Prepared by Thadee NSABIMANA

BIOLOGY AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Class: Senior one (S1)

September 12, 2024

SCHOOL: G.S MURAMBI
Phone No: +250782644596 / +250730087771
Email: [email protected] or
[email protected]
NYABIHU – RWANDA
 Table of Contents
TOPIC 1: BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION .............................................................................2
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY .............................................................................2
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO CLASSIFICATION...............................................................8
UNIT 3: EXTERNAL STRUCTURE AND IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERING PLANT .... 11
TOPIC 2: ORGANISATION AND MAIMTAINANCE OF LIFE ............................................. 29
UNIT 4: MAGNIFYING INSTRUMENTS AND BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS .................... 29
UNIT 5. PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL................................................................................... 31
UNIT 6. LEVELS OF ORGANISATION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS. ................ 36
UNIT 7. FOOD NUTRIENTS AND DIET.............................................................................. 42
UNIT 8. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN GAS EXCHANGE
SYSTEM. .................................................................................................................................... 51
UNIT 9: TROPIC RESPONSES. .............................................................................................. 55
UNIT 10. SKELETAL SYSTEM OF ORGANISMS. ............................................................... 58
TOPIC 3: HEALTH AND DISEASES .................................................................................................. 64
UNIT 11. CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES. ....................................................................... 64
UNIT 12. HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM .................................................................... 70
UNIT 13. PUBERTY AND SEXUAL MATURATION .......................................................... 76
UNIT 14. REPRODUCTION, PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH. .................................... 78
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 81

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TOPIC 1: BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

Biology is the study of life. We study Biology to understand our own body, to know how it
functions. We interact with the living and non-living components around us. Biology helps us to
understand all this so that we respect our environment and ourselves. We can also make
maximum use of all our resources most efficiently.

1.1. Definition of biology

The word biology comes from the two Geek word: bios meaning life and logos meaning the
study. Therefore, biology is the study of life. Biologists are scientists who study life.

1.2. Branches of biology

All biologists study living things, but different biologists’ study different parts of the living world
and so we divide biology into different branches.

1.2.1. Different branches of biology

There two main branches of biology, namely Botany and Zoology

❖ Botany: This is the science concerned with the plant organism.

❖ Zoology: the study of animals

Other branches of biology:

• Microbiology: the study of micro-organisms

• Mycology: study of fungi
• Parasitology: Study of parasites
• Bacteriology: Study of bacteria
• Ecology: Study of living things in relation to their surroundings
• Genetics: Study of heredity and variation
• Entomology: Study of insects
• Taxonomy: study of classification

1.2.2 Importance of biology

✓ Biology helps us to enter into careers such as medicine, veterinary science, public health,
agriculture, reproductive health, genetic engineering and biotechnology
✓ Biology enables us to better understand ourselves and the environment in which we live.
✓ Biology helps us to acquire scientific skills such as observing, collecting data, drawing,
analysing and making deductions.
✓ Biology provides answers to fundamental questions, for example: How did life begin? (The
origin of life).

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 ✓ Knowledge of biology helps us to solve environmental problems. For example, controlling
the water hyacinth in the Akagera river that affects the fishing industry

EVALUATION 🖉

1) Give the difference between botany and zoology

2) State the four reasons why the study of biology is important
3) Name 4 branches of biology
4) How would the study of biology help you in the future?

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Wherever you move, you are surrounded by houses, ground, trees, grasses, stones, animals, the
humans and so on. Anything that exists in our environment is a being. Are all these living alive?

1.3.1 Definition

A living being is any being made from smallest structural and functional unit: the cell. For
instance, the animal cell is made up of:

• Nucleus
• Nuclear membrane
• Cytoplasmic membrane or cell membrane.

Figure 1: Types of Eukaryotic cell structure

• The nucleus: it is the central part of the cell that is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
• The cytoplasm: it the aqueous solution that is around the nucleus
• The cytoplasm membrane or cell membrane: it surrounds the cell and controls its
exchanges with the environment.

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 A living being can be:

• Unicellular or single celled (microscopic): This one is made up of only one cell
(Example: Paramecium, Amoeba,)

• Multicellular: Is formed by more than one cell (many cells) (Example: Animals, trees,)

1.3.2 Characteristics of living things

a. Nutrition

Nutrition is a process by which organisms acquire and utilize nutrients (food). All organisms
need food to grow.

Different organisms feed in quite different ways.

Animals feed on complex substances such as meat, fruit and bread. The animals are
heterotrophs, means they are not able to manufacture their own food.

Plants make organic compounds, such as sugar, out of carbon dioxide and water using energy
from sun (light energy) in the process called photosynthesis. Plants are autotrophs means they
are able to manufacture their own food by using solar energy.

b. Growth and development

During at least their least part of their lives, all organisms grow and develop. Growth is an
irreversible increase in the living matter of an organism. Young animals stop growing in volume
when they reach maturity but plants continue to grow throughout their lives.

c. Reproduction

Reproduction is giving rise to a new individual of the same kind

d. Excretion

This involves separation and elimination of metabolic waste products from the body. All the
chemical reactions that go inside an organism’s body produce waste products, many of which are
poisonous. These wastes must be removed from the body. This process is called excretion

e. Irritability

This is the ability of organism to detect and respond to changes in their immediate environment,
for instance, if you touch something very hot, like a saucepan, you will move your hand away

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quickly. This is because you are sensitive to the heat. The heat you feel is called stimulus (plural:
stimuli) and the rapid movement of your hand is called response .

f. Breathing

During respiration, living things break down food substances in the presence of oxygen t o
release energy. Carbon dioxide and water are also produced.

g. Respiration

The organisms use this energy to move, grow and repair worn-out tissues

𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝑭𝒐𝒐𝒅 + 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 → 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 + 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

h. Movement

Movement involves change in position by either a part of or the whole of a living thing.
Organisms move in search of food, shelter or in response to stimuli such as light, sound or smell.

1.4. Major groups of living things

The criterion of the presence or the absence of the nuclear membrane divides the living beings
into two major groups:

❖ The prokaryotes
❖ The eukaryotes

Definitions

(i) The prokaryotes

These are living beings made up of a single cell whose the nucleus is diffused into the cytoplasm
(they do not possess the nuclear membrane).

They’re usually extremely small cells which commonly exist as single cell or groups of cells
(clusters). These are bacteria, protozoan and cynobacteria (blue green algae). They are called
prokaryote cells.

The prokaryotes are unicellular or single celled. In this case all functions of a living being are
performed by the single cell. (E.g: Respiration, breathing, nutrition, locomotion and so on)

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 Figure 2: Prokaryotic cell structure

Examples:

➢ Bacteria: microbe of syphilis, tuberculosis and gonorrhea.

➢ Protozoan: amoeba, paramecium, trypanosome and so on.
➢ Cynobacteria: blue-green algae

(ii) The eukaryotes

These are living beings made up of many cells and their nuclei are surrounded by the nuclear
membrane. They are formed by many cells which perform different functions (multicellular
organisms). For instance, some cells deal with respiration while others deals with growth).

Examples:

➢ The deuteromycetes: yeast, mushroom (Fungi) (Mycena pura)

➢ The metaphytes: maize, bean, cow, peas, (Green plants)
➢ The metazoans: cow, gorilla, goat, (Animals)

Figure 3: Eukaryotic cell

EVALUATION 🖉

1) List any 4 living beings found in your environment

2) Give a well labeled diagram of an animal cell
3) Give any 4 characteristics of a living being
4) Differentiate the prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells

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 1.4 BIOLOGY LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

⮚ Do not enter the laboratory unless you are accompanied by a teacher

⮚ There should be no loud talking or running in the laboratory
⮚ Never perform experiments that have not been approved by your teacher
⮚ Never handle any apparatus or chemical unless you have been told to do so
⮚ Do not touch or tamper with any gas taps, sockets or writing that you find in the
laboratory
⮚ Never eat or drink while in the laboratory. Food or drink could be contaminated by
bacteria

FIRST AID KIT

A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid and can be
put together for the purpose by an individual or organization or purchased complete. There is a
wide variation in the contents of first aid kits based on the knowledge and experience of those
putting it together, the differing first aid requirements of the area where it may be used and
variations in legislation or regulation in a given area.

A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid, and can be
put together for the purpose by an individual or organization or purchased complete

The international standard for first aid kits is that they should be identified with the graphical
symbol for first aid which is an equal white cross on a green background, although many kits do
not comply with this standard, either because they are put together by an individual or they
predate the standards.

ASSESSMENT

1. What do you understand by te term biology?

2. Describe atleast ten characteristics of living things
3. Bacterias are harmful and usefull. Explain this statement
4. State eight laboratory rules and regulations.
5. Write word equation of respiration

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 UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO CLASSIFICATION

Classification is grouping things together on the basis of features they have in common.

In other words, it is the arrangement of organism into a hierarchy of groups on the basis of their
similarities. Example: Species are grouped according to shared characteristics believed to be
derived from common ancestors.

Differences between two types of classification:

Natural classification Artificial classification

It is based on a large number of characters. It is based on only one or a few characters.
The characters are liable to change with
The characters are stable.
change in the environment.
It avoids analogy. It accepts an analogy for grouping.
It is based on Morphology, anatomy, Cytology, It is based on morphological or reproductive
embryology, molecular biology and genetics. traits. Other traits are not used.
The artificial system does not study
The natural system brings out homology.
homology.
It explains natural and some phylogenetic It does not give any idea about natural and
relationships. phylogenetic relationships.

Note: Carolus Linnaeus is called the father of taxonomy. The method of arranging organisms
into groups or sets based on similarities and differences is called classification.

2.2. Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the science of classification and it has two branches:

i The naming of organism or nomenclature.

ii The placing of organism (Taxon: one group, Taxa: two or more groups)

*Biological nomenclature

Biological nomenclature is based on the binomial system pioneered by the work of the Swedish
naturalist CARL Linnaeus (1707-1778). In this system, each organism has two Latin names:

i. A generic name, beginning with a capital letter

ii. A specific name, beginning with a small letter.

Examples of scientific names are: Homo sapiens, Umbilicalia esculenta, Trypanosoma gambiensis

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 The taxonomic hierarchy:

In descending order (Arrangement from the highest or complex to the lowest or simplest):

➢ Kingdom : largest and most inclusive group.

➢ Phylum : comprises the organisms constructed on a similar plan
➢ Class : group of orders within a phylum
➢ Order : a group of apparently related families
➢ Family : a group of apparently related genera
➢ Genus: a group of similar and related species
➢ Species : represents the first level of classification

1. Five kingdoms of living things

1.1. Kingdom Monera

General characteristics of Kingdom Monera

➢ They’re made up of eukaryotic cells(single celled)

➢ They include all bacteria and cyanobacteria
➢ They lack nucleus

Example: Microbe of tuberculosis (Bacillus Koch)

1.2. Kingdom Protista / Protoctista

General characteristics of Kindom protista

➢ They’re unicellular or single celled

➢ They include protozoans, protophytes and imperfect fungi
➢ They have various types of nutrition including photosynthesis (E.g:Chlamydomonas are
able to carry out photosynthesis, they’re autotrophs)
➢ They reproduce both asexually and sexually
➢ They’re microscopic organisms, i.e., they’re only

1.3 Kingdom Fungi.

General characteristics of fungi

➢ They are made up of eukaryotic cells

➢ They do not have chlorophyll (they’re heterotrophs)
➢ They need moist conditions in which to grow

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 1.3. Plants (Kingdom Plantae)

General characteristics of plantae

➢ The organisms are made up of eukaryotic cells

➢ The body of organism is multicellular (formed by many cells which perform different
functions)
➢ They include plants (Maize, bean, cow peas…)

1.5. Animals (Kingdom Animalia)

General characteristics

➢ The organisms are made up of eukaryotic cells

➢ The body of the organism is multicellular (formed by many cells)
➢ They feed heterotrophically (they do not photosynthesize)
➢ Most animals are motile: they’re able to move

EVALUATION:

1. What is taxonomy?
2. Suggest the differences existing between kingdom Monera, Protista and fungi with
examples for each.
3. What are the economic importance of:

(i) Bacteria.
(ii) Fungi

4. With relevant examples, suggest at least four characteristics for each kingdom of
classification
5. How is prokaryotic differ from eukaryotic cell?
6. Arrange the taxa of classification:

(i) Descending order

(ii) Ascending order

7. Testudo ephippum is a scientific name of tortoise.

a. Write well the scientific name of tortoise by respecting the laws of bionomial
nomenclature.
b. Suggest the names that indicate:

(i) Genus
(ii) Species

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UNIT 3: EXTERNAL STRUCTURE AND IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERING PLANT

The plants are classified into two different groups according to their characteristics. For example,
some of them have flowers while others do not have.

