1) Classify different types of solar thermal/power collector and show the

constructional details of a flat plate collector. What are its main

advantages?
Ans: Solar thermal collectors are devices used to capture and convert solar energy into heat,
which can then be used for space heating, water heating, and other applications. These
collectors can be classified into three main types:

1. Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)

Flat plate collectors are the most common and widely used solar collectors for residential and
commercial applications. They consist of a flat, insulated box with a transparent cover, an
absorber plate, and a heat transfer fluid (usually water or antifreeze solution).

Working Principle of Flat Plate Collectors:

The flat plate collector works by absorbing solar radiation through the transparent cover, which
allows sunlight to penetrate and reach the absorber plate. The absorber plate, typically made of
metal, heats up as it absorbs the solar radiation. A heat transfer fluid (such as water or a
glycol-water mixture) circulates through pipes attached to the absorber plate and picks up the
heat. The heated fluid is then transferred to a storage tank or used directly for heating purposes.

Constructional Details of a Flat Plate Collector:

Transparent Cover (Glazing):

● A clear, high-transparency material (such as tempered glass or polycarbonate) is used

for the cover. It allows sunlight to pass through but traps heat, preventing it from
escaping.
● A transparent glass or plastic cover that allows solar radiation to enter and reduces heat
loss.
● The cover helps reduce heat loss and protects the internal components of the collector
from weather conditions.

Absorber Plate:

● The absorber plate is typically made of a material with high thermal conductivity (such as
copper or aluminum) and is coated with a selective coating to maximize solar energy
absorption.
● The plate is blackened to absorb a large amount of solar radiation.
● A dark-colored plate, usually made of metal or plastic, that absorbs solar radiation.

Heat Transfer Fluid:

● The heat transfer fluid is pumped through the system (either in pipes or tubes attached
to the absorber plate).
 ● The fluid is typically water or a mixture of water and antifreeze, which absorbs the heat
from the absorber plate and transports it to the storage system.

Insulation:

● Insulation is placed beneath the absorber plate and around the sides of the collector to
reduce heat loss. Materials like fiberglass or foam are commonly used for insulation.

Frame:

● The frame of the flat plate collector provides structure and support for the components
and is typically made of durable materials like aluminum or galvanized steel.

Pipes and Fittings:

● Pipes and fittings that carry the heat transfer fluid through the collector.

Advantages of Flat Plate Collectors

1. Simple and Robust Design:

Flat plate collectors have a straightforward design, making them easy to install, maintain,
and repair. They do not have complex components and require fewer moving parts
compared to other types of collectors.
2. Cost-Effective:
They are generally less expensive to manufacture and install than evacuated tube
collectors or concentrating collectors. Their relatively lower initial cost makes them more
attractive for residential and commercial use.
3. Durability:
Flat plate collectors have a long lifespan and can withstand harsh weather conditions
when properly maintained. The materials used, such as metal absorber plates and glass
covers, are robust and resistant to corrosion.
 4. Moderate Efficiency:
While their efficiency is lower than that of evacuated tube collectors, flat plate collectors
perform well in regions with moderate climates, where the temperature difference
between the absorber and surrounding environment is not extreme.
5. Low Maintenance:
The construction of flat plate collectors is relatively simple, and their maintenance is low
compared to more complex systems. Regular cleaning of the transparent cover is
typically sufficient to keep the system operating efficiently.

2. Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)

Evacuated tube collectors consist of a series of glass tubes that are evacuated to create a
vacuum inside each tube, preventing heat loss. The tubes contain absorber plates and heat
pipes that transfer the absorbed solar energy to a heat transfer fluid. These collectors are more
efficient than flat plate collectors, especially in colder climates.

Advantages:

● Better insulation due to the vacuum inside the tubes.

● Higher performance in colder climates and lower ambient temperatures.
● Can be used for high-temperature applications.

