greenberg-Gallery-presents-online-exhibition–One-
Third-of-a-Nation#.XpXQy8gzaUk
39 Frankfurter 1951, xvi. Quoted in Steiner 2013, (Intr.) 22.
40 Barter 2016.
41 Dorman 1993, 52.
42 Dorman 1993, 52.
43 Rodgers, Hirsch 2010.
44 Anderson 1982. Cited in Dorman 1993, 319.
45 Dorman 1993, 292. Edward Spann, ‘Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the Regional Planning
Association of America,’ New York History, vol. 74, no. 2 (April 1993), 185–200.
46 Roosevelt (6 July) 1931. Quoted in Dorman 1993, 293.
47 Dorman 1993, 293–4.
48 Schulze 1994, 102–60. He in turn refers to Sorkin (October) 1988, 138–1940, reprinted in his
Exquisite Corpse, as the original source for this information.
49 Henry Urbach, Kazis Varnelis, and Robert A.M. Stern, ‘The Glass House,’ https://theglasshouse.
org/media/glass-house-presents-so-il-kazys-varnelis/
50 Anderson 1982, 72.
51 Richard Neutra, The Architecture of Social Concern (Sao Paolo, 1948).
52 Lewis Mumford, Whither Honolulu, Honolulu, HI, 1938.
53 This text is based on Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis, ‘Regionalism and Tropicalism after 1945,’
in Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Bruno Stagno (eds.), Tropical Architecture. London, 2001,
1–58; Critical Regionalism, Architecture in an Age of Globalization, Munich : Prestel, 2004 ; and
Tropical Architecture: Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization with Bruno Stango, London :
Wiley, 2001. See also Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis, ‘Tropical Lewis Mumford, ‘The First
Critical Regionalism Urban Planner,’ in Jurgen Roseman (ed.), Permacity. Delft, 2007. Also in
Doug Kelbaugh (ed.), Writing Urbanism, London, 2008 ; Liane Lefaivre, ‘Critical Regionalism. A
Facet of Modern Architecture Since 1945,’ in Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis (eds.), Critical
Regionalism, Munich, 2003, 22–55.
54 Mumford 1941.
55 Martin Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics, transcript. New Haven, 2000.
56 Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre 1991and 2017.
57 Mumford 1941, 126–7.
58 The frst studies of the introduction of regionalism to the Museum of Modern Art are in Lefaivre,
Tzonis, Stagno 2001, and in Lefaivre, Tzonis 2003.
59 McAndrews 1940.
60 Mock mentions the street protests in her introduction to Made in USA Since 1932 (Mock 1944).
See the next note.
61 The frst studies of the introduction of regionalism to the MoMA and the role of Elizabeth Mock
are ‘The Suppression and Rethinking of Regionalism and Tropicalism after 1945,’ in Lefaivre,
Tzonis, Stagno (eds.), Tropical Architecture, Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization,
London, 2001, 14–64 ; and Lefaivre, Tzonis, Critical Regionalism, Munich, 2003, 24–55.
62 There seems to be some discrepancy here. The MoMA Staff List, under Kassler, Elizabeth Bauer
(Elizabeth Bauer Mock) mentions that her tenure was between 1942 and 1946. Made in USA
Since 1932, however, lists her as curator from 1943 (see Mock 1944, 128).
63 Catherine Bauer mentions that Elizabeth Mock is her sister in Bauer 1946, 116.
64 All the data concerning the exhibitions mentioned in the previous section are in Built in USA Since
1932, edited by Elizabeth Mock, foreword by Philip L. Goodwin, New York, 1945, 124–6.
65 Mock 1944. Translated into German as In USA Erbaut 1932–44, Wiesbaden, 1948.
66 See MoMA archive, Box 34 (1).
67 Concerning purely technical matters, more specifcally, Mock chided Johnson and Hitchcock for
not following a European model such as in Neutra 1927, which had lauded the development of
light steel and wood construction in the United States, and she praised Buckminster Fuller’s
Dymaxion house for its light construction.
68 Goodwin 1943.
69 Rudofsky 1964.
70 The frst treatment of this subject is Quezado Deckker 2001. Quezado, however, sees the exhib-
ition as a continuation of the exhibition policies of Johnson and Hitchcock.
