1

Introduction

The global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM) represents the time period when

last glacial. The timing of the gLGM is identified as the interval covering ∼27–
the ice sheets reached their maximum extent across the world during the

19 ka using global radiocarbon/cosmogenic surface exposure ages (Clark et

al., 2009), which is generally consistent with the timing (∼24–18 ka) based

the gLGM, the global annual mean temperature decreased by ∼4–6 °C

on global marine oxygen isotopes and sea levels (Mix et al., 2001). During

relative to present (Annan and Hargreaves, 2013; Tierney et al., 2020;

Seltzer et al., 2021), largely owing to the lower CO2 concentration (∼190
ppmv; Monnin et al., 2001). The gLGM cooling promoted the establishment of
large-scale ice sheets at the mid-high latitudes of Northern and Southern
Hemispheres and extensive glaciations over mountain regions (e.g., Dyke et
al., 2002; Clark et al., 2009; Bentley et al., 2014; Owen and Dortch, 2014;
Hughes et al., 2016; Yan et al., 2018; Batchelor et al., 2019; Dalton et al.,

global mean sea level by ∼125 m (Clark et al., 2009; Harrison et al., 2019).
2020; Davies et al., 2020; Clark et al., 2021), which leads to a lowering of

Thus, the gLGM has been the focus for studying climate-glaciation
interactions across the world.

Glaciers are declining globally and their gradual loss of glaciers is attributed
to the phase of warming that our planet has been experiencing since the
Little Ice Age, particularly since the Industrial Revolution (Ming et al., 2015,
NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, 2023). The rate of
ongoing warming is radically associated with the increasing amounts of
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. According to the Global Monitoring
Laboratory (NOAA/GML), the atmospheric CO2 level has soared from 280
parts per million (ppm) to 417 ppm from 1750 CE (pre-industrial period) to
May 2021 CE (present; Tocco et al., 2021). Given this, a continued glacier
mass loss throughout the twenty-first century is projected, and under the
RCP8.5 climate change scenarios, the mean glacier volume loss is estimated
to be −64 ± 5 % by the end of the century and/or even higher (75 %) for the
Hindu Kush Himalayan region (Jones et al., 2019, Shannon et al., 2019).

Several studies have found that the Himalayas have warmed faster in recent
decades than the adjacent lowlands (Bhutiyani et al., 2007; Negi et al., 2018,
Sabin et al., 2020). This increased warming is threatening the existence of all
the Himalayan cryospheric components. Increased loss of glacial ice and
hence a negative mass balance have been recorded from almost all the
sectors of the Himalayas, and future model predictions also show an
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alarming situation in terms of glacier sustenance after the 21st century

(Beniston et al., 2018, Hock et al., 2019a, Hock et al., 2019b, Rounce et al.,
2023). T

The indicators of climate change are very evident over Himalaya (Beniston,
2003, Kang et al., 2010, Romshoo et al., 2011, Wang and Chen, 2014) and
these changes have exacerbated glacier recession (Akhtar et al., 2008,
Immerzeel et al., 2010, Romshoo et al., 2015). It, therefore, becomes
imperative to understand the magnitude of the climatic changes and how
these changes influence the cryospheric and hydrological processes in the
region. Recent studies have demonstrated that the glacier cover in the
Kashmir Himalaya, India is declining at an increasing rate compared to other
parts of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) (Kääb et al., 2012, Murtaza and
Romshoo, 2016). Hence, it is very obvious that the Himalaya may lose the
glacier cover in response to the climate change which will have serious
impacts on the regional hydrology (Barnett et al., 2005, Cogley, 2011, Nepal
et al., 2014). However, some studies suggest that Himalayan glaciers,
especially in the Karakorum region, are stable (Bahuguna et al., 2014,
Ganjoo and Koul, 2013, Raina, 2009). The past glaciological, climatological
and hydrological studies in the Himalaya have focused, on spatio-temporal
changes in glacial extents (Frey et al., 2012, Kääb et al., 2014), mass balance
(Berthier et al., 2007, Brahmbhatt et al., 2012), snow cover dynamics (Hall,
2012, Rittger et al., 2013), hydrological modelling (Naz et al., 2014, Nepal et
al., 2014), climate change impacts (Hock, 2014, Sorg et al., 2012) and
anthropogenic activities (Ginot et al., 2014, Kaspari et al., 2014, Ming et al.,
2009). Despite the vulnerability of Kashmir Himalayan glaciers to the
environmental changes, very few glaciological studies have been carried out
to understand the glacier recession in the region.