These which bears flowers are called flowering plants while those without flowers are called
non-flowering plants.

A. Classification of plants

• Spermatophytes (Flowering plants): They bear flowers and reproduce by means of

seed after their germination where they give an independent plant. Examples: Tomatoes,
orange, maize, etc…….

Subdivision of flowering plants depending on seed enclosed by protective seed coat

or not.

• Gymnosperm: Are flowers which seeds are not protected inside

• Angiosperms: Are spermatophytes with seeds protected inside the fruits. Examples are
passion fruits, tomatoes, bean, etc…. (The flowering plants known as angiosperms or
magnoliophyte are the most various group on land.

STRUCTURE OF FLOWERING PLANT

Figure 4: Structure of flowering plant

The flowering plants consist of two main parts:

➢ The shoot: Aerial part which is made up of stem, bearing leaves, buds and flowers
➢ The root: Underground part

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 N.B: The vegetative part of a plant consists of the roots, stem and leave while flowers are the
reproductive part

1.1. ROOT

a. Different parts of the roots

❖ The cap root (root cap): This is the end of the root which protects the meristem
zone of the root (zone of actively dividing cells = growing regions).
❖ Epidermis: this is a layer of cells without cuticle. The younger regions, particulary those
with root hairs permit the uptake of water and solutes
❖ Cortex: This consists of large, thin-walled cells without air spaces between them. The
cortical cells store food material and the innermost layer of cells may regulate the inward
passage of water and dissolved substances.
❖ Vascular tissue: this is formed by phloem and xylem. Phloem is a conductive tissue of
food while the xylem is the conductive tissue of the sap
❖ Root hairs: these provide the main absorbing regions of the root.

Different types of roots

a. Taproot system

The taproot system is characterized by a main root that grows downwards into the soil and it
laterally carries the less developed secondary roots.

In other words, this is said when there is the main root from which all other lateral roots are
attached. In general, tap-root systems are characteristics of dicot plants

Example: roots of soya bean, roots of eucalyptus, roots of guava plant

b. Fibrous root system

This is arrangement where there is no main root, all the roots have the similar size. This is
found in all monocot plants.

c. Adventitious roots

These develop from the other part of the plant. They do not grow from a main root but directly
from the stem as they do in bulbs or rhizomes (underground stem)

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 Figure 5: Types of roots

Special types of roots

Some plants have roots which differ from the normal. Because they appear above the ground,
they’re called aerial roots. They’re spongy and absorb water from the atmosphere and probably
also mineral salts from dust which settles on them.

The following are special types of roots:

a. Clasping roots:

These are developed by certain types of climbing figs and orchids. They enable plant to climb
by growing round and clasping its support

Figure 6: Clasping root

b. Prop roots:

These are found on trees like banyan and screw pine. These roots are also found on the stem
of maize plant

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Figure 7: Maize roots Figure 8: Mangrove roots

Prop roots of banyan trees develop from branches and they act as supporters of the tree

Figure 9: Prop root of banyan tree

(iii) Buttress roots:

These are big roots like those of silk cotton plant. They act as supporters

Figure 10: Buttress root

(i) Stilt roots:

These roots develop from the trunk of red mangrove (Rhizophora). As these trees live in swamps,
these roots act as supporters during the periodic change in the level of the mud.

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 Figure 11: Stilt roots. Example: Mangrove

In some mangrove species, roots diverge from stems and branches and penetrate the soil some
distance away from the main stem as in the case of banyan trees. Because of their appearance
and because they provide the main physical support to these they are called as stilt roots.

(ii) Breathing roots:

• These are found on black mangrove (Avicenna).

• They are branch- roots which grow up from the main root through the mud to the air.
• They’re very spongy and take in air for the respiration of the root system.
• The roots of the plant like all other living parts must respire, but in the mud of mangrove
swamp they may not be able to obtain enough air; Breathing roots are one solution to
this problem.

1.4. Functions of roots

➢ The roots fix the plant in the soil and prevent it from being blown over by the wind.
➢ The roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil and pass them into the stem
➢ Frequently, they can act as food stores
➢ It provides anchorage to the plant.
➢ It provides mechanical support to the plant.
➢ It helps in vegetative propagation like tuberous roots in orchids.
➢ It stores food as in carrot.

EVALUATION

1. Name the different parts of a root and give their functions

2. Give and explain any three types of root system
3. Name any four functions of a root

LEAF

1.1. General structure

• A leaf is a flat green lamina or blade made from a soft tissue of thin-walled cells supported
by a stronger network of veins.

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 • Leaves are sometimes joined to the stem by a stalk or petiole which continues into its
midrib (the main vein). Sometimes, there is no leaf stalk (E.g.: monocot plant like maize)

Figure 12: External leaf structure

The parts of leaf and their functions

Parts Functions
Petiole • Carries food made by photosynthesis from leaf to the stem
(Leaf • Transport water and mineral salts from stem to the leaf
stalk) • Support the leaf
• part of the leaf that is attached to the stem.
Sheath • part of the leaf that attaches the petiole to the stem.

Midrib • Support the lamina

• Carries water and mineral salts from petiole to the lamina
• Transport food from lamina to the petiole
Veins • Support the lamina
• Distribute water and mineral salts within the lamina
• Collect food from the lamina
Lamina • Contain chlorophyll for trapping light energy, which is necessary of
(Blade) photosynthesis
• Main part of leaf

TYPES OF LEAVES

a. Simple leaves

A simple leaf consists of a single lamina and is not divided into smaller leaflets. A simple leaf is
attached to the plant stem with a stalk or petiole. An example of a simple leaf includes the mango
leaf, maple leaf, and hibiscus leaf.

Simple leaves are classified into: Entire, single toothed, doubly toothed, lobed, leaf clasps

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 Figure 13: Classification of simple leaves

b. Compound leaves

A compound leaf is a leaf in which the blade is divided to the midrib, forming two or more distinct blades
or leaflets on a common axis, the leaflets themselves occasionally being compound compare palmate,
pinnate, simple leaf.

The leaflets of a compound leaf may be arranged in several ways:

Figure 14: Subdivision of compound leaves

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 (i) Pinnate leaves: These have the leaflets arranged in pairs opposite to one another along
the main stalk, sometimes with terminal leaflet at the tip. (E.g.: Acacia)

Figure 15: Pinnate leaves

(ii) Bipinnate: Leaves are those in which each pinnate leaflet is itself divided into pinnate
leaflets (E.g: Jacaranda)

(iii) Digitate leaves: Are those in which the leaflets radiate out from the end of the
stalk like the finger of a hand (E.g: Cassava).

Figure 16: Digitated leaves. Example: Cassava

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 (iv) Trifoliate leaves: Are those in which each leaf consists of three leaflets (E.g.:
Soya bean)

Figure 17: Trifoliate leaves in orange

Phyllotaxis

In botany, phyllotaxis or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of the leaves on the stem of a plant.

Types of leaf arrangement

1.3.1. Opposite leaf arrangement

In this case, two leaves grow in opposite directions from the same nodes. If successive leaf pairs
are perpendicular, this is called decussate.

1.3.2. Alternate leaf arrangement

Alternate leaf arrangement means that each leaf grows at a single node.

1.3.3. A whorled leaf arrangement: It consists of 3 or more leaves at each node.

A whorled leaf pattern/arrangement can occur as a basal structure where all the leaves are
attached at the base of the shoot and the internodes are small or nonexistent.

Figure 18: Types of leaves based on arrangement on stem

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 Venation

This is the arrangement of veins in the leaf. There are two types of venations:

(i) Reticulate venation: the veins are arranged in a network (E.g.: Dicot plants)
(ii) Parallel venation: there are several main veins running parallel to one another and
connected by short cross branches (E.g.: grass, maize or other monocot plants)

Figure 19: Types of leaves based on veins

Differences between reticulate and parallel vein

Functions of leaves

The important function of leaves is to make food in the form of carbohydrates by photosynthesis
(process by which green plants make their own food). This needs a supply of CO 2 from the air.
This diffuses in through the pores called stomata (small openings found on the lower surface of
the leaf) which allow the gas exchange (the entry of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen)

EVALUATION

• What are stomata? Give their functions

• What is phyllotaxis? Name and ad explain any two types of phyllotaxis
• Name any two types of venations and give the difference between the two

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 The stem

1.1. General characteristics of a stem

i. A stem has leaves at irregular intervals and a terminal bud at the growing point. The region
of the stem from which the leaf springs is called the node, and the length of a stem
between the nodes is called the internodes.

Figure 20: Structure of stem

ii. Commonly, the stem is erect, but it may be horizontal as in runners; underground as in
rhizomes; very short and never showing above ground as in bulbs and corms; long, thin
and weak as in climbing plants; or stout and thick as in trees.
iii. Young stems are usually green and contain chlorophyll
iv. The cells in young stems are living and obtain a supply of oxygen from the air through
openings called stomata or lenticels in their epidermis
v. The older stem is supported by woody and fibrous tissues which are added layer by layer,
so increasing their thickness.

1.2. Types of stems

1.2.1. Herbaceous stems:

• They do not have developed ligneous structure

• They’re general frail
• We find them in plants like the following:

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 1.2.2. Ligneous stem

• They’ve developed rigid, stiffened structure that we normally know as wood

• According to the height they attain, we classify them into:

a) Trees: Plants with ligneous stem with a superior height of 5 meters, in this case, the stems
are called trunks. They do not generally branch up to a considerable soil
b) Shrubs: Are those plants with ligneous stems from one to five meters tall. In this case,
branching begins at soil level.
c) Bushes: These are ligneous plants shorter than one meter tall.

1.2.3. Special types of stems

There are some special types of stems. The most important are:

a. Rhizomes
Rhizomes are stems that grow horizontally under the ground. From them roots are born, moving
downwards into the ground and other herbaceous stems follow the opposite way searching air.
So, apart from food, they are a way of plant propagation

Figure 21: Rhizomes stems

b. Tubers

These are expanded stems by accumulation of food for the plant such as potatoes or tulip bulbs.
They’ve buds where new plants grow.

Figure 22: Tubers stem in carrots & potatoes

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 c. Bulbs

These are adapted underground stems that store food provision (E.g.: Onion)

Figure 23: Bulbs steem

d. Succulent stems

These are aerial stems that store water and other nutrient substances.

• They become very fat because of water reservoir for the long dry periods they’ve to stand.
• They’re also well- adapted to the environment where they live, they’ve transformed into
prickles which besides increasing water provision, help the plant to keep herbivores out of
range.

Figure 24: Succulent stem

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Above ground stems

These stems do not grow below the ground but on the surface or very near to it. The most
important are

a) Stolon

These are weak spreading stems running the surface of the ground and producing new plants
from nodes. (E.g.: Strawberry )

Figure 25: Stolon stem in straw berries

b) Vines

These are stems that grow on the ground surface till they find something to get up right. They’re
slender with long internodes. (E.g: Bean). They can achieve their goal by means of:

(i) Clambering stems with elastic stems that wind around other plant or
structures.

Functions the stem

• It supports the structure of the shoot

• It spaces out the leaves so that they receive adequate air and sun light
• It allows conduction of water from soil to leaves and food from leaves to other part of the
plant
• It holds flowers above ground, thus assisting pollination by insects or wind
• If the stem is green, photosynthesis may occur in it

EVALUATION

1. Name the general characteristics of the stem

2. Give and explain any two types of stems
3. Discuss any two special types of stems
4. Give the functions of a stem for a plant

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 Flower

This is a part of the shoot specially modified for reproduction. It is a reproductive structure of a
plant.

Figure 26: Structure of flower

Most flowers have both male and female reproductive organs, though some are of a single sex.

1.2. Floral parts and their functions (floral leaves)

The floral parts are arranged in whorls or spirals with short internodes, often borne at the end
of a flower stalk (pedicel) whose end is expanded to form a receptacle

There are 4 kinds of floral leaves (floral parts) which are arranged in a ring or whorls:

(i) The sepals form the calyx

(ii) The petals form the corolla
(iii) The stamens form the androecium
(iv) The carpels form the gynoecium or pistil

N.B: The petals and sepals together form the perianth

i. The calyx

This consists of sepals and is the lowest and outermost whorl of floral parts. Typically, the calyx
protects the inner whorls of the flower during bud stage.