Construction:

Each tube has a glass outer tube and a metal absorber plate inside. The vacuum between the
two tubes reduces heat loss, and the heat is transferred to a fluid through a heat pipe.
3. Concentrating Solar Collectors (CPC)

Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a small,
high-efficiency absorber. These collectors are typically used for industrial and large-scale power
generation due to their ability to achieve higher temperatures than flat plate collectors or
evacuated tube collectors.

Advantages:

● Ability to achieve much higher temperatures than other types.

● Ideal for large-scale power generation.

Construction:

These collectors have parabolic mirrors, troughs, or dish systems that concentrate sunlight onto
a receiver. The concentrated energy is then used to heat a working fluid, which can generate
electricity or provide industrial heating.

2) Demonstrate the factors affecting the performance of flat plate

collectors.

Ans: Factors Affecting the Performance of Flat Plate Collectors

1. Solar radiation:
The intensity of incoming solar radiation directly impacts the amount of heat collected. The more
sunlight the collector receives, the more energy it can convert into heat. Solar irradiance varies
with time of day, season, weather conditions, and geographical location.

2. Collector Tilt Angle

The tilt angle refers to the angle at which the collector is installed relative to the ground (usually
the horizontal plane). The tilt angle affects the amount of sunlight falling on the collector and the
overall heat absorption. An optimal tilt angle ensures maximum exposure to solar radiation
throughout the year.
3. Ambient temperature
The surrounding air temperature influences heat loss from the collector. The higher the ambient
temperature, the lower the temperature difference between the absorber plate and the
surrounding environment, reducing the rate of heat loss from the collector.

4. Collector Efficiency
Collector efficiency refers to the ability of the solar collector to convert the incoming solar
radiation into usable heat. High-efficiency flat plate collectors use selective coatings on the
absorber plates and ensure minimal heat loss through good insulation. The collector's surface
should be cleaned regularly to remove dirt and dust, which can block sunlight and reduce
efficiency.

5. Wind Speed
Wind speed refers to the rate at which air moves across the collector's surface. Wind can
enhance heat loss from the collector

6. Surface Area of the Collector

The surface area of the collector refers to the total area of the absorber plate that is exposed to
sunlight. The larger the surface area, the more solar radiation can be captured and converted
into heat.

7. Dust and Dirt Accumulation Dust and dirt accumulation on the transparent cover or
absorber plate can block sunlight and reduce the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the
collector.

8. Shading Shading occurs when objects such as trees, buildings, or other obstructions block
direct sunlight from reaching the collector.

3) Describe in detail about solar concentrators and the process involved in

the making of solar concentrators with the help of diagrams.
Ans: Solar concentrators are devices designed to focus sunlight onto a small area, often for
use in solar power systems. These devices are a critical part of solar thermal energy
applications, as they increase the intensity of solar radiation and direct it onto a receiver, which
collects the concentrated heat to produce electricity or heat for industrial processes. The
primary objective of a solar concentrator is to improve the energy capture efficiency by using
mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight.

Types of Solar Concentrators

Solar concentrators can be broadly classified into three categories based on their design and
method of concentration:
 1. Parabolic Trough Concentrators
2. Parabolic Dish Concentrators
3. Linear Fresne Concentrators

1. Parabolic Trough Concentrators

● Principle: Parabolic trough concentrators use a parabolic-shaped mirror to focus

sunlight onto a receiver tube located at the focal point. The mirrors track the sun along
one axis, typically horizontally, and concentrate sunlight onto a fluid-filled tube.
● Working: The receiver tube absorbs the concentrated sunlight, heating the fluid inside.
The heated fluid is then used for generating steam to drive turbines or for direct heating
applications.
● Construction:
○ Mirror: A long, parabolic-shaped reflective surface that focuses sunlight onto the
receiver.
○ Receiver: A tube positioned along the focal line of the mirror, typically coated
with a highly absorptive material to capture concentrated sunlight.
○ Tracking System: Mechanism to adjust the mirror's position to follow the sun's
path throughout the day.