Several studies have found that the Himalayas have warmed faster in recent
decades than the adjacent lowlands (Bhutiyani et al., 2007; Negi et al., 2018,
Sabin et al., 2020). This increased warming is threatening the existence of all
the Himalayan cryospheric components. Increased loss of glacial ice and
hence a negative mass balance have been recorded from almost all the
sectors of the Himalayas, and future model predictions also show an
alarming situation in terms of glacier sustenance after the 21 st century
(Beniston et al., 2018, Hock et al., 2019a, Hock et al., 2019b, Rounce et al.,
2023). The depletion of the Himalayan cryosphere and its associated water
resources is deemed so severe that it may lead to international water
disputes and conflicts (McDowell et al., 2013, Bocchiola et al., 2017, Milner et
al., 2017, Schmidt and Nüsser, 2017).
 3

Despite the crucial role of the Himalayan glaciers for future water
availability, sea-level rise, regional climate and hazards associated with the
melting of glaciers, the field-based glaciological studies are few and far
between (Dyurgerov and Meier, 2005), owing to the remoteness, rugged
terrain and security concerns of the region (Bolch et al., 2012). Inconsistent
reports on the status and behaviour of glaciers in the Himalaya reflect
insufficient information, knowledge gaps and ambiguity (Cruz et al., 2007,
Cogley et al., 2010, Rashid and Abdullah, 2016). Only 15 of the 32,392
glaciers in the Indian Himalaya (SAC, 2010), have been investigated using in
situ glacier mass balance (MB) measurements and majority of these
observations are limited to a few years between 1975 and 1990 (Singh et al.,
2018, Vincent et al., 2013). Chhota Shigri is the only glacier in the Indian
Himalaya that has been studied for mass balance for more than a decade

Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh Himalaya have ∼15,000 glaciers (Abdullah et

(Wagnon et al., 2007, Azam et al., 2012, Singh et al., 2018). Although,

al., 2020), in situ mass balance data of only 6 glaciers are available; 4 in the
Kashmir Himalaya, one in the Zanskar range (GSI, 2001, Kaul, 1986,
Romshoo et al., 2022b, Sangewar and Siddique, 2006, Srivastava, 2001), and
one in Ladakh mountain range (Soheb et al., 2020). These observations,
however, are brief; 1-year mass balance for the Kolahoi and Shishram, 9
years for the Nehnar glacier in the Kashmir Himalaya, 2 years for the Rulung
in the Zanskar and 5 years for Stok Glacier in the Ladakh mountain range.

Glaciers in the Karakoram–Himalaya are influenced in different intensity by

the Indian summer monsoon, the mid-latitude winter westerlies and the
south-east Asian monsoon (Bolch et al., 2012, Wiltshire, 2014). Previous
geodetic glacier mass balance studies have reported heterogeneous glacier
surface elevation (and mass) changes in high-mountain Asia (HMA) including
Karakoram–Himalaya (Kääb et al., 2012, Gardelle et al., 2013, Kääb et al.,
2015, Brun et al., 2017, Lin et al., 2017). Such observations are quite
important for observing the impact of climate perturbations and changes on
glaciers in the region (Kääb et al., 2012, Gardelle et al., 2013), and as a
reference for modeling of current changes and to provide future projections
(Wiltshire, 2014, Kraaijenbrink et al., 2017).

The earth's climate has always been characterized by natural variations.

However, the mean annual air temperatures rose rather dramatically in the
20th century (IPCC, 2001). This has caused increasing glacier retreat in many
parts of the world (Haeberli and Beniston, 1998, Maisch, 2000). This trend
intensified at the end of the last century and the areas of glacial ice
coverage strongly diminished in the Alps and Central Asia (Kääb et al., 2002).
 4

Glaciers are a key indicator of climate change as they react sensitively to

climate (Oerlemans, 1994). Nevertheless, climate and glacier changes are
not homogeneous worldwide. For example, glaciers in the more continental
Pamirs retreated in the 20th century less than glaciers in the more humid
parts of Tien Shan (Chaohai and Tianding, 1992, Hagg, 2003).

Himalayan glaciers are sensitive to climate change and are considered

important for the survival of life in the abode of the Himalayas (Mir et al.,
2017) Globally increase in temperature leads to glacier retreat which exhibits
an immediate response to the climate forcing and influences the glacier
dynamics and its behavior (Benn et al., 2012). The melting of Himalayan
glaciers feeds the major rivers and thus sustains a huge population living in
the Indo-Gangetic plains ( Singh et al., 2017).

