Faculty of Engineering

Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering

Fall, 2024

COMPUTER NETWORKS

Lec. 8

Prof. Ahmed Salah EL-Din Mohamed Ali

Local Area Networks

(LANs)

Switching

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 (SWITCHING)
Local Area Networks
• LAN Applications
• LAN Architecture
• Project 802
• Ethernet
• Token Ring
• FDDI
• LAN Design
 LAN Applications (1)
 Personal computer LANs
 Low cost
 Limited data rate

 Back end networks

 Interconnecting large systems (mainframes and
large storage devices)

• High data rate

• High speed interface
• Distributed access
• Limited distance
• Limited number of devices
 LAN Applications (2)
 Storage Area Networks (SANs)

 Separate network handling storage needs.

 Detaches storage tasks from specific servers.
 Shared storage facility.
• eg. hard disks, tape libraries, CD arrays.
 Accessed using a high-speed network.
• eg. Fibre Channel.
 Improved client-server storage access.
 Direct storage to storage communication for backup.
Storage Area Networks
 LAN Applications (3)
 High speed office networks

 Desktop image processing.

 High capacity local storage.

 Backbone LANs

 Interconnect low speed local LANs

 Reliability
 Capacity
 Cost
 LAN Architecture
 Topologies.

 Transmission medium.

 Layout.

 Medium access control.

 LAN Topologies
Topology
Refers to the way in which the endpoints, or stations, attached to
the network are interconnected
 Frame
Transmission
on Bus LAN
 Frame
Transmission
Ring LAN
 LAN Transmission Media
 Twisted pair

 Early LANs used voice grade cable

 Didn’t scale for fast LANs
 Not used in bus LANs now

 Optical fiber

 Expensive taps
 Better alternatives available
 Not used in bus LANs
 Choice of Medium
 Constrained by LAN topology

 Capacity

 Reliability

 Types of data supported

 Environmental scope
LAN Protocol Architecture
OSI Model and Project 802
Project 802
 The IEEE Working Groups
802.1 Networking Overview and Architecture
802.2 Logical Link Control
802.3 Ethernet
802.4 Token Bus
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 MANs
802.7 Broadband
802.8 Fiber Optic
802.9 Isochronous LAN
802.11 Wireless LAN
...and more!
 IEEE 802 Layers (1)
 Physical

 Encoding/decoding of signals
 Preamble generation/removal
 Bit transmission/reception
 Transmission medium and topology
 IEEE 802 Layers (2)

 Logical Link Control

 Interface to higher levels

 Flow and error control

 Media Access Control

 On transmit assemble data into frame

 On receive disassemble frame
 Govern access to transmission medium
 For same LLC, may have several MAC options
PDU Format
PDU Control Field
 Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocol

 Controls access to the transmission medium

 Key parameters:
 Where (centralized or distributed fashion)
For centralized:
• Greater control, single point of failure
For distributed:
• More complex, but more redundant
 How
• Synchronous
 Capacity dedicated to connection, not optimal
• Asynchronous (Dynamic)
 Response to demand
 Round robin, reservation, contention
 Asynchronous Systems

Round robin Reservation Contention

• Each station • Divide medium • All stations
given turn to into slots contend for time
transmit data • Good for stream • Good for bursty
traffic traffic
• Simple to
implement
• Tends to collapse
under heavy load
MAC MAC Destination Source
Control MAC Address MAC Address LLC PDU CRC
Frame

1 octet 1 1 or 2 variable
LLC
DSAP SSAP LLC Control Information
PDU

LLC
I/G DSAP value C/R SSAP value
Address Fields
I/G = Individual/Group
C/R = Command/Response

Figure 11.5 LLC PDU in a Generic MAC Frame Format

MAC Frame
Project 802
 Ethernet Local Area Networks (LANs)

 LAN (Local Area Network) - A group of computers and associated devices

(printers, etc.) connected through a wired or wireless medium by networking
devices (hubs, switches, routers) and administered by a single organization.

 Ethernet – The most widely used scheme for wired local area networks is based on
the IEEE 802.3 standard, and is commonly referred to as Ethernet.
 Ethernet has moved from bus-based to switch-based, and the data rate has
periodically increased by an order of magnitude. Currently, Ethernet systems are
available at speeds up to 100 Gbps.
 Traditional Ethernet
ALOHA

• ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating

access to a shared communication Networks channel. It
was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson and
his colleagues at the University of Hawaii. The original
system used for ground based radio broadcasting, but
the system has been implemented in satellite
communication systems.

• There are two different versions/types of ALOHA:

• (i) Pure ALOHA
(ii) Slotted ALOHA
 Traditional Ethernet

ALOHA
• Developed for packet radio networks
• Station may transmit a frame at any time
• If frame is determined invalid, it is ignored
• Maximum utilization of channel about 18%

slotted ALOHA
• Organized slots equal to transmission time
• Increased utilization to about 37%
 CSMA/CD Precursors
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
 Station listens to determine if there is another
transmission in progress
 If idle, station transmits
 Waits for acknowledgment
 If no acknowledgment, collision is assumed
and station retransmits
 Utilization far exceeds ALOHA
Evolution of CSMA/CD
 CSMA/CD functions:

1.Transmits and receives data packets

2. Decodes data packets for valid
addresses before passing to upper
OSI layers
3. Detects errors in packets or in the
network

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 CSMA/CD Description
 With CSMA, collision occupies medium
for duration of transmission
 better if stations listen whilst transmitting
 CSMA/CD rules:
1. if medium idle, transmit
2. if busy, listen for idle, then transmit
3. if collision detected, jam and then cease
transmission
4. after jam, wait random time then retry
CSMA/CD
Operation
MAC method to deal with half duplex media
CSMA/CD operation

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 Collision detection flowchart
A network device knows
a collision has taken
place because the
amplitude of the signal
on the media increases.