2. Parabolic Dish Concentrators

● Principle: Parabolic dish concentrators are similar to parabolic troughs but are circular
in shape and focus sunlight onto a small area at the focal point of the dish. These
concentrators provide a higher concentration of sunlight and are often used in
concentrated solar power (CSP) applications.
● Working: The parabolic dish focuses sunlight onto a small receiver located at the focal
point. The concentrated sunlight is then used to generate high-temperature steam for
electricity generation or direct thermal applications.
● Construction:
 ○ Dish: A large, circular, parabolic reflector that collects and concentrates sunlight
onto a small receiver.
○ Receiver: A high-temperature resistant receiver located at the focal point of the
dish.
○ Tracking System: Similar to the parabolic trough, the dish must follow the sun
throughout the day to maintain focus on the receiver.

3. Fresnel Lens Concentrators

● Principle: Fresnel lenses are flat, lightweight lenses made from multiple concentric rings
that focus sunlight onto a receiver. They are typically used in smaller-scale applications
or for concentrating light in a more compact manner compared to parabolic
concentrators.
● Working: The Fresnel lens focuses sunlight onto a receiver by using its structure of
stepped rings to bend the incoming rays toward a focal point. These concentrators are
highly efficient and lightweight but require precise tracking.
● Construction:
○ Fresnel Lens: A flat lens with concentric rings that bend light towards a focal
point.
○ Receiver: The point where the concentrated sunlight is directed, typically a
fluid-filled tube or a heat exchanger.
○ Tracking System: A system that allows the lens to follow the sun's movement
across the sky.
Process of Making Solar Concentrators

The process of making solar concentrators typically involves several stages, depending on the
type of concentrator being manufactured. Below is a general process for manufacturing solar
concentrators:

1. Designing the Reflective Surface

● The design of the reflective surface depends on the type of concentrator. For parabolic
concentrators, a parabolic curve is calculated based on the desired focal length and
concentration ratio. For Fresnel lenses, the concentric rings must be carefully calculated
to bend light in a controlled manner.

2. Selecting the Material

● The reflective material is crucial for the efficiency of the concentrator. Common materials
include polished metals like aluminum or silver-coated glass, which have high reflectivity.
For Fresnel lenses, optical-grade plastic or glass is used.

3. Manufacturing the Reflector

● Parabolic Trough: The parabolic shape can be created using curved molds or by
bending reflective material to the desired curvature.
● Parabolic Dish: A rigid frame supports the curved reflective surface, often made from
thin, durable material like metal or plastic.
● Fresnel Lens: The lens is made by casting or pressing the lens material into the
required ringed pattern.

4. Fabricating the Receiver

 ● The receiver is designed to withstand high temperatures and absorb as much
concentrated sunlight as possible. It is usually coated with a selective absorbent material
that maximizes heat absorption while minimizing radiation losses.

5. Assembly of Tracking Mechanism

● Solar concentrators must follow the sun's movement to maintain optimal sunlight
concentration. This requires a tracking system that adjusts the position of the
concentrator during the day. This system is typically powered by motors and sensors that
track the sun’s position in the sky.

6. Final Assembly and Installation

● The concentrator components (mirror, receiver, and tracking system) are assembled into
a functioning unit. For large-scale applications, multiple units are often connected to
create a solar power field. These concentrators are then installed in areas with high solar
radiation for maximum performance.

4) Describe the advantage of solar concentrators.

Ans:

Advantages of Solar Concentrators

1. High Efficiency in Energy Conversion:

Solar concentrators significantly improve the efficiency of solar energy conversion. By
focusing sunlight onto a smaller area, they increase the intensity of the solar energy
collected, leading to more efficient conversion into heat or electricity.
2. Reduced Space Requirements:
Concentrators allow for higher power output in a smaller area. Since they focus sunlight
onto a smaller area, solar concentrators can provide high energy production while
requiring less land area compared to traditional flat-plate solar collectors.
3. High-Temperature Generation:
Concentrators can generate higher temperatures compared to conventional solar
thermal systems. This makes them ideal for industrial applications that require heat for
processes like metal forging, chemical production, and desalination, as well as for driving
high-efficiency power cycles like Rankine cycles in concentrated solar power (CSP)
plants.
4. Cost-Effective for Large-Scale Applications:
Although the initial investment in solar concentrators may be higher than flat-panel
systems, their ability to concentrate sunlight leads to more efficient energy generation,
which can reduce the cost of electricity in large-scale power plants, especially in areas
with high direct sunlight.
5. Minimal Land Usage:
Because solar concentrators concentrate sunlight onto a small receiver, they reduce the
 land area needed for the installation of solar power systems. This makes them suitable
for locations where land is expensive or scarce.
6. Versatility:
Solar concentrators can be used in various applications, such as generating electricity,
providing industrial process heat, or even for solar cooking. Their versatility makes them
suitable for both large-scale and small-scale applications.