The sepals are usually green but, in some plants, (E.g.: Barbados pride), they are in the same
colour as the petals and are therefore described as petaloid.

Sepals may be free (separate from one another, e.g.: Flowers of Ipomoea sp.) or fused (wholly or
partially joined together, e.g.: Hibiscus)

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 N.B: Any floral part outside the calyx is called epicalyx.

ii. The corolla

The corolla consists of petals. These lie inside petals and is attached slightly higher on the
receptacle.

The petals are often colored and scented. They attract insect which visit flowers and collect
nectar and pollen, pollinating the flowers as they do so

Small grooves or darker lines in the petals called honey guide are thought to direct the insect
to the nectarines within the flower.

iii. The androecium

This is the male part of the flower and it consists of stamens or male organs. This part lies inside
the corolla.

A typical stamen is made up of a stalk called a filament which support supports a head called the
anther.

Anthers are usually bilobed. A transverse section through an anther shows that each lobe has
two chambers or pollen sacs which contain the pollen grains; these contain the male reproductive
cells or male gametes.

iv. The gynoecium

The gynoecium or pistil is the female organ of the flower which contains the ovules. It arises from
the center of the receptacle and consists of one or more carpels. A carpel is usually made up of
3 parts

a) The ovary containing the ovules

b) The style connecting the ovary to the stigma
c) Stigma which receives the pollen grains

N.B: After fertilization, the ovules become seed while the whole ovary will become the fruit.
The wall of ovary develops into the pericarp of the fruit.

✓ Receptacle: This is the flower’s attachment to the stalk (pedicel) and in some cases it
becomes part of the fruit after fertilization (E.g.: Strawberries)
✓ Anthers: The anthers contain pollen sacs. The sacs release the pollen on the outside of the
anthers that brush against insects on entering the flowers. The pollen, when deposited on the
insect is transferred to the stigma of another flower or the same flower; the ovule is then
able to be fertilized.

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 EVALUATION

1. Give the function of the flower

2. With well labelled diagram, draw a structure of flower and mention the function of each
part.
3. Which part of flowers represent male and female structures?
4. Give five functions of flowers

Parts of flower and their functions

1.3 Some terms used in describing flowers

• A complete flower This is one in which all floral whorls (circles of plant parts) are
present.
• An incomplete flower is one in which one or more of the floral whorls are absent
• The non-essential organs of the flower are the calyx and corolla
• The essential organs of the flower are the reproductive organs, namely the
androecium and the gynoecium.As long as one of the essential organs is present, a
structure must be called a flower. For example, in Euphorbia, each flower consists of either
a single pistil or a single stamen borne on a pedicel.
• Many flowers can be divided into 2 parts so the halves are similar. A flower in which division
in any diameter produces 2 similar halves is called regular (E.g.: Orange and Ipomea).
• Flowers which can be divided into similar halves in only one plane are called irregular.
(E.g.: Crotalaria and(vii)Flowers with both stamens and carpels are called
hermaphrodite.
• Flowers with either stamens or carpels are said to be unisexual

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 • flower which has stamens only is called staminate while one with carpels only is called
pistillate.
• Plants in which both pistillate and staminate flowers are borne on the same plants are
called monoecious (E.g.: Palms, maize and castor oil plant)
• A plant in which the pistillate and staminate flowers are borne on separate plants is called
dioecious.
• An ovary is superior if it is arranged above the other floral parts on the receptacle. In this
case, a flower is called hypogynous flower (E.g.: Hibiscus and crotalaria).
• An ovary is inferior if the other floral parts arise above it on the receptacle. In this case,
flower is called epigynous flower (E.g.: Guava and sunflower)
• Bracts: When a flower or group of flowers is borne in the axil (space between leaf and
stem) of the foliage leaf, this leaf is called a bract. However, the word is also commonly
applied to any leaf (except floral leaves) associated with the floral shoot
• A monocarpous pistil this is one which consists of only one carpel.
• A pistil with more than one carpel may be apocarpous or syncarpous
➢ In an apocarpous pistil, the carpels remain entirely separate from one another.
➢ A pistil is syncarpous when all its carpels or at least their ovaries are fused
For example, in Hibiscus, the ovaries and styles of the five carpels are fused but the stigma
remains separate.
• Epigynous flower: The ovary is inferior, that is, the stamens, petals and sepals arise above
the ovary.
• Hypogynous flower: The ovary is superior, that is, the stamens, petals and sepals arise
from below the ovary.
• Epigynous flower: The ovary is enclosed within a flattened or cup-shaped receptacle.
The stamens, petals and sepals arise from the edge of the receptacle.
• Cauliflory: If the flowers are borne on the main trunk of a tree instead of on young twigs
(a twig is a thin branch or end of a branch of a tree) (E.g.: Cocoa), the tree is said to exhibit
cauliflory.
• An inflorescence: This is a group of flowers borne at the same main stalk

EVALUATION

➢ Name any two flower parts and give their functions

➢ Differentiate the complete flower from incomplete flower
➢ Differentiate hypogynous flower from epigynous flower

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 TOPIC 2: ORGANISATION AND MAIMTAINANCE OF LIFE

UNIT 4: MAGNIFYING INSTRUMENTS AND BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS

4.1 MAGNIFYING GLASS

A magnifying glass (called a hand lens in laboratory contexts) is a convex lens that is used to
produce a magnified image of an object. The lens is usually mounted in a frame with a handle (see
image).

A sheet magnifier consists of many very narrow concentric ring-shaped lenses, such that the
combination acts as a single lens but is much thinner.

Figure 27: Lens

4.2 MICROSCOPE

Figure 28: Light microscope

Parts of microscope and their functions.

• Eyepiece or ocular lens: Eyepiece is the lens, present at the top and is used to see the
objects under study. Eyepiece lens contains a magnification of 10X or 15X.
• Tube: Tube or the body tube, connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
• Resolving nosepiece: It is also known as the Turret. Resolving nosepiece has holders
for the different objective lenses. It allows the rotation of the lenses while viewing.

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 • Objective lenses: Generally, three or four objective lenses are found on a microscope,
with ranges of 10X, 40X, 100X powers. Lenses are colour coded, the shortest lens is of
the lowest power, and the longest lens is high power lenses.
• Diaphragm: Diaphragm helps in controlling the amount of light that is passing through
the opening of the stage. It is helpful in the adjustment of the control of light that enters.
• Coarse adjustment knob: Used for focus on scanning. Usually, the low power lens is
used enabling the movement of the tube.
• Fine adjustment knob: Used for focus on oil. Moves the body tube for focussing the
high-power lens.
• Arm: It supports the tube of the microscope and connects to the base of the
microscope.
• Stage: The platform that is flat used for placing the slides under observation.
• Stage clip: Stage clips hold the slides in proper place.
• Condensor: The main function of condenser lens is focussing the light on the specimen
under observation. When very high powers of 400X are used, condenser lenses are very
important. Presence of condenser lens gives a sharper image as compared to the
microscope with no condenser lens.
• Base: Provides basal support for the microscope.
• Power switch: The main power switch that turns the illumination on or off

4.3 CALCULATION OF MAGNIFICATION

𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑀𝑔) = 𝑂𝑟
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

ASSESSMENT

1. Name the types of instruments that can be used to magnify things.

2. A learner looked through a microscope using 20X eye piece lens and a 40X objective lens.
What is the total magnification that learner is using.
3. Look at the drawing of grasshopper below. If the grasshopper’s actual image is 1.5 Cm, how

many times has it been magnified?

4. Provide label for the microscope 1 to 13 and give their functions

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UNIT 5. PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL.

5.2. Structure of animal cell and plant cell.

Figure 29: Animal & Plant cell

5.3 Functions of parts of parts of plants and animal cell.

a. Cell wall.
Cell wall is nonliving, outermost part of plant cells. It is made of cellulose. Cellulose is tough and
resists stretching. The cell wall gives firmness and a fixed shape to a plant cell due to presence of
cellulose.

Functions of cell wall:

• It provides mechanical support to plants in herbaceous plants.
• It protects and give a plant cell a definite shape.
• It allows gases, water and other substances to move in and out of the cell. It is freely
permeable.

b. Cell membrane: Is also called plasma membrane.

Its functions include:
➢ To enclose inner contents of the cell.
➢ To allow selective movement of substances in and out of the cell. It therefore
forms a barrier that separates the cell from its surrounding.
➢ To communicate with other cells through signaling.

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 c. Cytoplasm.
It is a fluid-filled medium in which chemical reactions takes place. It is a medium in which cell
organelles and other substances such as starch, granules, fat droplets, glycogen and other
dissolved substances are suspended.

d. Nucleus
Nucleus is a large spherical body enclosed by nuclear membrane. It has small spaces called
pores which allow exchange of substances. It contains nucleic acid called DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) which codes for genetic information of the organisms.

Three vital roles of nucleus:

➢ It controls all the activities of the cell.

➢ It carries genes or genetic information in the DNA. This information is transmitted from
parents to offspring.
➢ It controls how cell divide and grow
Nucleolus is found inside the nucleus and it synthesizes the ribosome. Ribosome is site of
proteins synthesis.

e. Vacuoles:

These are fluid-filled sacs in the cell. They vary in size from one cell to another.

❖ Plant cells normally have large vacuole while many animal cells have no vacuole. If present,
they are temporally minutes and scattered in the cytoplasm.
❖ In the plant cell, they contain sap; hence they are called sap vacuoles.
❖ In animal cell, the vacuoles may store food. This especially occurs in unicellular organisms
like amoeba.
❖ Unicellular organisms also contain contractile vacuoles which are used to excrete
wastes products and excess water from the cell.

f. Chloroplasts:
They are oval-shaped chlorophyll containing organelles. They are found in large numbers in plants
and cell that carryout photosynthesis.

g. Mitochondrion (Mitochondria).
This is found in most eukaryotic cells. It is the site of energy production in the cell. They are
therefore considered as the power house of a cell.

Muscles in our bodies enable us to perform various tasks. They use a lot of energy. Therefore,
the muscles cells have more mitochondria than cells in other parts of the body. Cells that have
high rate of metabolism generally possess high number of mitochondria in order to produce
sufficient energy. Examples are liver cells

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 h. Lysosomes.
A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. They are
involved with various cell processes. If the cell is damaged beyond repair, lysosomes can help it
to self-destruct in a process called programmed cell death, or apoptosis.

Functions of lysosomes:

✓ They are in charge of wastes removal in animal cell and maintain health and fighting
diseases in their host organisms.
✓ They are in charge of repairing cell membrane and responding to foreign bacteria.
✓ They contain enzymes that breakdown worn-out cell organelles.
✓ They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.

i. Centrioles
Centrioles are paired barrel-shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the
nuclear envelope. Centrioles play a role in organizing microtubules that serve as the cell's
skeletal system. They help determine the locations of the nucleus and other organelles within
the cell.

The functions of centrioles are:

✓ The main function is to help with cell division in animal cells.
✓ They also help in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes
during cell division (mitosis).
✓ The second function of centrioles is focused on is celiogenesis. Celiogenesis is the
formation of cilia and flagella on the surface of cells. Cilia and flagella help in the
movement of cells

j. Golgi body: Is also known as a Golgi apparatus.

It involves the following roles:

✓ It is a cell organelles that helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules,
especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.
✓ It modifies proteins and lipids.
✓ Process materials to be removed from the cells.
✓ Make and secrete mucus.
✓ Package products into vesicles for transport.

k. Endoplasmic reticulum.
This is a network of sac-like structures and tubes in the cytoplasm (gel-like fluid) of a cell. Proteins
and other molecules move through the endoplasmic reticulum. The outer surface of the
endoplasmic reticulum can be smooth or rough.

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 Endoplasmic Structure Functions Found in
reticulum
Rough Membraneous organelles Make proteins destined for Most cells
endoplasmic covered by ribosomes secretion, the plasma
reticulum membrane or
endomembrane system
Smooth Membraneous organelles Make lipids detoxifies the Specialized
endoplasmic without ribosomes. cells. cells such as
reticulum hepatocytes.

The endoplasmic reticulum performs the following functions:

✓ ER serves important functions particularly in the synthesis, folding, modification, and

transport of proteins.
✓ It is responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones.
✓ It is also responsible for the synthesis of proteins and essential lipids such as phospholipids
and cholesterol.
✓ It is responsible for the metabolism of carbohydrates.