71 About the Good Neighbor policy, see Skidmore 2007 (frst published 1967), 44–46.
72 Quoted from Goodwin 1943, 98.
73 Soltan, Hoffman 1996. On p. 95, Soltan writes: ‘Corbu himself being not available … guess who
was at the top of the list? It was Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer. Again, an unattainable aim!
O. Niemeyer, considered a “registered” member of the Brazilian communist party, was off limits,
not politically correct for the U.S., particularly in the ffties!’. The second on the list was Ernesto
Rogers, who was ‘not available.’
74 Oberlander 1999, 257.
75 Mumford (October) 1947. We frst mentioned this article in relation to critical regionalism in
Tzonis, Lefaivre, ‘Die Frage des Regionalismus,’ in Andritsky, Burckhardt, Hoffman 1981.
76 Mumford (11 October) 1947.
77 According to the architectural historian Franz Schulze, ‘Whether she liked it or not, Mock was
about to be gentled into the departmental shade. Philip recalled a luncheon he had with her and
Barr at which, by his own admission, he so pointedly ignored her that she was almost reduced to
tears. She evidently never had a chance.’ In Schulze 1994, 34.
Chapter 10 De-Regionalization in Post-World War II
Reconstruction, Urban Renewal, and Fake
Regionalism
1 Laakkonen, Tucker, Vuorisalo 2017.
2 See Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis, Architectural Regionalism in the Age of Globalization,
London, 2012, First edition, 123–4.
3 Eric Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, Cambridge, MA, 2000.
4 Giedion 1951, 1–3.
5 Giedion 1947.
6 “What would you give, my beauty, to see your love once again? I would give Versailles, Paris,
Saint Denis and the towers of Notre Dame, along with the bell tower of my village.”
7 Mumford (11)(October) 1947. We frst mentioned this article in relation to critical regionalism in
Tzonis, Lefaivre 1981.
8 Mumford (11)(October) 1947.
9 Schultze-Naumburg (April) 1926, 30–40.
10 Schultze-Naumburg (April) 1926, 12–18.
11 Kaufmann Jr. (September) 1949, 26–9.
12 Quoted in Anderson 1997, 197–207 at 204.
13 Anderson 1997, 16–17.
14 Anderson 1997, 17.
15 Anderson 1997, 13–14.
16 Anderson 1997, 13.
17 See Nicolas Quintana, quoted in Sperber (22)(May) 2010.
18 Roberto Segre, ‘La Habana di Sert: CIAM, Ron y Cha Cha Cha,’ unpublished typescript quoted in
Rovira 2003, 186.
19 See Philippou 2010. Scarpacci, Segre, Coyula 1997.
20 Clausen 1996.
21 Klaus 2004.
22 Andrew Shanken, ‘Between Brotherhood and Bureaucracy: Joseph Hudnut, Louis Kahn and the
American Society of Planners and Architects,’ Planning Perspectives, (20)(April) 2007, 147–75.
Shanken cites Patrick D. Reagan, Designing a New America, The Origins of New Deal Planning
1890–1943, Amherst, 1999, 186–91, 216–22, 226–34.
23 Miller 1989, 345.
24 Hilberseimer 1949.
25 Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre Archive.
26 Anthony Badger, Prosperity Road: The New Deal, Chapel Hill, NC, 1980; North Carolina and the
New Deal, Raleigh, NC 1981.
27 Miller 1989, 444.
28 See Evenson 1966.
29 Clark 2007.
30 Clark 2007.
31 Clark 2007.
32 Clark 2007.
33 Mary Mix went on to write a classic regionalist typology of American domestic architecture,
introduced by James Marston Fitch at Columbia, called The American House (Mix 1980).
34 Mix 1951, cited in Hartmuth (June) 1993, 58–67. In relation to Raymond’s building in Pondicheri,
see Gupta, Mueller, Samii 2010.
35 For a full overview of Rudolph’s regionalist practice at this time, see Domin, King 2002.
36 Rudolph, quoted in Domin, King 2002, 140. The article appeared in Architecture d’Aujourd’hui,
March 1949.