5) Discuss in detail about Solar Thermal Power plant and its

methodological process with suitable process flow diagram.
Ans: A Solar Thermal Power Plant (STPP) is a type of power plant that utilizes solar energy
to generate electricity or thermal energy for industrial processes. Unlike photovoltaic solar
panels that convert sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal plants use mirrors or lenses to
concentrate sunlight onto a small area to produce high-temperature heat. This heat is then used
to generate steam that drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator.

Components of a Solar Thermal Power Plant

1. Solar Collectors: These are devices like parabolic mirrors, heliostats, or Fresnel lenses
that concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The collector system focuses sunlight onto a
small area to increase its intensity.
2. Receiver: The receiver absorbs the concentrated sunlight from the solar collectors. The
receiver is typically a fluid-filled tube or a solid material designed to absorb as much heat
as possible.
3. Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF): The heat generated by the receiver is transferred to a heat
transfer fluid. This fluid circulates through the system, absorbing and carrying the heat to
the next components for conversion into usable energy.
4. Thermal Energy Storage: Solar thermal plants often incorporate thermal storage
systems, such as molten salt tanks or phase-change materials, to store excess heat for
use when the sun is not shining (e.g., at night or during cloudy periods). This helps in
providing continuous electricity generation.
5. Heat Exchanger: The heat transfer fluid (HTF) is passed through a heat exchanger
where it heats water to produce steam. This steam drives the turbine and generates
electricity.
6. Turbine and Generator: The steam produced by the heat exchanger is directed to a
turbine that drives a generator to produce electricity.
7. Cooling System: After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed back into
water in a cooling system, where it can be reused in the cycle. This system typically uses
a cooling tower or a direct cooling method from nearby water sources.
Methodological Process of Solar Thermal Power Plant

1. Solar Field: The solar field consists of a large number of mirrors or lenses that are
arranged in a specific pattern to focus the sun's rays onto a receiver.
2. Receiver: The receiver is a tube or pipe that is filled with a heat transfer fluid (HTF). The
HTF is heated by the concentrated sun's rays and reaches a high temperature.
3. Steam Generation:
The HTF, which is now heated to high temperatures, is passed through a heat
exchanger, where it transfers its heat to water. The water boils, producing steam. The
steam is then routed to a turbine.
4. Turbine Operation:
The steam is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it
generates mechanical energy, which is then converted into electrical energy by the
generator.
5. Generator: The generator produces electricity, which is then transmitted to the power
grid.
6. Energy Storage (Optional): If the solar thermal power plant includes thermal energy
storage, excess heat can be stored during the day to be used at night or during periods
of low sunlight. This makes the plant capable of providing a steady power output even
when sunlight is unavailable.

Flow Diagram
Solar Collectors -> Receiver -> Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) -> Heat Exchanger -> Steam
Generation -> Turbine and Generator -> Cooling System -> Thermal Energy Storage (Optional)
6) Illustrate different types of Solar Thermal Power Plant and explain the
efficiency of Solar Thermal Power Plant.
Ans: The concentrated energy is then used to heat a working fluid, which can generate
electricity or provide industrial heating.

Types of Solar Thermal Power Plants:

1. Parabolic Trough Systems (PTC): This type of plant uses parabolic-shaped mirrors to focus
the sun's rays onto a receiver, which is a tube or pipe that carries a heat transfer fluid (HTF).
The HTF is heated to a high temperature and then used to generate steam, which drives a
turbine to produce electricity.
Parabolic trough systems have an efficiency of 20-25%.