5.4 Comparison between plant and animal cell.

5.4.1 Similarities between plant and animal cell

✓ They have nucleus ✓ They have mitochondria

✓ They have vacuole ✓ They have endoplasmic reticulum
✓ They have cell membrane ✓ They have cytoplasm.

5.4.2. Differences between plant and animal cell.

Animal cell Plant cell

✓ Has irregular shape ✓ Has regular shape (hexagone)
✓ Has small vacuole, sometimes abscent ✓ Has large vacuole
✓ Nucleus is located inside ✓ Nucleus is in peripheral
✓ Has no cell wall ✓ Has cell wall
✓ Has no chloroplasts ✓ Has chloroplasts
✓ Have centriole ✓ Lack centrioles

ASSESSMENT

1. What is a cell ?
2. Differenciate unicellular and multicellular organisms
3. Compare plant and animal cell.
4. How is prokaryotic cell differ from eukaryotic cell ?

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 5. Suggest the differences existing between smmoth endoplasmic reticulum and rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
6. Give the functions of the following cell organelles:
(i) Lysosomes
(ii) Cell wall
(iii) Vaccuole
(iv) Ribosomes
7. Study the diagram below and answer to the following questions:

8.
a. Which type represented by above image ?
b. Label all parts with their functions
c. Name the organelles found in a cell above but not found in animal cell.
d. Give organelles found in both animal cell and cell shown above.
9. Match the following organelles with their functions.
Organelles Functions
a. Mitochondria i. Involve in photosynthesis process

b. Ribosomes ii. Control the movement of

substances in and out of the cell.

c. Nucleus iii. Store food and other substances

d. Vaccuole iv. Replace wornout cells organelles

e. Lysosomes v. Protein synthesis

f. Cell membrane vi. Coordinate all body activities

g. Chloroplasts vii. Production of energy

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UNIT 6. LEVELS OF ORGANISATION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS.

Cell differenciation: These are cells of living things that perform specific functions.

Cell specialization: Is the structural modification of a cell to perform a specific function better.

6.1 Specialized plant cells

Some plant cells are structurally modified to perform specific functions. These specialized cells
include: Root hair cell, xylem cell, phloem vessel and mesophyll cells.

a) Root hair cells.

They are found on the outside layer of the roots, where they absorb water and dissolved
nutrients from the soil.
Plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. They absorb mineral ions by active transport,
against the concentration gradient.

Adaptation of root hair cells for taking up water and mineral ions:

✓ A large surface area to increase the rate of absorption.

✓ They contain lots of mitochondria which release energy from glucose during respiration in
order to provide the energy needed for active transport.
✓ They are numerous so as to increase the surface area over which absorption of water and
mineral salts occurs.
✓ They are thin and fine so that they can penetrate the spaces in between the soil particles
where water is found
✓ They have high surface area for absorption of ions and osmosis

b) Mesophyll cells
These are most cells found inside a leaf between upper and lower surfaces. This region is called
mesophyll.

Its main function is to carryout photosynthesis.

Types of mesophyll cells are: Spongy mesophyll cells and mesophyll cells
➢ Pallissade mesophyl cells: Are long, thin cells which are full of chloroplasts. They
are found on the upper surface of the leaf.

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 ➢ Spongy mesophyll cells: Have a lot of chloroplasts aand they are closely packed
in the leaf. This make easy for gases such as carbon dioxide which is needed for
photosynthesis to move into and out of the cells.

NB: Pallisssade cells are more suited for photosynthesis compared to the spongy mesophyll cells.

Figure 30: Internal leaf structure

c) Xylem vessels:
These are vessels which are involved in transportation of water and inorganic ions (mineral salts)
from roots to other parts of plants.

Adaptation of Xylem vessels:

✓ Its walls are thickened with lignin to prevent them from collapsing. For this reason, xylem
provide mechanical support to the plant.
✓ The lumen of xylem is narrow to enhance capillarity. Hence water is transported
efficiently.
✓ Xylem vessels lack cross walls and end walls. This allow continous flow of water up the
xylem
✓ Most xylem vessels contain bordered pits. This allows lateral movement of water to other
tissues.

d) Phloem tissue.
Phloem tissue transport food substances in the plants.

Adaptation of phloem cells:

✓ It has sieve pores which allow dissolved substances to pass from one sieve tube to
another.
✓ Sieve tube elements have companion cells which have all organelles to supply energy
and other chemicals needed in transportation of food.
✓ They have cytoplasmic filament along which substances stream from one sieve tube
to another.

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 e) Guard cells.
They are located in the epidermal layer of the leaf. Two guard cells border a stoma by
controlling its opening and closing.

Figure 31: Guard cell structure

Adaptation of guard cells:

✓ They have chloroplasts. Therefore, carry out photosynthesis
✓ They are bean shaped allowing for a space between the two cells. The stoma (stomata)
allows gases to diffuse in and out.
✓ The outer walls of guard cells are thinner compared to inner walls. This allows guard cells
to stretch outwards when they bulge, resulting to opening and closing of stomata.

6.2 Specialized animal cell:

These specialized cells include: red blood cell, ciliated cells, nerve cells, sperm cells and egg cells.

a. Red blood cell

They transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body.

Adaptation of red blood cells to their functions:

✓ They have biconcave shape, to increase surface area for absorbing oxygen.
✓ They lack nucleus, to provide more space for packaging of haemoglobin. However red
blood cells of birds and amphibians have nuclei.
✓ They are thin walled, to reduce distance of diffusion hence rapid diffusion of gases across
the membrane.

b. Ciliated cells.
They are found in the inner layer of the nose and windpipe. They contain cilia on the outer
surface. Cilia are very small like structures.

Their functions is to keep up a stream of mucus that traps and carries dusts and germs from
inhaled air. This prevent from reaching the lungs.

c. Nerve cells (Neurons).

They are specialized cells for conduction of nervous impulses in the body.

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 Figure 32: Motor nerve cell structure

Adaptation of nerve cells:

✓ They possess an elongation called axon, along impulses are transmitted.
✓ Some have myelin sheath made of fatty cells that act as an insulation for the electric
impulses.
✓ They have dendrites at terminal dendrites

d. Sperm cells.
A sperm comprises of:
• A head which has an acrosome containing lytic enzymes and a nucleus.
• The middle piece which contains mitochondria and a single centriole.
• A tail.
• Nucleus

Figure 33: Sperm cell structure

Adaptation of sperm cell to its functions:

• Long whip-like tail used for propulsion (swimming).

• They are produced in large numbers to increase the chances of survival.
• Large number of mitochondria helps to provide enough energy needed for propulsion.
• The large nucleus helps the sperm cell to carry a lot of genetic information.
• The lytic enzymes in the acrosome help to digest the egg membrane to facilitate
fertilization.

e. Egg cells.
This is a female gamete which fuse with sperm cell to form zygote. Egg cells are produced from
ovaries and delivered to the oviduct where fertilization takes place.

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 Figure 34: Ovum (egg cell) structure

The ovum is adapted to its function of being fertilised by the sperm and development
of the zygote through:

✓ The egg cell is much bigger than the sperm.

✓ It has a chemical layer around the outside to stop more sperm getting in.
✓ It also contains one set of cytoplasm to survive on for the couple of hours it takes the egg
cell to reach the womb and form the embryo.
✓ It has cytoplasm containing yolk that nourishes the zygote before implantation.

Comparison between sperm and ovum

Sperm Ovum
✓ Occurs in testes of the male ✓ Occurs in the ovaries of the female
✓ Many sperm per germinal cells are ✓ One egg cell per germinal cell is
produced produced.
✓ Sperms are small but mobile ✓ Ovum is large but non- mobile
✓ Start at puberty and does not stop ✓ Starts in the embryo and stops at
✓ They can survive for about four days menopause
inside the female’s body. ✓ They can survive for about two days
inside the female’s body.

6.3. Advantages of specialization of cell.

• It enables them to grow bigger.

• It enables them to carryout complex processes.
• Specialized cells can work together to from tissues, organ, and organ system.

6.4. Levels of organization in multicellular organisms

Several specialized cells work together to carry out a particular function.

a. Cell: This is the smallest structural and functional unit of living things. It is made up by
different smallest structures called organelles. Example: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

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 b. Tissue: This is a group of cells which perform specific functions. Both plants and animals
have structures made up of tissues. Examples: Vascular tissues, Blood tissues and
nerve tissues
c. Organ: This is made up by various tissues that are grouped together. Examples: Leaves,
roots, flowers, lungs, liver, kidney, heart, skin, brain, stomach, etc…
d. Organ system: This is made up of several organs whose functions are coordinated to
realize an effective action in an organism. Example: Reproductive system, transport
system in plants, excretory system, digestive system, gaseous exchange system, endocrine
system and nerve system.
e. Organism: This is an individual living thing made of organ system such as animals, plants
or microorganisms that is capable of reproduction, growth and maintenance of worn-out
tissues.

Examples of different levels of organization in plants and animals

Levels Plants Animals

Organelles Chloroplast Mitochondrion
Cell Palisade cell Muscular cells
Tissues Palisade layer Muscular tissue
Organ Leaf Skeletal
Organ system Transport system Urinary system
Organism Plant Animal

𝑨𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 (𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕) 𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕:

𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔 → 𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍 → 𝑻𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒆 → 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏 → 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 → 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒎

ASSESSMENT:

1. Consider the following levels: Cow, Nucleus, Muscle cell, Heart, circulatory system and
blood tissue. Arrange these structures from Simplest to complex and from Complex to
simplest.
2. Explain how the following specialized cells adapt to carry out their functions: Red blood
cells, Nerve cell, Xylem cell, Spongy mesophyll cell, Guard cell
3. Compare sperm cell and egg cell.
4. With real examples, explain the following terms: Cell, Organ system, Tissue, Organ,
Organism
5. Consider the following cells:

X Z
a. Name the cell X and Z and their differences. b. Label all parts of cell X and Z.

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UNIT 7. FOOD NUTRIENTS AND DIET.

7.1. Food nutrients

Nutrients are chemical substances that organisms need to live. Nutrition: Is the process by
which living things obtain nutrients and assimilate them.

Importance of nutrition to human being.

✓ Growth and development

✓ Replace worn-out and damaged tissues.
✓ Protection against diseases
✓ Maintaining relatively constant body temperature.
✓ Production of energy for daily activity.

7.2 Composition of biological molecules.

There are five main types of foods nutrients: carbohydrates, fats and oils, proteins, vitamins
and minerals.

They each have different properties and different functions in living organisms.

a. CARBOHYDRATES.

The most of familiar carbohydrates are sugar and start they containing carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.

Examples are glucose, cane sugar, starch, cellulose…

Carbohydrates are principally, of valve as energy-giving foods, each gramme provides 16 KJ (Kilo
joules) of energy.

Classes of carbohydrates:

a. Monosaccharide (Reducing sugars)

These are single sugar unit. The general formula is (𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝟎)𝒏 . Some examples of monosaccharide
are glucose, fructose and galactose.

Properties of monosaccharides:

✓ They are insoluble in water

✓ They form sweet tasting solutions
✓ They can form crystals

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 b. Disaccharides (Non-reducing sugars)

This is a double sugar formed when two monosaccharide molecules combine. The chemical
processes that form a disaccharide from the two monosaccharide is called condensation
reaction. They are soluble in water and taste sweet.

Examples: Maltose, lactose and sucrose.

𝒂) 𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝒃) 𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑳𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝒄) 𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑭𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒔𝒆 → 𝑺𝒖𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

c. Polysaccharides

A polysaccharide is a large complex molecule. It is formed when many monosaccharide molecules

link up in a condensation reaction.

The hydrolysis of polysaccharide therefore gives rise to many monosaccharide units.

Examples of polysaccharides are starch, cellulose and glycogen.