37 See ‘Rudolph and the Roof: How to Make a Revolution on a Small Budget,’ House and Home,
June 1953, 140–1, and Rothenstein (July) 1953, 98–9. See also Domin, King 2002.
38 Rudolph 1957.
39 Rudolph 1953. Quoted in Domin, King 2002.
40 Harris 1964–5, 27. Quoted in Domin, King 2002, 139.
41 Lippard 1997.
42 Tiberghien 1995.
43 Wurster in Mumford 1949.
44 Giedion 1958.
45 Giedion 1958.
46 Mindlin 1956. Here Giedion writes an introduction that praises Brazilian architecture for its ability
to deal with regionalist matters, such as the tropical climate and the interracial issues (Giedion
1958, 17–18).
47 Belluschi 1955, 132.
48 Loeffer 1998, 9.
49 ‘US Architecture Abroad,’ Architectural Forum 3, 1953, 101–15.
50 Loeffer 1998, 179.
51 Robin 1992.
52 Isenstadt 1997, 172–8.
53 For a description of the incident, see Hines 1982, 244.
54 See Martin Schwartz, Architectureandthelightofday.Blogspot.com.
55 Latour 1991, 122–3.
56 Wharton 2001, 37.
57 Hilton 1957. Quoted in Wharton 2001, 8.
58 Çelik 1992.
59 Wharton 2001, 26.
60 Quoted in Scully 1963, 101–2.
61 Scully 1963.
62 See Harkness, Tzonis 1991, 189–92; see also Marefat 2008, 157–66. See also Gwendolyn Wright,
‘Global Ambition and Local Knowledge,’ in Isenstadt, Rizi 2008, 221–54, and especially Magus T.
Bernhardsson, ‘Visions of Iraq,’ in Isenstadt, Rizi 2008, 82–96.
63 Rogers 1960, vii. Quoted in Marefat 2008. Marefat argues that Gropius based his design on
‘Bauhaus principles’ and had no regionalist ambitions in his design, although all the evidence is to
the contrary, in particular this statement by Rogers, which she quotes.
64 Gropius 1958, 9. Quoted in Marefat 2008, 164.
65 The Frank Lloyd Wright quotation is in Bernhardsson, ‘Visions of Iraq,’ in Isenstadt, Rizi 2008, 88.
The episode as it is presented here is borrowed from Bernhardsson’s account. See also Marefat
1999.
66 Theodosis 2008, 167–72.
67 Doxiadis (January) 1959, 4–10 at 6. Quoted in Pyla 2008, 97–115 at 99.
68 Pyla 2008, 107.
69 Doxiadis (January) 1959, 4–10 at 6. Quoted in Pyla 2008, 97–115 at 99.
Chapter 11 The Critical Regionalist Response to Multinational
De-Regionalization
1 Stirling 1950.
2 Via the First International Congress of Proportion in Milan in 1951, at the Ninth Triennale, as
well as through the impact of International Style mixed with the ‘neo-monumentality’ and neo-
historicism predominant in the United States in the 1950s, as we saw in the previous chapter.
Stirling might have also been irritated by the RIBA debate on ‘proportions’ (1957).
3 He also referred favorably to MoMA’s G.E. Kidder Smith, who was sympathetic to regionalism
(Smith 1950).
4 Polish Professor Jerzy Soltan, in conversation with Alexander Tzonis over the course of many
years. According to Soltan, a Team X member, Le Corbusier’s collaborator, and later Chairman of
the Harvard GSD, Mumford’s books were read even in concentration camps in Poland during the
war.
5 Oskar Newman, New Frontiers in Architecture, New York, 1961.
6 Ibid., 86–91.
7 Reuchlin and Stiller 1991.
8 Guarneri 2003.
9 Sabatino 2010, 156.
10 Sabatino 2010, 162.
11 Sabatino 2010, 42.
12 A program shared by a large number of Italian intellectuals, especially in the feld of literature and
cinema, that came to be known as ‘Neorealism.’
13 Ibid., 92–7.
14 Gerhard Kallmann, ‘Our Responsibility towards Tradition,’ Casabella, August 1954; and ‘The
Existing Environment and the Practical Content of Contemporary Architecture,’ Casabella,
February 1955.