Glaciers are solid reservoirs that supply water to the rivers. In the arid and
semi-arid regions of Central Asia, glacial meltwater is an extremely important
source of water recharge for inland rivers (Xu et al., 2020). Changes
in mountain glaciers are sensitive indicators of global climate change.
Melting glaciers have changed the spatial and temporal distribution of water
resources in inland river basins, resulting in extreme sudden disasters such
as floods and glacial lake outbursts (Leclercq et al., 2011, ). In addition,
ablation and accumulation of mountain glaciers can seriously impact
downstream ecosystems. Thus, it is important to monitor changes in
mountainous glaciers in the upstream regions of inland river basins over long
periods of time.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) pointed to the role of

mountain glaciers as key indicators of recent climate change (Lemke et al.,
2007). Tropical glaciers are known to be especially sensitive to climate
change (e.g. Hastenrath, 1994; Kaser and Osmaston, 2002). Due to the
specific climate conditions in the tropical zone, ablation occurs all year round
on the lowest part of the glaciers, resulting in a short-time response of the
position of the glacier terminus to changes in mass balance, and
consequently to changes in climate (Wagnon et al., 1999).

Climate change is of great concern the world over, particularly regarding the
effect of humanity on the existing environment and vice versa. Under
continued warming over the last several decades, alpine glacier retreat has
accelerated. Surface melting has occurred even on high-altitude glaciers (Yao
 5

T D, et al, 2008) . Moreover, about 75% of the fresh water of the world comes
from glaciers (IPCC, 1996) , thus retreating glaciers will have a strong
influence on the regional hydrologic balance and economic sustainability.
Climate warming, regardless of whether it is caused by anthropogenic factors
or by nature, has led to strong global glacier recession. In fact, changes in
alpine glaciers are one of the best natural indicators of climate change
because a small change in climatic parameters will result in pronounced
geometric changes in glacier shape and size. Many studies show that strong
glacial wastage has been the major trend (Dyrgerov M B, Meier M F , 2000)
over the period from 1993 to 2003 during which time sea level has risen
about 0.77 ± 0.18 mm as a result, primarily, of that glacier melting (IPCC.
Climate change 2007).

The general warming trend during the 20th century and into the 21st century
is now well documented. Scientific evidence verifies that Earth’s globally
averaged surface temperature is increasing. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) report (Solomon et al., 2007) suggests that human
activities are contributing significantly to observed changes in the Earth
system. Although not all regions have warmed, the globally averaged
temperature has increased ~0.7˚C since 1900 ( Hansen et al., 2006). The
best interpretation of proxy records from borehole temperatures, stable
isotopes from ice cores, tree-ring data, etc., suggests that the 1990s was the
warmest decade in the last 1800 years ( Mann et al., 2004).

On decadal and longer timescales, climate models predict that greenhouse-

gas-forced warming will drive temperatures to rise faster at higher elevations
and that this vertical amplification will be greatest in the tropics due to
upper-tropospheric humidity and water-vapor feedback (Ramaswamy et
al.,2006).

Glaciers are sensitive climate proxies and variations in their length, area and
volume provide insights into past climate variability, placing contemporary
changes into a long-term context (Hoelzle et al., 2003). A strong
argument for the sensitivity and reliability of the glacier record is made by
their relatively uniform retreat to contemporary warming (Vaughan et al.,
2013).

On the global scale, air temperature is considered to be the most important

factor controlling glacier retreat. For a typical mid-latitude glacier, a 1°C
temperature rise would have the same effect as much greater decreases in
 6

cloudiness (by 30%) or precipitation (by 25%) (IPCC, 2001). In several areas,
the climatic anomalies have been strongly influenced by the El Niño-
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. The warm (El Niño) phase of ENSO,
influencing the phase of precipitation at the altitudes of the glacier
accumulation zone has become more intense, more frequent, and more
long-lasting in recent decades (IPCC, 2001).

The retreat of glaciers worldwide recorded in all mountain systems, in the

Arctic and in Antarctica, over the past century provides some of the most
striking evidence in support of current human-induced global climate change
(IPCC, 2007, IPCC, 2013). A primary conclusion, based on an evaluation of
Holocene glacier variations, formulated in the Fourth Asessment Report,
which was generally confirmed in the recent AR5 states: “Glaciers in several
mountain regions of the Northern Hemisphere retreated in response to
orbitally forced regional warmth between 11 and 5 ka, and were smaller (or
even absent) at times prior to 5 ka than at the end of the 20th century. The
present day near-global retreat of mountain glaciers cannot be attributed to
the same natural causes, because the decrease of summer insolation during
the past few millennia in the Northern Hemisphere should be favourable to
the growth of the glaciers.” (IPCC, 2007, ).

Glaciers with different geometry and located in different climate regimes,

however, react in different ways to climate change (Furbish and Andrew,
1984, Barry, 2006). The sensitivity of a glacier depends not only on regional
climate variability but also on local topographic effects and the distribution of
the glacier area with elevation (Kuhn, 1985). For example, sub-polar ice caps
respond much more slowly to climate than small valley glaciers due to the
size of the glacier, steepness of the bed and hypsometry.