Functions of carbohydrates

- To give energy, that there are recommended to manuals workers

- To permit intestine movement (cellulose)
- To prevent constipation (cellulose)

Chemical tests for carbohydrates:

PROCEDURE’S TESTS OBSERVATIONS CONLUSION

1. Take 1cm3 of starch solution, The solution which was initially The solution
and put it into test tube. white, turns blue-black contains starch

Add 2 drops of iodine solution

2. Take 1cm3 of glucose solution, The solution, initially colorless Starch is absent
put it into test tube. becomes colored like iodine into the solution
solution(yellow/brown)
Add two drops of iodine solution
3. Take 1cm3 of sucrose solution, The solution which is colorless There is no starch
put it into test tube. Add 2 drops takes the color of iodine solution in the solution
of iodine solution

4. Take 1cm3 of glucose solution, The colorless solution turns Glucose is a

put it into a test tube , and add 5 yellow, from yellow to green, and reducing sugar

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 drops of Benedict’s solution and then to orange or red-brown
boil precipitate

5. Take 1 cm3 of sucrose solution, The colorless solution takes the Sucrose is not a
put it into a test tube and add 5 color of Benedict’s solution (blue) reducing sugar (it is a
drops of Benedict’s solution and non- reducing sugar)
boil

6. To 1cm3 of starch, add 1cm3 of No color changes Starch is not

HCl. Boil the mixture and cool. decomposed by
Add 1cm3 of Sodium Hydroxide hydrochloric
(NaOH) acid(HCl)

7. -Take 1 cm3 of sucrose The solution which was initially Non-reducing

blue becomes Yellow, from sugar (sucrose)
-Add 1cm3 of hydrochloric acid yellow to green, from green to tested in
(Hcl) orange or red-brown
precipitate.
-Boil the mixture and cool

-Add 1cm3 of NaOH

-Shake to mix

-Add 1cm3 of Benedict’s solution

and boil again

Note:

✓ HCl has been added in tests (6 and 7) for breaking down glycosidic bonds of polysaccharides
into monomers (monosaccharide).
✓ NaOH neutralizes HCl present into the medium because the Benedict’s solution does not
react into acidic medium.
✓ Benedict’s test is used to identify the presence of reducing sugar while iodine test is used
to identify the presence of starch.

b. LIPIDS (fats and oils).

Like carbohydrates, fats and oils contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but in different
proportions. They are present in milk, butter (beurre) and cheeses (fromage). Fruits like avocado,
fish and meat.

c. PROTEINS

Proteins are building blocks of amino acids. They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, usually sulphur, phosphate.

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Examples of foods containing protein are meat, eggs, beans, groundnuts, fish and milk and
its products such as cheese.

Proteins are broken down by digestion to substances called amino-acids which are absorbed into
the blood stream and eventually reach the cells of the body.

d. VITAMINS

Vitamins are complex chemical compounds which, although they have no energy value, are
essential in small quantities for the normal chemical reactions of the body and his protection to
diseases.

Importances of some vitamins

Vitamin Function Source of its Retated desorder

deficiency
Vitamin A - Make up Liver, yellow and -Stunted growth
(retinal) photosensitive pigments of green vegetables such
eyes as spinach, carrots, -Skin alteration
- Allows the cassava leaves,
development of bones & tomatoes, cheese, -Night blindness.
teeth eggs, milk

Vitamin B1 Intervenes in the Egg, vegetables, Beriberi (nervous &

(Thiamine) functioning of the nervous chicken, Soja, milk, gastro intestinal
system. liver meat, brewer’s disorder paralysis &
yeast. heart weakness.
Vitamin B12 Intervenes in the Egg, Vegetables, Beriberi.
(Cobalamin) functioning of the nervous Chicken, Soja, milk,
system liver meat, brewer’s,
yeast
Vitamin C Intervenes in wound Yeast, egg, tomato’s Surop: bleeding
(Ascorbic acid) heating, in the metabolism strawberries, lemons gums, fatigue slow
of lipids and proteins parsley healing of wound
Vitamin D Stimulats intestinal Egg, yolk, liver, milk Infant rickets
(Calciferol) absorption of calcium and drowns, butter, deformation of bornes
phosphorus for normal cheese and fish. especially of the pelvis
development of bons and lower limbs
The skin produce
Vit. D. by the action of
sunlight.

Other vitamins.

• Vitamin K is synthesized by bacteria in the colon (large intestines), it is essential for

blood congulation (clotting of blood).

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 • Vitamin E, needed in reproductive process, at least in rats. Its deficiency causes sterility
in animals
• Vitamins B2, needed for cell respiration. Keeps mucous membrane and skin healthy. Its
deficiency causes general weakness pellagra.
• Vitamin B3, skin eczema on exposure to sunlight, diarrhoea, wasting and mental
degeneration, all symptoms of pellagra.

e. Mineral Substances.

e.1. Water

Water is an essential food in all foods and beverages. It is needed to digest and dissolute the
food and water in the blood plasmas, carries the dissolved food all around the body of living
organism.

The importance of water in living organism:

✓ It is needed in the hydrolysis of carbohydrates, proteins and other substances

✓ It dilutes harmful substances in our bodies and help in their excretion.
✓ It is used to transport substances in the cell and blood.
✓ It gives organism shape by making cell turgid.
✓ Oxygen is absorbed into the body after it dissolves in moist lining of the lungs.
✓ Excretory materials are removed from the body when dissolved in water.
✓ Water is a thermal regulator.
✓ Water is involved in many metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis, respiration,
digestion.

Losing Water: We can lose water by: Urine; Transpiration, Excretion of waste and Diarrhoea

e.2. Minerals:

Minerals are essential constituent of foods.

Main mineral salts, their source and functions.

Minerals salts Source Functions

Calcium Milk, dairy products, fruits and • Grwoth, strengthening, bones
papayas, banana, oranges, mangoes, and teeth.
plantain, fresh fish. • Is involved in blood congulation

Sodium Sodium vegetables, fruits, legumes • Role in regulation the balance of

(Soja, beans, peans, fish, meat, table body fluids
salt) • Is involved in the transmission of
nerve imputes.

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 Potassium Cereal (Maize, wheat, sorghum, rice), Fluid balance, Influx transmission
legumes and fruits muscle contraction.
Iron Liver, beef, fresh cassava leaves, beans, Formation of red blood cells.
maize flour and cassava tuber
Phosphorus Dairy products, fish, meat peanuts, • Normal growth
almonds • Increases immunity

Zinc Peanuts, almonds and pumpkinseeds • Normal growth

• Increases immunity

Iodine Iodized cooking salt, egg, milk, marine Needed for the functioning of the
arthropods thyroid gland
Fluoride Fluoridated water Solidifies teeth
Magnesium Irish potato, fruits, cereals, vegetables Is involves in the nerve and muscle
activity.

7.3 Balanced Diet

A balanced diet is a meal that contains the correct amount and proportions of all the food groups.
The food groups include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, mineral salts and vitamins.

Food nutrient groups and their importance.

Food nutrients Importance

Carbohydrates Provide the body with energy
(sugars, starches)
• Provide energy
• Help with absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
Lipids (fats & oils) • Form a layer beneath the skin that insulates the body and reduces
heat loss.
• Form a layer around organs to provide protection from injury

Proteins • Needed for growth.

• Needed for repair of damaged tissues
• Needed for producing the enzymes required for chemical reactions
in the body

Vitamins • Vitamin C is needed to fight infections and heal wounds, and for
healthy bones, teeth, skin and gums.
• Vitamin D helps the body to absorb calcium from food, which is
needed for healthy bones and teeth

Minerals • Iron is needed to make haemoglobin, a substance in red blood cells

that transports oxygen around the body.

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 • Calcium is needed for strong bones and teeth

Water • Needed for chemical reactions in the cells

• Keeps body temperature constant.
• Helps the movement of joints.
• Helps digestion of food
• Helps to remove poisonous substances from the body

a. Diseases caused by nutritional deficiencies

a.1. Marasmus:

Marasmus is a disease frequently encountered, especially in children and adolescents.

Symptoms:
● Extreme loss of body fats and muscles
● Lack of energy
● Severe hunger
● Swelling of hands and feet
● Lack of subcutaneous fats

Marasmus is caused by not eating enough of almost all nutrients but especially energy rich
food like carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

a.2. Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor occurs when a person’s diet is does not include enough proteins, vitamins and
minerals. Mainly children are affected.

Symptoms:

• Suffer have swollen stomach, while the rest of their body is very thin and has little muscle.
• Changes in hair colours, skin rashes, swollen hands and feet and loss of appetite.

N.B: This disease is absent in populations that feeds the children with fish and meat, even in small
quantities.

a.3. The goitre

Goitre is an increase in the volume of the neck as a result of swelling of the thyroid gland located
at this level. This is one of the disorders caused by lacking or poor in iodine.

To avoid goitre, we must eat foods salt added iodine.

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 a.4. Night blindness or exophthalmia

It is vitamin deficiency caused by lack of vitamin A. The drying of the eye cornea surface increases
ulcers and can cause blindness. It is prevented by consuming foods containing Vit. A.

a.5. Rickets.

Ricket is a developmental and skeleton calcification disorder caused by vitamin D deficiency. A

child suffering from ricket has be prevented from it by giving him a daily basis a few drops of
vitamin D during the first two years.

a.6. Obesity:

Obesity is excess calories stored in body as fat. It is caused by excessive consumption of meat,
fat and carbohydrates. The obese person becomes excessively big because of an increase in body
weight and can become a real monster.

Consequences of obesity

• Increased risk of diabetes and cancer

• Increase is cardiovascular diseases
• Excessive fatigue of the heart because the body becomes heavy to move.
• Increase blood pressure causing hypertension
• General weakness shown by difficulties of making violent efforts and greater fatigability.

a.7. Constipation:

Constipation occurs when a person does not eat enough fruits and vegetables. Their stools
become hard and difficult to pass. We can prevent constipation by eating food rich in fibers and
drinking a plenty of water.

b. Some healthy nutritional habits

● Take three meals a day: heavy breakfast, light dinner and supper.
● Ear always foods from each food group
● Drink enough water during the days.
● Eat fruit and vegetables at each meal.
● Avoid drinking lots of water during meals
● Go to the toilet all days the same time.
● To avoid exchange fork or spoons while eating
● Increase the discharge of waste materials by consuming lots of vegetables
● Take foods with enough salts, calcium and Vit. A, B & C.

ASSESSMENT

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 1. With relevant examples, describe all classes of carbohydrates.
2. What are the importance of eating a balanced diet?
3. Suggest the importance of:
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Vitamin A, B, C and K, Water

4. What is malnutrition?
5. What are the effects of malnutrition? Give the symptoms of diseases caused by malnutrition
6. Give the basic units of each of the following:
a..) Carbohydrates b) proteins c) fats and oils.
7. Nutrition is a life process. Name other four life process both plants and animals can do.
8. Plants and animals have wonderful partnership. What do plant benefits from animals and what
do animals benefits from plants?
9. Explain how you can confirm the presence or absence of the following nutrients in food
sample: a) Starch b) Monosaccharides c) Disaccharides
10. Explain the necessities of dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide during tests of non-
reducing sugars
11. What are the chemical elements found only in Proteins but abscent in carbohydrates
12. Complete the following chemical reactions:

𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 → ⋯ … . . + ⋯ ..

𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + ⋯ … → 𝐿𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

… . + ⋯ … … … . . → 𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟.

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UNIT 8. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN GAS EXCHANGE
SYSTEM.

Gaseous exchange refers to the exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
between the cells of organisms and their environment.

1.1 Structure of human gas exchange system.

Figure 35: Respiratory system

1.2 Functions of parts of human gaseous exchange

Parts Functions
Nasal passage • Hair in the nostrils trap dust and other particles
• Mucus lining in the nasal passages traps germs.

Pharynx Warms and moistens the air entering the lungs as the air pass over
the blood vessels.
Epiglottis Stop food and liquids fro going into the trachea during swallowing.
Trachea and bronchi • Provide an open passage for air to enter and leave the lungs.
• Mucus lining the inside walls traps dusts and germs.
• Move mucus, which contain dusts and germs to the pharynx
using like structures (cilia) that line the inside the wall.

Alveoli Enables the exchanges of gases between the blood passing through
the lungs and the air in the lungs.
Rib cage • It encloses and protects the heart and lungs.
• It provides a strong framework onto which the muscles of the
shoulder girdle, chest, upper abdomen and back can attach.

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 • It is flexible and can expand and contract by the action of
respiration muscles.
• The diaphragm is attached to its lower border.

1.3 Gas exchange in humans.

In humans, gas exchange takes place in two places: in the alveoli in the lungs and in the cells
of the body.

i. Gaseous exchange across the alveoli.

Air, which contains oxygen, is breathed into the lungs. Oxygen moves from the alveoli into the
blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. Carbon dioxide moves out of the blood into
the alveoli. Carbon dioxide is breathed out.

Adaptation of alveoli to their functions:

• They are lined with a thin film of moisture.