2. Tower Power Plant: This type of plant uses a tower to support a receiver, which is heated by
the concentrated sun's rays. The receiver is typically a cylindrical vessel that carries a HTF,
which is heated to a high temperature and then used to generate steam.
Efficiency: 25-30%
3. Dish Power Plant: This type of plant uses a dish-shaped mirror to focus the sun's rays onto
a receiver, which is typically a Stirling engine or a steam generator. The Stirling engine or steam
generator converts the heat into electricity.
Efficiency: 30-40%

4. Linear Fresnel Reflector Power Plant: This type of plant uses a series of flat mirrors to
focus the sun's rays onto a receiver, which is typically a tube or pipe that carries a HTF. The
HTF is heated to a high temperature and then used to generate steam.
Efficiency: 25-35%

Efficiency of Solar Thermal Power Plants

The efficiency of a solar thermal power plant depends on various factors, such as:

1. Solar Irradiance: The amount of sunlight available at the location of the plant, measured
in kW/m², plays a significant role in efficiency. Areas with high direct sunlight (e.g.,
deserts) are more efficient than areas with less sunlight.
2. Concentration of Solar Energy: The ability to concentrate sunlight effectively using
mirrors or lenses directly affects the efficiency of heat absorption and conversion into
electricity. More concentrated sunlight leads to higher temperatures, which can improve
the efficiency of the thermodynamic cycles used in electricity generation.
 3. Temperature of the Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF): The higher the temperature of the HTF
(such as molten salts or synthetic oils), the more energy can be extracted from the fluid.
The high-temperature HTF increases the efficiency of the steam turbine.
4. Thermal Storage: Solar thermal plants with thermal energy storage (like molten salt)
can store excess heat during the day for use at night or during cloudy periods. This
improves overall efficiency by providing continuous power generation without being
dependent on direct sunlight.
5. Turbine and Generator Efficiency: The efficiency of the turbine and generator used in
converting heat energy into mechanical and electrical energy also impacts overall
efficiency. More efficient turbines lead to better overall performance.
6. System Losses: Losses from the thermal energy transport, heat exchangers, and
cooling systems reduce the overall efficiency. Minimizing these losses increases the
plant's efficiency.

7) Explain with a suitable diagram the low temperature & medium

temperature solar power plant.
Ans:

1. Low Temperature Solar Power Plants:

Low temperature solar power plants typically operate at temperatures below 100°C. These
plants are mainly used for applications like solar water heating or low-temperature steam
generation.

Working Principle:

● Low-temperature solar power plants use flat plate collectors or evacuated tube
collectors to absorb sunlight and convert it into heat.
● The heat is transferred to water or other heat transfer fluids (HTFs), which are then used
for various applications such as domestic hot water supply, space heating, or pre-heating
of water in industrial applications.

Application:

● Residential water heating.

● Swimming pool heating.
● Industrial process heating.

Diagram for Low Temperature Solar Power Plant:

Solar Collector -> Heat Transfer Fluid -> Heat Storage (Optional) -> End-Use Application
2. Medium Temperature Solar Power Plants:

Medium-temperature solar power plants operate in the range of 100°C to 400°C. These plants
can be used to generate electricity or for industrial applications requiring medium
temperatures.

Working Principle:

● Medium-temperature solar power plants typically use parabolic troughs, Fresnel

reflectors, or solar dish collectors to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver.
● The heat generated is used to heat a heat transfer fluid (HTF), such as synthetic oil or
molten salts, which can then be used to produce steam for driving a turbine or for
industrial heating purposes.

Applications:

● Electricity generation in medium-scale plants.

● Industrial heating.
● Desalination and other industrial processes.