The high mountains ranges from entire world covered by glaciers are also
inventoried by scientists in aim to understand which the impact of climate
changes on extensions of ice mass is and the possible floods that may occur
due to ice melting are checked. Recent studies contest that climate change
affects drastically and direct the glaciers, ecosystems, and natural systems
because of increasing in CO2 and emissions of greenhouse (Cox et al., 2000).
Indirectly, the melting of ice is negative influenced by recent climate
warming. Nistor & Petcu (2014) show the role of glaciers melting in the
ecosystem changes in theirs study about Prince William Sound landscape,
South Alaska. Together with Global warming, the industrial black carbon
contributes at the acceleration of Alpine glaciers retreat (Painter et al.,
2013).
 7

Mountain glaciers are a relatively reliable indicator of climate change, and

their recent decline across the world has been linked to global warming (
Barry, 2006). Arguably the most serious consequence of their shrinkage is
the cumulative impact on global sea-level rise ( Rignot et al., 2003), but the
retreat of mountain glaciers has more localized consequences, affecting the
geomorphology and hydrology of the glacial valleys which they occupy
(Fische et al., 2006).

The Himalaya, the youngest and fragile mountain system of the earth, has
direct influence on climate control, regional hydrology and environment of
our subcontinent. About 17% of its mountain area is covered by glaciers
(Dobhal et al., 1999). Fresh water resources in the Himalayas are stored in
the form of glaciers. Change in climate directly affects glacier mass and
thereby, the water resources. Melting from snow bound areas during the
summer forms an important source of many perennial rivers originating in
the higher Himalaya. Most of the glaciers in the mountain region of the
Himalayas have receded subsequently during the last century, in response to
climatic warming. Recent studies have shown wide-scale retreat of glaciers
not only in the Himalayas but also in Alps, Andes and Rocky mountains
(Kulkarni et al., 2002). Investigation carried out in the Himalaya suggests
that almost all glaciers are retreating and annual rate of retreat is varying
from 16 to 35m (Dobhal et al., 1999).

The Himalayan glaciers are not only a crucial resource of water, but they also
serve as an excellent indicator of climate change (Immerzeel et al., 2010). It
has been speculated in recent years, that the Himalayan glaciers are
retreating faster than other glaciers of the world (Cruz et al., 2007).
Discharge from glacier melt water contributes to overall river runoff in the
Himalayan region and has important contribution to drinking water, irrigation
and hydropower generation for millions of people living downstream (Singh
et al., 2016). Owing to the large geographic extent and complex topography
along with the variable climatic conditions across the Himalaya has resulted
in various set of glacier response (retreat or advance).

High-altitude glaciers at low latitudes are recognized as sensitive indicators

of regional and global climate change ( Kaser and Georges 1999). Given the
ongoing atmospheric temperature rise, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change report (Houghton et al., 2001) has defined tropical glaciers
as unique and threatened ecosystems on Earth.

Between 1983 and 2012, average global temperature has risen 0.85 ± 0.2°C
and future projections anticipate further warming, regardless of actions to
 8

mitigate CO2 emission (IPCC, 2014). The rise in global temperature has
resulted in significant global ice shrinkage since 1961 (IPCC, 2014). As global
temperatures continue to rise, with few exceptions, glaciers will continue to
retreat, and some will disappear altogether (Radić et al., 2014). The impacts
of climate change and glacier shrinkage pose a critical threat to mountain
and coastal communities worldwide as freshwater resources dwindle,
oversteepened slopes and proglacial basins destabilize and fail
catastrophically, and sea levels rise. Identifying the signatures of how
glaciers and landscapes respond to rapid climate change is therefore critical
to predicting the magnitude of these hazards in the coming century.

Literature Review

1. Shubham Bhattacharjee , Arvind Chandra Pandey , Rahul Dev Garg

2023 ; in their paper entitled as “ Long-term estimation of glacier mass
balance using geospatial techniques in Western Himalayas, Ladakh,
India” found hat Pensilungpa and Drang Drung glaciers in Zanskar
Valley, Ladakh, India, from 2000 to 2022, shows that Pensilungpa had 7
years of positive and 16 years of negative mass balance, with
significant negative mass balance between 2003-2005 and 2011-2016.
Drang Drung had 12 years of positive and 11 years of negative mass
balance, with a notable positive balance between 2009-2012. These
findings indicate higher sensitivity of smaller glaciers to climate
change. Mass balance estimations using AAR and DEM differencing
methods were consistent, highlighting the need for continuous
monitoring of glacier dynamics.
2. Maria Shahgedanova 2021 in their study “Climate change and melting
glaciers” found that glaciers, which cover 10% of the Earth's surface
and store 69% of freshwater, have been retreating since the 19th
century, accelerating since the mid-20th century due to climate
warming. Most glaciers, except those in the Karakoram-Kunlun-Pamir
region, are losing mass. Satellite data shows increasing ice loss from
the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, contributing significantly
to global sea level rise. The trend of glacier wastage is expected to
continue, with many glaciers potentially disappearing or retreating to
higher elevations in the future.
3. Qing Yan , Ting Wei , Zhongshi Zhang 2022 in their study “ Modeling
the climate sensitivity of Patagonian glaciers and their responses to
climatic change during the global last glacial maximum” shows that
 9