• They are numerous in number
• The walls of alveoli have thin epithelial cells across which gases diffuse.
• They are well supplied by a network of blood capillaries which carry blood in and out of
the alveoli.

ii. Gas exchange in cells

Blood containing oxygen flows from the heart to the body cells. Oxygen molecules move by
diffusion from a high concentration in the blood towards a region where there is less oxygen
inside the cells.

Inside the cell, oxygen is used in the process of respiration. Carbon dioxide is made during
respiration in the cells. This means that there is a high concentration of carbon dioxide molecules
inside the cells. Carbon dioxide moves out of the cells into the blood where there is a lower
carbon dioxide concentration.

Mechanisms of breathing in human beings.

Breathing is the process of taking air in and out of the lungs. It takes place in two phases known
as Inhalation and exhalation.

Inhalation or Inspiration

It is an active phenomenon due to the action of inhalant muscles attached to the thorax.

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Air is inhaled because the thorax expands due to:

• The contraction of the diaphragm which falls by foreign downward the abdominal viscera.
• The contraction of the intercostals muscles pushes the sternum forward and raises the ribs.

Exhalation or Expiration

Unlike inhalation is a passive process. There is the return of the thorax to it original volume, due
to the relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostals muscles.

8.4 CHEMICAL PHENOMENA OF RESPIRATION

The body takes the oxygen from atmospheric air and expels carbon dioxide produced by the cell
activity. There are two exchange levels: pulmonary level and tissue level.

a. At pulmonary level

The pulmonary alveolus is the respiratory unit. The oxygen is diffused from this alveolus to the
blood. In contact with oxygen, blood haemoglobin (Hb) stores oxygen that will be fixed on iron.
Oxyghemoglobin (HbO2) is therefore formed. The latter is hardly stable as it is transported by
blood. It dissociates when partial oxygen pressure drops:

b. At cell level.

Exchange is done according to a reverse node of what occurs in the lungs. Oxygen released
into the plasma by haemoglobin dissociation, according to this equation:
𝑯𝒃𝑶𝟐 → 𝑯𝒃 + 𝑶𝟐

Oxygen passes through the capillary wall by diffusing towards the cells that use it in their breathing
according to the equation below:

𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 + 𝟔𝑶𝟐 → 𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

Carbon dioxide (CO 2) produced by the cells goes in the blood which transports it to the lungs
where it is discharged outside the body during exhalation.

2.5. Function of respiration

The respiration function is to enrich blood with oxygen and gets rid of waste products, especially
carbon dioxide. Each body cell use oxygen for the combustion of nutricots particularly glucose
and fatty acids to release energy needed for its operation. This is the cell respiration whose
overall equation is:

𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 + 𝟔𝑶𝟐 → 𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟔𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

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Carbon dioxide and water, wastes resulting from cell respiration are transported through blood
and discharged through lungs and kidneys.

ASSESSMENT
1. What do you understand by the term gaseous exchange?
2. Explain the mechanism of breathing
3. How are alveoli adapted to carry out its function?
4. Define the term respiration and write its chemical equation
5. The diagram below, show human gaseous exchange. Observe it and answer to the questions
that follow.

a. Label all parts

b. Give the functions of four parts from your choice on the above diagram
c. Explain how structure labelled 11, is suited to its function
6. Suggest 10 healthy benefits of respiratory system
7. List five diseases that affect respiratory system

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UNIT 9: TROPIC RESPONSES.

Plant growth or turning in response to an environmental stimulus .

There are many types of tropisms :

• Phototropism • Hydrotropism
• Geotropism • Chemotropism
• Thigmotropism • Thermotropism

Tropism can be:

POSITIVE If the plant moves toward the stimulus or NEGATIVE If the plant moves away
from the stimulus.

8. PHOTOTROPISM:

The movement of plants towards the light

➢ Positive Phototropism: Stem tip growing toward the light source

➢ Negative Phototropism: Root tip growing away from the light source

Importance of phototropism:

Helps leaves be in the best position possible to receive enough light for photosynthesis.

9. GEOTROPISM:

This is the growth of a plant in response to gravity.

➢ Positive Geotropism: It is the growth of a plant toward the center of the earth-down
with gravity. Ex: roots growing down.
➢ Negative Geotropism: It is the growth of a plant away from the center of the earth-
opposite from the pull of gravity Ex. stems grow up

Importance of geotropism:

➢ Pulls roots down to anchor a plant

➢ Roots can get needed water and minerals

10. THIGMOTROPISM.

This is the growth of a plant in response to touch/contact.

➢ Positive Thigmotropism: Toward touch

➢ Negative Thigmotropism: Away from touch(some plants close up when touched)

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 Importance of thigmotropism:

To support leaves as they grow higher to reach the sun to make more food in a process known
as (photosynthesis).

11. HYDROTROPISM.

This is the movement by plants toward water

➢ Positive Hydrotropism: Toward water

➢ Negative Hydrotropism: Away from water

Importance of Hydrotropism: Roots search for and grow toward water, because it is needed for
photosynthesis and to support cell structure

12. THERMOTROPISM.

This is the bending of plant toward or away from heat

➢ Positive Thermotropism: Toward heat

➢ Negative Thermotropism: Away from heat

Importance of thermotropism.

In colder weather helps prevent water loss through stomata

13. CHEMOTROPISM

This is the movement caused by chemical stimuli

➢ Positive Chemotropism. Toward high nutrient soil (healthy soil)

➢ Negative Chemotropism: Away from low nutrient soil (unhealthy soil)

Importance of chemotropism.

Helps control and regulate growth and development of plant

Nastic response

Nastic response is a non-directional movement of part of a plant in response to an external

stimulus. It mainly depends on the intensity of the stimulus. Nastic movements are generally
caused by changes in the osmotic pressure due to an influx or efflux of ions that cause water to
move in or out of the cells.

i. The opening and closing movements of many flowers.

ii. Movements of developing buds which swell, open up and eventually fall off.

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iii. The leaves of many plants respond to the daily alternation between light and darkness
by moving up and down. Leguminous plants exhibiting nastic movements include the
sensitive plant Mimosa pudica.
iv. Mechanical disturbances that may trigger movements include touch or shaking the
plant.

Differences between tropism and nastic response

Tropism Nastic
• The direction of movement is • The direction of movement is
determined by the position of origin determined by the position of the
of the stimulus. anatomy of the plant.
• The movement is in a direction either • The movement is determined by the
toward or away from the stimulus position of the origin of the stimulus
• Changes that occur are generally • Changes that occur are temporary
irreversible reversible and repeatable.

ASSESSMENT
1. Define the term tropism
2. The diagram below

a. From the above diagram, show where the following responses can occur.
i. Positive geotropism
ii. Phototropism
iii. Transpiration
iv. Hydrotropism
b.
3. Consider below diagram.

i. Name the response X and Y in terms of negative and positive

4. Differenciate nastic and tropic response

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UNIT 10. SKELETAL SYSTEM OF ORGANISMS.

A skeleton is a structure on the inside or the outside of the body that gives support to the body
and protects the softer parts of the organism. All animals need a support system that can help
them stay upright and move. This support system is the skeleton.

Animals in water need less support than animals on land because the water supports them as
well. On land, animals need to overcome the force of gravity to be able to move. They also need
protection for the soft tissues and organs inside their bodies.

10.1 TYPES OF SKELETON.

There are three types of skeletons: hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons and endoskeletons.

b. Hydrostatic skeletons.

Hydrostatic skeletons are found in animals that have soft bodies. Such skeletons are not made up
of hard structures such as bones. Instead, these animals have a liquid skeleton. There is fluid inside
their bodies. Muscles in the animal’s body can work against the fluid that keeps their bodies firm.

Examples of animals with hydrostatic skeletons include earthworms, slugs, snails, jellyfish,
leeches and flatworms.

b. Exoskeletons.

Some animals have a skeleton on the outside of their bodies. This is called an exoskeleton (‘exo’-
means ‘outside’).

This type of skeleton is found in insects, crabs, spiders and scorpions.

These are some of the features and functions of an exoskeleton.

❖ An exoskeleton lies outside the muscles of an animal’s body.

❖ It is made by the animal’s skin.
❖ It protects the internal body parts from injury.
❖ It provides protection against predators.
❖ Its color may help the animal to hide or to attract a mate.
❖ It is waterproof, and it prevents the animal from losing too much water.

Exoskeletons are not made from living cells, so they do not grow with the animals. As an animal
grows, the non-living skeleton needs to be replaced. The animal sheds its protective outer
skeleton and a new, larger skeleton takes its place. This is called moulting. The new skeleton is
soft just after molting. This makes the animal easy prey for predators at this time.

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 c. Endoskeleton

In some animals, such as humans, have a skeleton inside their body. This is called an
endoskeleton (‘endo’ means ‘inside’). In most animals, the endoskeleton is made up of bones
and cartilage. The endoskeleton is living tissue.

❖ An endoskeleton supports an animal’s body. Animals need to move from one place to
another in search of food or a mate.
❖ An endoskeleton provides a place where the muscles can be attached.
❖ Some bones are fused together and other bones form joints that help the animal to move.
As the bones are on the inside of the body, they grow as the animal grows. This means that
animals that have an endoskeleton do not need to moult.

Animals that have endoskeletons include fish, frogs, birds, reptiles and mammals.
All of these animals have a backbone. All animals that have a backbone are vertebrates.

❖ Animals with endoskeletons nearly all have the same basic parts: a backbone, four limbs
(arms and legs), a skull and ribs. Some animals have bones in their skeletons that are adapted
to suit their way of life. For example, the bones of a bird are adapted for flying.

Characteristics of hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons and endoskeletons.

Hydrostatic skeleton Exoskeleton Endoskeleton

• Inside the body • Outside the body • Inside the body
• Made of fluid • Made of non-living material. • Made of living material
• Muscles around the • Muscles are attached to the inside • Muscles are attached
fluid can press against of the skeleton. to the outside of the
it • Does not grow, so it needs to be skeleton
shed to enable the animal to grow • Grows inside the
animal

10.2 The human skeleton.

The human endoskeleton is made up of 206 bones. The human skeleton is different to all other
animal skeletons because humans walk on two legs and other animals usually walk on four legs.
The bones in the skeleton are made from living cells. They can break and grow.

The human skeletal system is divided into the central skeleton and the peripheral skeleton.

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 Figure 36: Human skeleton

i. Central skeleton

The central skeleton consists of the skull, the vertebral column and the thoracic cage. Skull The
skull is made up of different bones all fused, or joined, together to form a type of case for the
brain. The skull has openings for the eyes and nose. It protects the brain, the eyes, and the parts
of the ears that are inside the skull.

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 Figure 37: Skull bone (Fixed joint)

a. Vertebral column.

This is the part of the skeleton that enables us to walk upright, bend over, crouch, bend and turn.
It is also called the backbone. It is made up of lots of bones, called vertebrae.

The vertebral column works like a chain. Each vertebra can only move a little, but as a whole it
moves better than one solid bone. The vertebral column needs to be strong and flexible, to give
us good support. From the side, it is S-shaped.

The bones of the vertebral column form a hollow tube through which the spinal cord passes.
The spinal cord is the part of the brain that extends into the back.

• The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.

• The vertebral column also supports the thorax (chest), and the ribs are attached to it.

b. Thoracic cage

The thoracic cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs that are attached to the vertebral column at the
back and a bone called the sternum in front of the chest. Ribs are thin bones.

They play a very important function in protecting the heart and lungs. There are muscles
between the ribs that help us to breathe in and out.

ii. Peripheral skeleton

The peripheral skeleton consists of the upper and lower limbs, pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle

a. Upper limbs

The arms are the upper limbs. The upper limb is made up of the humerus, radius and ulna,
carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.

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The bones of the upper arm are joined to the lower arm at the elbow joint. The lower arm is
joined to the hand by the wrist joint. Each hand has five fingers. The arms and hands are used to
do countless activities, such as grasping, writing and eating.

b. Pectoral girdle

The bones of the upper arm are attached to the pectoral girdle. The pectoral girdle is made up
of the collarbone (clavicle) and shoulder blade (scapula).

The collarbone is a long, thin bone below the front of the neck. The shoulder blades are the
large, flat bones that you can see in the back view of the skeleton. These bones help to protect
the heart and lungs. Together with the collarbones, the shoulder blades form joints for the bones
of the upper arm.

Figure 38: Arm bones ( Pectoral girdle)

c. Pelvic girdle.