Diagram for Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant:

Solar Concentrators -> Receiver (Absorbs Concentrated Heat) -> Heat Transfer Fluid (Oil or
Molten Salt) -> Heat Exchanger & Steam Generation -> Turbine & Generator (Electricity
Generation)
8) Demonstrate the operation of district solar heating systems for any
residential building.
Ans: District solar heating systems are designed to provide heat to multiple buildings in a
district or neighborhood using solar energy. These systems are particularly useful for residential
buildings, as they can provide both space heating and domestic hot water.

Operation of District Solar Heating Systems:

The operation of a district solar heating system involves the following steps:
1. Solar Energy Collection: Solar energy is collected from a large solar collector field,
which is typically installed on a rooftop or on the ground.The collectors capture solar
radiation and increase the temperature of the heat transfer fluid circulating within them.
2. Heat Transfer: The collected solar energy is transferred to a heat transfer fluid, which is
usually a mixture of water and antifreeze. The HTF transports the collected heat from the
solar collectors to storage and distribution systems.
3. Thermal Storage System (Hot Water Tank): The heated fluid from the solar collectors
is stored in a thermal energy storage tank. This storage is crucial because it allows solar
energy to be used when the sun isn't shining, such as at night or on cloudy days.
4. Distribution: The heated fluid is distributed to the buildings in the district through a
network of insulated pipes.
5. Heat Exchange: The heated fluid is passed through a heat exchanger in each building,
where it transfers its heat to the building's heating system.
6. Space Heating and Domestic Hot Water: The heated fluid is used to provide space
heating and domestic hot water to the buildings.

Key Advantages of District Solar Heating Systems:

1. Energy Efficiency: By utilizing solar energy, district heating systems reduce the reliance
on fossil fuels, leading to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and lower energy bills.
2. Reduced Heating Costs: As a collective system, the cost of infrastructure,
maintenance, and operation is shared across multiple buildings, making it more
affordable for each resident.
3. Sustainability: Solar energy is a renewable source of energy, contributing to long-term
sustainability.
4. Flexibility: The system can provide both space heating and hot water for residential
buildings.
5. Backup Options: A reliable backup system ensures continuous heating even during
cloudy days or when solar energy is insufficient.
9) Draw the schematic diagram for a solar pond based electric power plant
with cooling tower and explain its working.
Ans: The concentrated energy is then used to heat a working fluid, which can generate
electricity or provide industrial heating.
A solar pond-based electric power plant is a type of power plant that uses solar energy to
generate electricity. It is a unique and innovative technology that combines the benefits of solar
energy with the advantages of a pond-based system.
How it Works:
A solar pond-based electric power plant works by using a pond as a solar collector. The pond is
filled with a saline solution that is heated by the sun's rays during the day. The heated solution is
then used to generate steam, which drives a turbine to produce electricity.
Components:
1. Solar Pond: The solar pond is the heart of the system. It is a shallow pool of water that
is filled with a saline solution.
2. Solar Collector: The solar collector is the surface of the pond that absorbs the sun's
rays.
3. Heat Exchanger: The heat exchanger is used to transfer the heat from the saline
solution to a working fluid.
4. Steam Generator: The steam generator uses the heat from the working fluid to produce
steam.
5. Turbine: The turbine is driven by the steam to produce electricity.
6. Generator: The generator converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.
Advantages:
1. Renewable Energy Source: Solar energy is a renewable energy source that is
sustainable and environmentally friendly.
2. Low Operating Costs: The system has low operating costs since it uses solar energy
and does not require fuel.
3. High Efficiency: The system can achieve high efficiency since it uses a heat exchanger
to transfer heat from the saline solution to the working fluid.
4. Scalability: The system can be scaled up or down depending on the energy needs.
Disadvantages:
1. High Initial Cost: The initial cost of setting up a solar pond-based electric power plant is
high.
2. Land Requirements: The system requires a large area of land to build the solar pond.
3. Water Requirements: The system requires a large amount of water to fill the solar pond.
4. Maintenance: The system requires regular maintenance to ensure optimal performance.
Applications:
Power Generation: The system can be used to generate electricity for homes, businesses, and
industries.
Water Desalination: The system can be used to desalinate water for drinking, irrigation, and
other purposes.