during the global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM), the Patagonian

cooling, the glacier area increased by ∼78 × 10³ km² and the
glaciers responded significantly to climatic changes. For every 1°C of

equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) lowered by ∼163 m. An increase in

of ∼21 × 10³ km² and a ΔELA by ∼64 m. The modeled gLGM climate
precipitation without temperature change led to a glacier area increase

indicated a colder and drier Patagonia with a significant ice sheet

extent (∼387 × 10³ km²) covering the Andes. The study highlights the
ice sheet’s high sensitivity to climatic conditions, with notable erosion
patterns in fjords and valleys. The model matched well with empirical
reconstructions but underestimated the total ice volume.

4. Lu-chen Wang Y Kun et.al 2021 In their study “ Response of glacier

area variation to climate change in the Kaidu-Kongque river basin,
Southern Tianshan Mountains during the last 20 years” found that
glaciers in the Kaidu-Kongque river basin significantly shrunk from
2000 to 2020, retreating at varying rates: rapidly from 2000-2005,
slowly from 2005-2015, and accelerated from 2015-2020. There were
slight increases in mean annual temperature (0.02°C/a) and annual
precipitation (2.07 mm/a), with temperature showing a more significant
correlation with glacier recession than precipitation. The rising summer
temperature is the primary driver of this glacier shrinkage over the
past 20 years.

5. Jayant Nath Tripathi, Irjesh Sonkerin, Swarnim ,Sakshi Tripathi, Anil K.

Sing 2022 their study “Climate change traces on Lhonak Glacier using
geospatial tools” found that increased surface temperature is driving
glacier melt, thereby enlarging the Lhonak and South Lhonak lakes.
Remote sensing and GIS are vital tools for assessing the risks of glacier
lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in these remote areas.

6. Mohd F Ul Moazzam , Abhishek Banerjee , Ghani Rahman , Byung Gul

Lee 2024 in their study “Elevation-Dependent Snow Cover Dynamics
and Associated Topo-Climate Impacts in Upper Indus River Basin” found
that 2003 to 2020, glaciers in the Kabul, Jhelum, and Indus river basins
experienced a decline in snow cover area (SCA), influenced largely by
rising temperatures rather than precipitation. Elevation-dependent
 10

trends varied, with temperature showing an inverse relationship with

SCA at middle and higher altitudes in the Indus basin. Topography also
played a role in these changes. Overall, the study highlights how
climate change, particularly increasing temperatures, is driving glacier
shrinkage in these regions, impacting hydrology, water resources, and
socio-economic activities.
7. Bhartendu Sajan , Kanga S et.al. 2024 In their study “Evidence of
climate change – Investigating glacial terminus and lake inventory
using earth observation data for mountainous Bhutan” found that from
1990 to 2017, the number of glacial lakes in Bhutan increased
significantly, rising from 213 to 436. Various types of glacial lakes were
mapped, including moraine-dammed, supra-glacial, lateral moraine,
erosional, medial moraine, and end moraine lakes. The study also
observed an expansion in the spatial dimensions of these lakes,
indicating the impact of climate change on glacial dynamics and
highlighting potential hazards from glacial lake outbursts.

8. Bin Zhou , Zou Q.et.al 2024 in their study “A novel framework for
predicting glacial lake outburst debris flows in the Himalayas amidst
climate change” Indicates that due to global warming, Himalayan
glaciers are projected to lose 70% to 86% of their mass by 2100,
causing an increase in glacial lakes. Consequently, the occurrence of
glacial lake outburst debris flow (GLODF) is expected to rise
significantly, posing severe threats to downstream communities.
Temperature and precipitation increases are identified as key drivers of
these changes, with the Western Himalayas and the China-Nepal
border being high-risk areas for future GLODF occurrences. This
underscores the urgent need for improved disaster management and
cross-border cooperation.