15 See Chapter 9 for more on Lyautey and Prost.
16 French-Moroccan architect educated at the École des Beaux-Arts.
17 In Carre Bleu (no. 3, 1961), a small-circulation review founded by Andre Schimmerling, a follower
of Geddes, promoting the new anti-formalist new ideas of architects of the ‘generation of 1956.’
18 A complete set of these blue prints, part of the Tzonis-Lefaivre Archive, were donated to
Clemson’s 100th birthday – dedicated to the question of regionalism in our time.
19 Tzonis, Lefaivre, Diamond 1995.
20 Goodman, Goodman 1947.
21 Antonioni’s flm Zabriskie Point was an homage to the Californian counterculture movement,
staring Harplin’s daughter.
22 Tzonis 2012.
23 Kurakawa (January) 1963, 37–42 at 37.
24 It is a departure point for the Doxiaids theory about the spatial arrangement of Ancient Greek
sanctuaries we mentioned before.
25 Rousseau 1782.
26 Tzonis, Lefaivre, AMC, (June–July) 1999, 60–69; Tzonis, Lefaivre, Thesholds, 1999, 15–21.
27 Artur Glikson’s unpublished letter to Lewis Mumford, 19 February 1952. With the permission of
Sophia Mumford and Andrew Glikson.
28 Andrew Glikson, unpublished tribute to his father, Artur Glikson, in ‘Dialogues’: A Photographic
Album Presented as a Gift to Lewis Mumford (1895–1990) by Artur Glikson (1911–1966). With the
permission of Andrew Glikson, 1990.
29 Mumford 1961. Graphic section 1, plates 10–12.
30 World Architecture 3, London, 1966.
31 Galiano 2006, 52–63.
32 Tzonis, Lefaivre 1985, 4–19.
33 Lefaivre, Tzonis 2003.
34 Yeang 1999.
35 Mango 2002.
36 Reisman 2006.
37 Dahms, in Stadler 2004.
38 Lefaivre 2017, 174–5; Balamir 2010; Hambusch 2011; Bozdogan, Akcan 2012, Chapters 1 and 2.
39 Rangel 1986, 41–4, 113.
40 Danes (Autumn) 1942, 1–10, at 5.
41 Danes (Autumn) 1942, 1–10.
42 Eggener 2000.
43 Schnaidt 1956; Unkind 1997; O’Gorman Juan Lecture, Sociedad de Arquitectos Mexicanos, 1933,
cited by Unkind 1997.
44 Kallis 2018. See also Cardoso 2011, and Segawa 2013.
45 The key movement Antropofagia, founded by Oswald de Andrade, author of Manifesto
antropófago, 1928. It was a metaphor for cannibalizing the European avant-garde by the ‘primi-
tive’ Brazilians: Subirats in Schwartz 2002, 23–31. Andrade 1928, 7–9. Teles 1972, 326–31, frst
published in 1924, Utopia Antropofágica, 2nd ed., Saõ Paolo. Related to the government of
Getulio Vargas and his minister of education and health, Gustavo Campanema (Gomes 2000).
46 The best history of the movement is the exhibition catalogue, Da Antropofagia a Brazilia (Schwartz
2002).
47 Underwood 1994, 48.
48 Bardi 1994, 184.
49 Bardi 1994, 216.
50 Bardi 1994, 122–5.
51 Stewart 1987.
52 Isozaki 2006, 11.
53 Stewart 1987, 1–129.
54 Isozaki 2006; Stewart 1987.
55 Isozaki 2006; Stewart 1987.
56 Isozaki 2006.
57 Isozaki 2006, 17.
58 Renan 1871.
59 An impressive number of Shanghai magazines of architecture debated the question of Chinese
identity in buildings, among them The China Architects and Builders Compendium (1924–35), The
China Builder (1930–1), ‘The Chinese Architect (1932–37), and The Builder (1932–7). Zhao Ling,
personal communication.
60 Sicheng, Fairbanks 1984.
61 48 units for 1,002 families, 1951–2.