After a collision,
each node again
has an equal
chance to transmit
– no priority given.

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 jam

 As soon as a collision is detected, the sending devices

transmit a 32-bit "jam" signal that will enforce the collision.
This ensures all devices in the LAN to detect the collision.

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 Backoff timing

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 What’s in a Name?
Ethernet naming rules:

10 Base T
Transmission Rate Copper unshielded
twisted pair

Baseband signaling
Uses the entire bandwidth of the transmission medium
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Figure 12-12-continued

10BASET

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 Ethernet Local Area Networks (LANs)

Standard Maximum Cable Length in

Meters

10Base5 500

10Base2 185

10BaseT 100

100Base-TX 100

100Base-FX 400

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 Layer 1 technologies
Ethernet:

10BASE-T
The T stands for twisted pair ( UTP , STP )
10BASE5
The 5 represents the fact that a signal can travel for approximately
500 meters 10BASE5 is often referred to as Thicknet. AUI connector
10BASE2
The 2 represents the fact that a signal can travel for approximately
200 meters 10BASE2 is often referred to as Thinnet. ,BNC connector

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 10Mbps Specification
(Ethernet)

10BASE5 10BASE2 10BASE-T 10BASE-FP

Transmission Coaxial cable (50 Coaxial cable (50 Unshielded twisted 850-nm optical fiber
medium ohm) ohm) pair pair
Signaling Baseband Baseband Baseband Manchester/on-off
technique (Manchester) (Manchester) (Manchester)
Topology Bus Bus Star Star
Maximum segment 500 185 100 500
length (m)
Nodes per segment 100 30 — 33
Cable diameter 10 5 0.4 to 0.6 62.5/125 µm
(mm)
100Mbps Fast Ethernet
 100BASE-X
 Uses a unidirectional data rate 100 Mbps over
single twisted pair or optical fiber link
 Encoding scheme same as FDDI
 4B/5B-NRZI
 Two physical medium specifications
 100BASE-TX
• uses two pairs of twisted-pair cable for tx & rx
• STP and Category 5 UTP allowed
• MTL-3 signaling scheme is used
 100BASE-FX
• uses two optical fiber cables for tx & rx
• convert 4B/5B-NRZI code group into optical signals
 Layer 1 technologies
Layer 1 Fast-Ethernet technologies
 100BASE-TX
The T stands for twisted pair ( UTP , STP ), The X stands for full duplex ,
speed 100 mbps .
 100BASE-FX
100 mbps , fiber cables (ST,SC connectors) , 400 m length .

Layer 1 Gigabit-Ethernet technologies

 1000BASE-T
speed 1000 mbps , UTP CAT5e , CAT6.
 1000BASE-SX
1000 mbps , fiber cables (ST,SC connectors) , 220 m

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IEEE 802.3 Frame Format
 Generic Data Link Frame Format

Preamble or Start Field

 When computers are connected to a physical medium, there must
be a way they can grab the attention of other computers to
broadcast the message, "Here comes a frame!"
 Various technologies have different ways of doing this process, but
all frames, regardless of technology, have a beginning signaling
sequence of bytes.
 Depending up frame format: Preamble = 7 bytes, Start or Start of
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 Generic Data Link Frame Format

Address Field
 We saw how IEEE 802.3 uses Destination and Source Addresses.
 By the way: Any idea how a serial data link frame is addressed?
Unicast address – Single device
Broadcast address – All devices
Multicast address – Specific group of devices

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The MAC Address

 MAC addresses are:

48 bits in length
Expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits.
The first 6 hexadecimal digits, which are administered by the IEEE, identify the
manufacturer or vendor and thus comprise the Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI).
The remaining 6 hexadecimal digits comprise the Interface Serial Number, or another
value administered by the specific vendor.
 MAC addresses are sometimes referred to as Burned-In Addresses (BIAs) because they
are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are copied into random-access memory (RAM)
when the NIC initializes.

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Generic Data Link Frame Format

< 0x600, then value is length – LLC provides

protocol
> 0x600, then type and contents of the Data
field are decoded per the protocol indicated.
Type Field
 Usually information indicating the layer 3 protocols in the data field, I.e. IP Packet.
 Type field values of particular note for IEEE 802.3 frames include:
0x0600 XNS (Xerox)
0x0800 IP (the Internet protocol)
0x8137 Novell NetWare packet formatted for Ethernet II
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Generic Data Link Frame Format

Data Field
 Included along with this data, you must also send a few other
bytes.
 They are called padding bytes, and are sometimes added so that
the frames have a minimum length for timing purposes.
 LLC bytes are also included with the data field in the IEEE
standard frames.

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Generic Data Link Frame Format

FCS
 Used to insure that the data has arrived without corruption.
 More efficient than sending the data twice and comparing the
results.
 Necessary to prevent errors.

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