9. Emily M.M. Moore, Shaun R et.al 2022 in their study “ Climate

reconstructions for the Last Glacial Maximum from a simple cirque
glacier in Fiordland, New Zealand” found that mountain glacier records
in Fiordland, New Zealand, show moraine deposition at four key times:
32 ± 11 ka, 18.7 ± 0.2 ka, 18.1 ± 0.1 ka, and around 17.2 ± 0.3 ka.
The data reveal a net decline in regional ice volume during marine
isotope stages 3-2, driven by climate changes. The preserved moraines
from 19–17 ka suggest the equilibrium line altitude was about 1130 m
 11

lower, reflecting temperatures 5.8 ± 0.6°C colder than present.

Warming after 17.2 ka aligns with climate proxies indicating a
southward shift in westerly winds, which likely contributed to
deglaciation.
10. Vinit Kumar , Shukla T et.al 2021 in their study “Glacier changes
and associated climate drivers for the last three decades, Nanda Devi
region, Central Himalaya, India” analysed that in the upper Rishi Ganga
catchment of Central Himalaya, India, glaciers lost about 10% of their
area from 1980 to 2017, shrinking from ~243 km² to ~217 km². The
Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) fluctuated between 5200 and 5700 m
during this period. This glacier retreat is primarily attributed to
decreased precipitation, rather than temperature increases alone,
highlighting the complex interplay of climatic factors in the context of
global warming.
11. Maria Grazia Zanoni ,Elisa Stella ,Alberto Bellin, 2023 ; in their
study “Long-term hydrological behavior of an Alpine glacier” reveals
that early snow melting and glacier reduction have significantly altered
streamflow timing since 1996. Using a Deep Neural Network, the
researchers filled gaps in data and projected that the region will
transition from glacial to nival (snow-fed) regime by 2045. This shift
highlights the profound impact of climate change on hydrological
regimes in the Alps.
12. Shaoting Ren, Y Tandong et.al 2024 in their paper entitled
“Changes in glacier surface temperature across the Third Pole from
2000 to 2021”exmined that glaciers experienced heterogeneous but
accelerated mass loss, with a warming rate of +0.17 ± 0.35 °C per
decade. The warming was more pronounced in autumn and varied by
region, with significant warming in monsoon-dominated areas and
slight warming or cooling in westerlies-dominated regions. The ablation
season saw an increase in the 0 °C isotherm altitude by over 100
meters and a 10% expansion in glacier areas with surface
temperatures ≥0 °C. These findings underscore the critical role of
glacier surface temperature as an indicator of climate change and
glacier dynamics.
13. Stefanie Schreder, Sommaruga R et.al 2024 in their research
entitled “Changes in air temperature, but not in precipitation,
determine long-term trends in water chemistry of high mountain lakes
of the Alps with and without rock glacier influence” found that climate
change significantly affects the chemistry of alpine lakes, with
increasing air temperatures raising electrical conductivity, ionic
 12

content, and pH. The impact is more pronounced in lakes influenced by

rock glaciers, where acidic meltwater also lowers pH. Warming,
especially during late spring, plays a major role in these changes, while
precipitation has less effect. These findings underscore the role of
rising temperatures in glacier retreat and subsequent changes in
alpine lake chemistry.
14. Shakil Ahmad Romshoo ,Tariq Abdullah ,Khalid Omar Murtaza ,
Mustafa Hameed Bhat 2023 in their paper entitled as “Direct, geodetic
and simulated mass balance studies of the Kolahoi Glacier in the
Kashmir Himalaya, India” found that Kolahoi Glacier In the Kashmir
Himalaya has experienced significant mass loss due to climate change,
with glaciological, geodetic, and reconstructed mass balance data
showing substantial declines since 1980. The glacier’s mass balance is
highly sensitive to temperature increases, while precipitation has a
lesser impact. This retreat is expected to continue, further reducing
streamflow in transboundary rivers and highlighting the critical need to
understand glacier-climate interactions for future water availability in
the region.

15. Irfan Rashid, Ulfat Majeed ,Nadeem Ahmad Najar ,Imtiyaz Ahmad
Bhat 2021 in their study “Retreat of Machoi Glacier, Kashmir Himalaya
between 1972 and 2019 using remote sensing methods and field
observations” examined that Machoi Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir has
lost about 29% of its area from 1972 to 2019, with a frontal retreat of
500 meters. The glacier’s surface lowered by 43.7 meters between
2000 and 2011. Cryoconite holes and light-absorbing impurities
correlate with altitude, affecting glacier melt. Seasonal albedo trends
showed a decrease during winter. Increasing aerosol trends from 1980
to 2018 have impacted glacier dynamics. These changes severely
affect streamflow, hydropower, and agriculture in the region,
necessitating more detailed in-situ data to understand their full impact.
16. Muhammad Mannan Afzal, Wang X et.al 2023 in their study
“Hydrological and dynamical response of glaciers to climate change
based on their dimensions in the Hunza Basin, Karakoram” analysed
that glaciers of different sizes show varied responses to climate
change. The study found that smaller glaciers (Z5/Z6) are highly
sensitive to summer temperatures and will lose up to 90% of their
volume by 2100, while larger glaciers (Z1) will lose about 10%. Basin
glacier runoff is expected to increase until 2060 before decreasing.
 13