62 Zhefeng (20)(November) 2013.
63 Xiangyi (14)(October) 2011.
64 Yan Daming of China Daily.
65 Loomis 1999.
66 Tzonis, Lefaivre, Stagno 2001.
67 Krinsky 1996.
68 Levin 1984.
69 Karmi-Melamede and Price 2017.
70 Orgel, Tzonis 1999, 5–9.
71 Lefaivre 2003; Lefaivre and Tzonis 2001.
72 De Silva 1998.
73 De Silva 1998. All quotations and illustrations here are taken from that book. See also Bardi 1994.
Concerning her low cost-housing, see Ibid., 190–3.
74 Lefaivre and Tzonis, 2001. Muzaffar 2008.
75 Lefaivre and Tzonis 2001, 35.
76 See Gupta 2010.
77 Drew, Fry 1964. Stanek 2019, 35–96.
78 Ola Uduku 2005.
79 Filmed in Manthia Diawara’s documentary flm about the original Maisons Tropicales after the
houses had been bought and resold. This is confrmed by one of the former owners of one of the
original houses. See Diawara 2009.
80 Manthia Diawara, « Architecture as Colonial Discourse » in Angela Ferreira Maison tropicale,
Exhibition catalogue, Venice Biennale 2007, 38–63. See also the video by the same title done
by Diawarra and Ferreira, which includes interviews with people who lived in the houses. The
authors thank Manthia Diawarra for a copy of the video.
81 De Silva 1998, 190.
82 De Silva 1998, 116–8.
83 De Silva 1998, 94.
84 De Silva 1998, 207–19.
85 Robson 2002.
86 Mehrotra 2011.
87 Bhatia 1991. See also Laurie Baker’s homepage.
88 Kahn 1987.
89 See Bay, ‘Three Tropical Design Paradigms,’ in Tzonis, Lefaivre, Stagno 2001, 231. Here the article
quotes Lee Kuan Yu.
90 Mumford 1931.
91 See Koolhaas’s ‘Singapore Songlines,’ in Koolhaas, Mau 1995, 1011–87. He does not deal with
them as tropicalist buildings, however.
92 Tzonis, Lefaivre 1999.
93 Soon 1967, 43–8 at 46.
94 Soon 1967, 44.
95 Soon 1967, 43.
96 Bay 2004.
97 Tzonis, Lefaivre, ‘The Narcissist Phase in Architecture,’ Harvard Architectural Review 1, 1978,
reprinted in Tzonis, Lefaivre, ‘Times of Creative Destruction,’ 1917.
Chapter 12 Highlights of Critical Regionalism in This Dark Era
of Environmental Inequality and End-of-Diversity
Wasteland
1 Peters (15)(May) 2011.
2 Patalong (12)(August) 2013.
3 Michael Sorkin,’The cathedral at Ground Zero,” The Nation January 2016.
4 The Guardian, 1 February 2019
5 Pedersen (31)(July) 2019.
6 Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, ‘Skin Rigorism,’ Casabella, 630–1, 1996.
7 Ruitenbeek 1989.
8 As the offcial brief of the offce remarks.
9 The four principals of the offce are Zhang Ke,Claudia Taborda, Zhang Hong, and Hou Zhenghua.
10 Conceptual techniques employed in literature, cinema, and drama as discussed by the Czech lin-
guist Jan Mukarovsky, Bertold Brecht, and Victor Shklovsky (writing about Leon Tolstoy) applied
to writing and the visual arts, Paul Simpson, Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students. Routledge,
2004; Victor Schklovsky, Art as Technique, frst published 1917. London 2016.
11 Alexander Tzonis, Introduction to Chang 2008.
12 Chang 2008.
13 Brillon (12)(October) 2019.
14 Yeo Kang Shua, Wak Hai Cheng Bio: A Dialogue Between Architecture and History, Singapore,
2020.
Coda
1 Williams 1975, 106.
2 Chaadaev 1837.
3 Chermayeff and Tzonis, 1972.
4 Mishan 1967.
5 Tzonis, Lefaivre 1996.
6 Rohatyn 2009, 142 and 151. Note that Rohatyn discusses also the ‘huge and traumatic deaths
of Chinese and Native Americans brought about by the expansion of globalizing railroads to the
American West,’ 73.
7 GSD News, Spring 1982.
8 Mazower, Mark, Governing the World: The History of an Idea, London, 2012.
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