This is made up of a ring of bones and includes the base of the vertebral column. The hip bones
are large flat bones.

They protect the internal parts of the body that are important for reproduction. The hip bones
form joints for two legs.

d. Lower limbs

The legs are the lower limbs. The bones of the lower limbs include the femur, patella, tibia and
fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

The bones of the upper leg are joined to the lower leg at the knee joint. The lower leg is joined
to the foot by the ankle joint. Each foot has a heel and five toes. The legs are the organs of
locomotion.

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 Figure 39: Leg bones

Functions of the skeleton.

Functions Description
Support As most animals with an endoskeleton live on land, they need support for the
mass of their bodies.
Protection The bones of the skeleton are strong, and so they protect important organs inside
the body. The bones of the skull protect the brain, the vertebrae protect the spinal
cord, the ribs protect the heart and lungs, and the pelvis protects some of the
digestive organs and the female reproductive organs.
Movement The skeleton helps the animal to move. It is used for the attachment of muscles.
Joints help parts of the skeleton to bend; for example, the elbow joint makes it
possible to bend the arm.

ASSESSMENT

1. Name the longest human bone

2. With real examples, explain three types of endoskeletons
3. Give five functions of skeleton
4. Why human body require thoracic cage?
5. With well labelled diagram, draw human skeleton.
6. How many bones possessed by an adult human being

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 TOPIC 3: HEALTH AND DISEASES
UNIT 11. CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES.

When we say that a person is in ‘good health’, we mean that the person is in a good mental,
physical and social state.

The word ‘disease’ refers to a physical or mental disorder or malfunction that has a particular
set of signs and symptoms. A person that has a disease is sick and may need to be treated by a
health worker. Some diseases do not cause symptoms, so we may not know that the person is
sick. However, other diseases cause a clear set of signs and symptoms.

Practices that promote good health

• We can follow these good practices to prevent disease and stay healthy.
• Eat a balanced diet.
• Eat at regular intervals.
• Get enough sleep.
• Maintain good hygiene of the body, clothes, the home and foods.
• Drink safe water.
• Exercise regularly.
• Avoid eating too much salt.
• Wash your hands before each meal and after going to the toilet.

7. Types of diseases

There are two main types of diseases: infectious and non-infectious diseases.

1.1 Infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are diseases that are passed on, or transmitted, to a person by another
organism, such as a bacterium or virus.

Organisms that cause disease are called pathogens. They attack the body’s cells or release
poisons called toxins. Nearly all pathogens are micro-organisms, so they are microscopic.

Type of pathogen Diseases

Bacteria Cholera, tuberculosis, typhoid fever
Protists Malaria, sleeping sickness
Fungi Thrush, athlete’s foot, ringworm
Viruses HIV, influenza, chicken pox, measles
Parasitic worms Guinea worm disease, bilharzias

Another name for an infectious disease is a communicable disease. Communicable

diseases are transmitted by infections.

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Infectious diseases can spread through:

• Water (e.g. cholera); these are called waterborne diseases

• Air (e.g. measles, tuberculosis) are called airborne diseases
• Blood (e.g. HIV/AIDS)
• Sexual intercourse (e.g. gonorrhoea).

There are several ways to prevent the spread of infectious diseases, including the
following:

• Inform and warn people about a particular infectious disease, for example, cholera or
Ebola fever. Offer health education at all levels of the country.
• Improve public hygiene measures; for example, remove the remains of dead animals, have
rubbish collection points around schools and cities, and provide safe drinking water and
sewage systems.
• Isolate or quarantine infected people in places where they have little contact with people
other than health workers.
• Immunise people against infectious diseases. This is an injection that helps our bodies to
fight a disease.
• Build more healthcare centre
• Eating a balanced diet.
• Getting immunized against disease.
• Drinking water should be made safe by boiling, adding chemicals, filtration or freezing.

1.2 Non infectious diseases.

Non-infectious diseases cannot be passed from one person to another by living organisms. They
develop because the body does not work properly, or they may be caused by a person’s lifestyle.
Examples include sickle cell anaemia, allergies, ageing, osteoporosis, cancer, cardiovascular
diseases, eating disorders, deficiency diseases and mental illnesses.

a. Sickle cell anaemia.

Sickle cell anaemia is a disease of the red blood cells. Sickle-shaped red blood cells are unable to
carry oxygen as well as normal red blood cells can. They can also easily get stuck in narrow blood
vessels. This prevents oxygen from reaching the cells of the body.

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 Figure 40: Effects of sickle celled anaemia on red blood cells

❖ Sickle cell anaemia Is caused by a change in a gene that makes haemoglobin, the
molecules that give your blood its red colour. Haemoglobin helps red blood cells to
carry oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body. The sickle cell gene is passed
from one generation to the next.
❖ If both a mother and father have the sickle cell gene and pass it to their child, then their
child will have sickle cell anaemia.
❖ If only one parent has the sickle cell gene and it is passed to his or her child, then the child
will be able to make both normal and sickle cell haemoglobin. This child will be a carrier of
the sickle cell gene. There are tests available to find out if a child has sickle cell anaemia.
Although there is no cure for sickle cell anaemia, medications can relieve the symptoms.

b. Allergies

An allergy is a reaction by the immune system to a substance in the environment. A substance

that causes an allergy is called an allergen. Some people are allergic to certain foods, for
example, nuts or shellfish, or to substances in the environment, for example, dust, pollen or
pesticides. When someone is allergic to something, they sneeze, get a rash or have swelling on
their body.

c. Ageing

Ageing is the process of becoming older. Many physical, mental and social changes take place.
For example, older people do not walk or think as fast as younger people do.

d. Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a bone disease that occurs mostly in women after menopause. The bones
become very porous, and they break easily and heal slowly. The disease can lead to curvature of
the spine after the vertebrae collapse.

e. Cancer

Cancer is a non-infectious disease that develops when cells of the body do not divide normally.
Cancer can start almost anywhere in a person’s body. Cancer may lead to the growth of tumours.
There are many ways to treat cancer, but it is important to find it early on.

f. Cardiovascular diseases

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 These are diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Examples include coronary heart disease
(CHD) and strokes. CHD can lead to a heart attack, which is when the heart muscles do not get
enough oxygen. A stroke occurs when too little oxygen is transported to the brain cells.

Different diseases and their descriptions

Type of disease Description Example

Infectious disease A disease caused by an invading Cholera, malaria,
organism; it can be transmitted from one tuberculosis, Ebola
person to another
Non-infectious A disease that cannot be transmitted Stroke, sickle cell
disease from one person to another anaemia, scurvy, high
blood pressure
Inherited disease A disease caused by a genetic fault that Sickle cell anaemia,
may be passed from parents to children haemophilia, cystic
fibrosis
Degenerative A gradual decline in function, often Arthritis
disease associated with ageing
Social disease Drug dependence, often caused by social Alcoholism
pressure and certain types of social
behavior
Mental illness A disorder of the mind Anorexia,
schizophrenia
Eating disorder A disease caused by undereating or Anorexia, obesity
overeating
Deficiency disease A disease caused by a poor diet that Scurvy, rickets
lacks one or more essential nutrients

Differents diseases and their prevention.

1. Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is an air-borne disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The source of

infections may be droplets containing bacteria. They enter the air passages through the breathing,
sneezing or infected dry sputum in dust particles.

Tuberculosis is prevented by:

a. Avoiding overcrowded places

b. Opening windows in buildings or public transport vehicles to allow free circulation of air.
c. Avoiding taking raw milk. Milk should be well boiled or pasteurized.
d. Covering one’s mouth or nose when sneezing.

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 e. Immunising children with a BCG vaccine.

2. Cholera.

Cholera is both a water and food-borne disease caused by bacteria vibrio cholera. It is
transmitted by consuming contaminated food and water. This disease affects areas that have poor
sanitation and hygiene.

Cholera is prevented by:

a. Washing vegetables and fruits thoroughly before eating.

b. Cooking food properly
c. Boiling or treating drinking water.
d. Washing hands thoroughly before eating and after visiting the toilets.
e. Vaccination during epidemics
f. Improved dispersal of human excreta for examples, use of sewage facilities.

3. Malaria

Malaria is a vector borne disease. It is transmitted from a sick person to a healthy person by
Female anopheles mosquito.

Malaria is controlled and prevented by:

a. Draining marches and stagnant water near our homes. This prevent breeding of the female
anopheles mosquito.
b. Spraying light oil containing insecticide on stagnant water that cannot be drained.
c. Introducing fish eating mosquitoes into stagnant water to feed on larva and pupa.
d. Spraying walls of houses with long lasting insecticides.
e. Burying metallic or burning plastics containers that can hold water.
f. Clearing any bushes and grass around the house.
g. Sleeping under treated mosquito net.
h. Screening windows with mosquitoes proof fire mesh.
i. Isolating (quarantine) those who become sick of malaria.
j. Giving preventive medication regularly to kill parasites on entry.

4. Ebola

Ebola is a viral disease which is spread through direct contact with infected body fluids. Its
transmission can be through the mouth, nose, eyes, a cut on the skin or sexual contact.

Ebola spread and transmission can be prevented by:

a. Washing hands often with soap and water. If soap and water are not available, use of
alcohol based sanitiser.
b. Avoiding close contact with people who are infected.

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 c. Refraining from touching your eyes, nose and mouth. Germs spread this way.
d. Routinely cleaning and disinfecting commonly touched surfaces like bathroom surfaces.
e. Isolating the infected and those who are in close contact with patients during an outbreak.
f. Ensuring that medical personnel who handle ebola patients use protective gears.
g. Avoid getting into contactwith wild animals or eating raw meat. Especially people who live
near national parks like Akagela.
h. Ensuring good medical care through insurance for all.
i. People entering in a country should be screened for the Ebola virus especially along the
borders points.

5. AIDS

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a viral infection caused by a strain of virus called
Human Immune-deficiency Virus (HIV). HIV is mainly found in body fluids such as blood, semen
and vaginal secretions.

AIDS is transmitted through the following ways:

a. Having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.

b. Transfusion of infected blood or transplant of infected organs.
c. BY birth from an infected mother to her unborn baby.
d. Transmission through breastfeeding.
e. By using and sharing of unsterilized surgical and skin piercing tools. Fo examples needles
and a pair of scissors.

The following measures can be used to prevent HIV and AIDS

i. Abstaining from sex before marriage.

ii. Married people should be faithful to their parents.
iii. Avoiding sharing cutting and piercing instruments.
iv. Screening of blood for HIV and AIDS before blood transfusion and organ transplant.
v. HIV positive mothers should not breastfeed their babies.

ASSESSMENT
1. What do you understand by infectious diseases?
2. Define the term pathogen
3. Suggest the preventive measures of four communicable diseases from your choice.
4. What are the causes of:
a. Tuberculosis b. Cholera c. AIDS
5. Explain the following transmission of diseases with examples:
a. Water borne diseases
b. Air borne diseases
c. Vector borne disease
d. Viral diseases

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UNIT 12. HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive organs in humans are structures that are involved in reproduction. They are
called Gonads (testes and ovaries).

The reproductive organs are important for:

• Producing male and female sex cells, or gametes

• Transporting the male sex cells to the female sex cell
• Producing chemicals called hormones
• Enabling a baby to grow inside the female’s body.

12.1 Male reproductive organs

The male reproductive organs are the testes, penis, epididymis, sperm ducts, Cowper’s
glands, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and urethra.

ii. External organs.

There are two testicles, or testes, which are surrounded by a sac called the scrotum. The
testes produce male gametes, called sperm, and secrete the male hormone testosterone. The
penis is important for the transfer of sperm to the female during sexual intercourse. The penis is
covered by skin called the foreskin. This is removed during circumcision.

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iii. Internal male reproductive structures

Parts Description
Epididymis A tightly coiled tube 5 to 6 metres in length. It stores sperm, and it is the
place where sperm cells mature.
Seminiferous Long, coiled tubes inside the testes. They contain germinal cells that can
tubules divide to produce sperm cells.
Sperm ducts A sperm duct transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. The
sperm duct is also called the vas deferens. There are two sperm ducts,
one from each testis, that open into the urethra.
Cowper’s glands Secrete mucus that lubricates the urethra
Seminal vesicles Produce and release seminal fluid into the sperm duct. This fluid helps to
neutralise the acidity that the sperm will meet inside the female’s
reproductive structures. There are also nutrients in the seminal vesicle
secretion that provide energy for the sperm.
Prostate gland The prostate gland surrounds the urethra. It also secretes a fluid into
the urethra as the sperm passes through during ejaculation. This fluid
helps to neutralise the acidity of urine residue that the sperm will meet
inside the urethra. The secretions of both the seminal vesicles and the
prostate gland improve the motility, or movement, of the sperm.
Urethra A passage for both urine and semen, at different times. Semen is a fluid
that contains sperm, neutralising chemicals and nutrients.