Immediate mitigation measures are needed to address these changes

and ensure long-term water security in the region.
17. Irfan Rashid , Shakil Ahmad Romshoo ,Tariq Abdullah 2017 in
their study “The recent deglaciation of Kolahoi valley in Kashmir
Himalaya, India in response to the changing climate” found that
Kolahoi Glacier In Kashmir Himalaya has retreated by 2.85 km from
1857 to 2014, with an average retreat rate of 18.2 m/year,
accelerating in the last decade. The glacier has shrunk by 2.81 km²
and lost 0.30 km³ of ice volume between 1962 and 2013. Predicted
temperature rises of 0.18–0.61 °C per decade under future climate
scenarios will likely exacerbate glacier retreat, impacting regional
water availability.
18. H.S. Negi, Kumar A et.al 2021 in their study “Status of glaciers
and climate change of East Karakoram in early twenty-first century”
found that from 1990 to 2014, most glaciers remained stable, with a
minor overall retreat. Post-2000, the number of retreating glaciers
increased. A slight mass loss rate of −0.10 ± 0.07 m w.e. a−1 was
observed. Climatic studies revealed an overall warming trend without a
corresponding increase in snowfall from 1985 to 2015. This suggests
no significant Karakoram or climatic anomaly exists in this region,
refuting the elevation-dependent warming seen in the North-West
Himalayas.
19. Rong Gan, Luo Y et.al 2017 in their study “Effects of projected
climate change on the glacier and runoff generation in the Naryn River
Basin, Central Asia” found that climate change will cause significant
glacier retreat, especially for small glaciers, with only 8% expected to
remain by 2100 under RCP8.5. Glacier melt runoff will peak around
2040, with future decreases in runoff, snowmelt, and precipitation,
leading to altered water availability. Runoff timing will shift earlier due
to warming, increasing in spring and decreasing in summer. These
changes highlight the substantial impact of climate change on regional
hydrology.
20. Soroush Motiee ,Homayoun Motiee ,Azadeh Ahmadi 2024 in their
paper entitled “Analysis of rapid snow and ice cover loss in mountain
glaciers of arid and semi-arid regions using remote sensing data”
found that from 2000 to 2020, the northern glacial areas of Iran
experienced a 1.5 °C rise in average annual temperature, leading to a
30% decrease in summer snow cover. This rapid snowmelt threatens
permanent glaciers, risking complete melt in the future and impacting
local water supplies, river flows, and ecosystems.
 14

21. Supratim Guha , Reet Kamal Tiwari ,Anugrah Pratap 2024 ; in

their study “Divergent temporal glacier responses in the Chandra-
Bhaga and Suru-Zanskar Basins of the Indian Western Himalaya”
examined that glaciers in the Suru-Zanskar Basin (SZB) and Chandra-
Bhaga Basin (CBB) reveals that from 2000 to 2022, both areas
experienced significant glacier retreat and area reduction. The CBB
saw a decrease in glacier area from 608.95 km² to 584.54 km², while
the SZB’s glacier area shrunk from 913.77 km² to 894.69 km².
Temperature in the CBB increased at a rate of 0.0091°C per year from
1901 to 2021. The study found heterogeneous trends in glacier area
changes and retreat rates, with consistent shrinkage observed in the
SZB.
22. Diolaiuti et al. “Evidence of climate change impact upon glaciers’
recession within the Italian Alps” (2012) investigates the recent area
evolution of 249 glaciers in Lombardy, Northern Italy. Using surface
area records from 1991, 1999, and 2003, the study combines manual
digitization of glacier limits on orthophotos and DGPS surveys. Findings
indicate a 21% reduction in glacier area from 1991 to 2003, with
smaller glaciers contributing disproportionately to the loss. The study
highlights the accelerated melting due to enhanced warming and
decreased snowfall. Published in Theoretical and Applied Climatology
on March 2012.
23. George Kordzakhia, Larisa Shengelia, Genadi Tvauri, and Murman
Dzadzamia “Impact of Modern Climate Change on Glaciers in East
Georgia” (2016). The study employs satellite Earth observations and
GIS technologies to analyze the changes in glaciers in East Georgia due
to regional climate change. The findings indicate a significant reduction
in glacier area and volume, with over 70% of small glaciers completely
or partially melted in the past 40 years. The study highlights the
accelerated retreat of large glaciers, particularly in the last 15 years,
due to intensified regional climate change.
24. Georg Kaser, Douglas R. Hardy, Thomas Mölg, Raymond S.
Bradley, and Tharsis M. Hyera “Modern Glacier Retreat on Kilimanjaro
as Evidence of Climate Change: Observations and Facts” (2004). The
authors used field observations and climatic data to investigate the
retreat of Kilimanjaro’s glaciers, focusing on the impact of atmospheric
moisture rather than air temperature. Their findings suggest that a
significant drop in atmospheric moisture around 1880, leading to drier
conditions, is the primary driver of glacier retreat on Kilimanjaro,
challenging the notion that global warming alone is responsible.
 15