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 12.2 Female reproductive organs

The female reproductive organs include the vulva, ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and
vagina. The female reproductive system produces female gametes, called ova (singular = ovum)
inside the ovaries. The ovaries also produce the female sex hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.

i. External organs

The external organs are collectively called the vulva.

Figure 41: Parts of Vulva

Table below describes the different parts of the vulva

Structure Description
Labia majora An outer fold of skin that covers the labia minora.
Labia minora An inner fold of skin that protects the openings of the urethra and vagina.
Clitoris A female erectile organ that is important during sexual intercourse.
Vaginal The opening into the vagina is important during sexual intercourse and
opening during childbirth. The vaginal opening in a virgin girl is covered by a
membrane called a hymen. During sexual intercourse, the hymen is broken.

ii. Internal organs

Structure Description
Vagina A narrow, muscular tube. It is also known as the birth canal as it is a passage for
the birth of a baby. The vagina has folded walls that can be easily stretched. It has
a rich supply of mucus for lubrication. During sexual intercourse the penis is
inserted into the vagina to deposit the male gametes.
Cervix At the top of the vagina is a narrow opening called the cervix. The cervix is a ring
of muscle that is important during childbirth.
Uterus The uterus is a pear-shaped organ where the baby develops. It has thick, muscular
walls that are lined with a mucous membrane called the endometrium. During
menstruation, the endometrium is shed. The muscular walls of the uterus
contract powerfully during childbirth to help with the delivery of the baby

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Ovaries The two ovaries are about three centimetres in length. They are inside the
abdomen, one on each side of the uterus. They are attached to the uterus by
ligaments. Every 28 days an ovum is released from one ovary. This is called
ovulation.
Oviducts The oviducts are tubes that extend from the ovaries to the uterus. The ovum is
(Fallopan released into a funnel at the end of each oviduct. The oviducts are sometimes
tube) called Fallopian tubes. The ovum is moved along the oviduct towards the uterus
by the action of tiny hairs called cilia. Fertilisation takes place in the oviduct.

Figure 42: Parts of female reproductive organs

Production of sex cells

The production of sex cells, or gametes, is called gametogenesis.

• In males, special cells called germinal cells inside the testes produce the male sex cells.
The hormone testosterone controls the production and development of the male sex
cells, the sperm. Sperm cells become motile once they are inside the semen. This means
that they can move.
• In females, germinal cells inside the ovaries produce female sex cells called ova. The
ovum is non-motile. One ovum is produced approximately every 28 days. The two female
hormones oestrogen and progesterone influence the production and development of
the ovum, among other things.

Comparison between sperm and ovum

Sperm Ovum
✓ Occurs in testes of the male ✓ Occurs in the ovaries of the female
✓ Many sperm per germinal cells are ✓ One egg cell per germinal cell is
produced produced.
✓ Sperms are small but mobile ✓ Ova are large but non- mobile
✓ Start at puberty and does not stop

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 ✓ They can survive for about four days ✓ Starts in the embryo and stops at
inside the female’s body. menopause
✓ They can survive for about two days
inside the female’s body.

Figure 43: Sperm cell and Ovum (egg cell)

The role of hormones in reproduction

Male and female hormones are important in the growth, development and regulation of
reproductive organs and their functions.

Hormones in males and females.

Hormones Position where Functions

they are made
Testosterone Testes • Involved in the development of male
characteristics during puberty
• Involved in the production of sperm

Follicle In a part of the • Involved in the production of ova

stimulating brain called the
hormone (FSH) hypophysis
Luteinising In the hypophysis • Causes ovulation to take place
hormone (LH)
Oestrogen Ovaries • Involved in the development of female
characteristics during puberty
• Involved in the development of an ovum in the
ovary
• Plays a role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy

Progesterone Ovaries Plays a role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy

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 Sex determination

The sex of a person is actually controlled by chromosomes in the sex cells, or gametes.
Chromosomes are structures that are found in the nucleus of all cells. They give an organism
its characteristics. A person’s sex is determined when fertilization takes place.

In human cells, there are 22 pairs of non-sexual chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
It is the sex chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual.

Girls have two X chromosomes (XX) in all their cells while boys have one X and one Y
chromosome (XY).

There is only one sex chromosome in the sex cells. There can only be an X chromosome in ova
but some sperm will have an X chromosome and some will have a Y chromosome. When the
ovum fuses with a sperm once again there will be two sex chromosomes.

If an ovum with an X chromosome fuse with a sperm that also contains an X chromosome, then
the baby will be a girl (XX).

If an ovum with an X chromosome fuse with a sperm that contains a Y chromosome, then the
baby will be a boy (XY).

Parental genotypes: XX and XY

Gametes of parents: X, X and X, Y

By using punet square:

Parents Male
Female X Y
X XX XY
X XX XY

Genotypes: XX=50% (Girls) and XY = 50% (Boys)

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UNIT 13. PUBERTY AND SEXUAL MATURATION

a. Puberty

Puberty is the time when boys and girls become sexually mature. Biological changes take place
in the person’s body in preparation for reproduction. Puberty involves both physical and
emotional changes.

Secondary sexual characteristics in male and female

In boys In girls
• Facial, pubic and underarm hair starts to • Pubic hair starts to grow
grow • Breasts enlarge
• Voice deepens • Fatty tissue is deposited on the hips and
• Body size increases and becomes more thighs
muscular • Hips broaden
• Sex organs increase in size • Menstruation starts
• Sperm are produced in the testes • Ova are released from the ovaries
• Acne may occur • Acne may occur

b. Hormones and puberty

Role of hormones involved in puberty:

The hormones produced by pituitary glands:

❖ FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone): Stimulates the development of follicle in the

ovary, and within the follicle the eggs mature and ripens. FSH also stimulates the ovaries
to produce hormones particularly oestrogen.
❖ LH (Luteinising hormone): Stimulate the release of eggs from the ovary in the
menstrual cycle, and also affect the ovaries so that it produces another hormone
(progesterone) to keep the uterus lining in place.

The hormones produced by ovaries:

❖ Oestrogen: Stimulate the lining of the uterus to build up in preparation of pregnancy. It

also affects the pituitary glands:
❖ Progesterone: Maintain the thickening of ling of the uterus and stimulate the growth of
blood vessels in the lining to prepare for pregnancy and if fertilized ovum arrives in the
uterus, progesterone helps to maintain the pregnancy.

The hormones produced by testes (testicles)

❖ Progesterone: This leads to the development of male secondary sexual characteristics.

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 c. Phases of the menstrual cycle.

The menstrual cycle is a series of events that are controlled by hormones. It starts on the
first day of menstruation and ends on the first day of the next menstruation.

These phases are the menstrual phase, follicular phase, ovulation phase and luteal phase.

➢ Menstrual phase

The menstrual phase, or menstrual period, starts from the first day of menstrual bleeding. On
day 1 of the phase, the thickened lining, or endometrium, of the uterus begins to pass out of the
body through the vagina. A normal menstrual period can last from three to seven days.

➢ Follicular phase.

During the follicular phase, one of the ovaries gets ready to release an egg. At the same time,
the uterus starts producing a new lining to prepare for a possible pregnancy.

➢ Ovulation phase

During this phase, an ovary releases an egg into the oviduct. This is called ovulation. The egg
then moves down the oviduct towards the uterus. Immediately after ovulation, a woman can fall
pregnant by having unprotected sexual intercourse.

➢ Luteal phase

During this phase, the lining of the uterus becomes thicker. If an egg is fertilised by a sperm it
then attaches to the uterus lining and a pregnancy begins. If the egg is not fertilised or does not
attach, the uterus lining begins to break down and bleeding occurs.

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UNIT 14. REPRODUCTION, PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH.

Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms (offsprings) are
produced by parents. Human reproduction is sexual reproduction, as it requires sex cells, or
gametes, from male and female parents.

a. Sexual intercourse and fertilization.

Intercourse is the process of inserting an erect penis into a vagina. This process introduces
sperms for the purpose of sexual pleasure or reproduction.

The process of fertilization in man.

During copulation, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina. This lead to the deposition of semen
into the vagina in a process known as ejaculation.

Once the sperms are deposited into the vagina, they swim and are propelled through the cervix,
uterus and into the oviducts where they fuse with the egg. This normally occurs in the upper part
of oviduct.

When the sperms and ovum meet, the head of sperms stick onto the wall of the ovum. The
action of sperms causes the follicle cells surrounding egg to disperse. Eventually, the nucleus of
one sperm passes into the cytoplasm of the ovum along with the head and the middle piece
leaving the tail outside. The sperm nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the ovum. This fusion of
sperm ovum nuclei is known as Fertilization. The fertilized ovum is called Zygote.

b. Pregnancy and its signs.

Pregnancy (Gestation) is the time during which an offspring develops inside a womb of a
woman. Multiple pregnancies may occur involving production of more than one offspring’s such
as Identical or non-identical twins. Pregnancy usually last 40 weeks in human beings from the
last menstrual period and ends with a child birth.

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 An embryo is the developing offspring during first 8 weeks following conception. After which
the term foetus is used until birth.

The placenta

The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy.

The functions of the placenta are:

• To provide the foetus with nutrients

• To remove waste products from the foetus’ blood
• Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the foetus’ blood and the mother’s blood
• Act as a filter for harmful substances, although some substances, such as nicotine, drugs
and alcohol, as well as viruses such as HIV, can pass through it and reach the foetus
• To secrete hormones

The umbilical cord transports substances between the placenta and the embryo. The
umbilical cord contains blood vessels and it extends from an opening in the foetus’ stomach to
the placenta.

Signs of pregnancy

Pregnancy starts on the day of fertilisation. There are no signs of pregnancy at this time, but as
time passes the following signs appear:

➢ There is no menstrual period ➢ Headaches, due to the sudden rise of

➢ Slight bleeding or cramping as the hormones in the body
embryo implants in the uterus ➢ Darkening of the skin around the
➢ Tender breasts nipples
➢ Extreme tiredness ➢ Food cravings or aversions
➢ Backache ➢ Emotional sensitivity and outbursts,
➢ Nausea or sickness due to high hormone levels.
➢ Needing to urinate more often
c. Child birth

Childbirth, which is also known as labour, delivery or parturition, is the process by which
a baby is expelled from the mother’s womb. It results in one or more newborn infants being
expelled from a woman’s uterus. There are three stages of labour.

➢ First stage (about 12 hours)

The cervix dilates, or widens, and the uterus begins to contract. Fluid called amniotic fluid is
released. This is sometimes called ‘breaking of the waters’ and it signals that the second stage of
labour is about to begin.

➢ Second stage (20 minutes to 1 hour).

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 The muscles of the uterus and abdomen contract to push the baby out of the uterus, cervix and
vagina. This is known as delivery of the baby. In normal childbirth, the head of the baby comes
out first. The umbilical cord is cut.

➢ Third stage (10 to 30 minutes after birth).

The placenta is expelled from the woman’s body. The expelled placenta is known as the
afterbirth.

Problems during birth If the mother or the baby experience difficulties during the birth, then
a Caesarian section may be done. This is a surgical procedure during which the doctor cuts
through the abdominal wall and uterus to deliver the baby.

Women die as a result of complications such as:

➢ Severe bleeding after childbirth

➢ Infections
➢ High blood pressure during pregnancy
➢ Complications from delivery
➢ Unsafe abortion.

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 REFERENCES

J. Akatsa, H mwaura (2008); Longhorn secondary Biology, Longhorn Publishers; Nairobi, Kenya
J.Mwaniki , G Geoffrey (2013); Fundamentals of Biology, Longhorn Publishers: Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania.
Nserebo et al (2015); Excel & Succeed Biology, Longhorn Publishers: Malawi
D.G. Mackean (2012); GCSE Biology (Third edition); CGP Books
Michael Roberts (1986); Biology - A Functional Approach (Fourth Edition); Oxford publishers
Rod Seeley, Stephens Tate; (2002) Anatomy and physiology; McGraw-Hill Global Education
Holdings
Johnson, A.R (2018). Morphological diversity of flower petals. Botanical studies

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