25. Ricardo Sahade, Cristian Lagger, Luciana Torre, Fernando Momo,

Doris Abele “Climate change and glacier retreat drive shifts in an
Antarctic benthic ecosystem”, (2015). The study employed repeat
surveys of coastal benthos at King George Island, Antarctica,
conducted in 1994, 1998, and 2010. The methodology included
analyzing community structure and environmental variables. The
findings revealed a significant shift in the benthic community, primarily
driven by increased sediment runoff due to glacier retreat, rather than
temperature changes. This shift suggests potential thresholds and
alternative equilibrium states in the ecosystem.
26. Shahgedanova et al “Climate Change, Glacier Retreat, and Water
Availability in the Caucasus Region” (2009) examines the impact of
observed and projected warming on glacier melt and water resources
in the Caucasus. Using climate models and historical data, the study
identifies a significant warming trend and widespread glacier retreat,
projecting further temperature increases and enhanced glacier melt by
2100. The findings highlight potential hazards and changes in water
availability, emphasizing the need for adaptive water management
strategies.
27. Tobias Bolch “Climate change and glacier retreat in northern
Tien Shan (Kazakhstan/Kyrgyzstan) using remote sensing data” (2007) ,
In this study researcher investigates temperature and precipitation
trends and their impact on glacier retreat in the Zailiyskiy and Kungey
Alatau mountain ranges. Using GIS-supported analysis and remote
sensing data from Landsat and ASTER/SRTM3-DEM, the study found a
significant temperature increase since the 1950s, leading to a 32%
decrease in glacier extent between 1955 and 1999. The retreat varied
based on glacier size, location, and climate regime.
28. Asha Thapliyal, Sanjeev Kimothi, Ajay Kumar Taloor, Mahendra
Pratap Singh Bisht, Pankaj Mehta, and Girish Chandra Kothyari “Glacier
retreat analysis in the context of climate change impact over the
Satopanth (SPG) and Bhagirathi-Kharak (BKG) glaciers in the Mana
basin of the Central Himalaya, India: A geospatial approach” (2023),
employs geospatial techniques to analyze glacier retreat, ice velocity,
and temperature trends from 1968 to 2017. The study reveals
significant warming and a negative trend in snow cover area ,
highlighting the impact of climate change on these glaciers.
29. Mathias Vuille et al, “Climate change and tropical Andean
glaciers: Past, present and future”(2008), examines the rapid shrinkage
of tropical Andean glaciers since the Little Ice Age. The authors use
 16

observations and mass balance networks to analyze glacier behavior

and climate changes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. They find that
temperature increases and precipitation changes have significantly
impacted glacier retreat, with projections indicating continued warming
and altered hydrological cycles. The study highlights the critical role of
glaciers in water supply and the urgent need for adaptation measures.
30. S. Schauwecker et al, “Climate trends and glacier retreat in the
Cordillera Blanca, Peru, revisited” (2014) investigates the impact of
climate change on glaciers in the Cordillera Blanca. The methodology
includes analyzing temperature and precipitation data from various
meteorological stations. The findings reveal a slowdown in warming
over the past 30 years, an increase in precipitation since the 1980s,
and a significant retreat of small, low-lying glaciers. The study
highlights the imbalance between increased precipitation and
temperature rise, suggesting ongoing glacier recession.
31. Samjwal Ratna Bajracharya, Pradeep Kumar Mool, and Basanta
Raj Shrestha “Global Climate Change and Melting of Himalayan
Glaciers” (2008) utilizes historical data, satellite imagery, and field
observations to analyze glacier retreat rates, glacial lake formation,
and the frequency of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in the
Himalayan region. The findings highlight significant glacier retreat, with
rates ranging from 10 to 60 meters per year, and the formation of
numerous glacial lakes, posing increased GLOF risks. The study
underscores the urgent need for monitoring and early warning
systems.
32. Myrna H. P. Hall and Daniel B. Fagre. “Climatic Causes and
Ecological Consequences of Glacier Retreat in Glacier National Park,
Montana” employs spatially explicit models, GIS tools, and FORTRAN
simulation modeling to analyze glacier creation, ablation, and
vegetation response to climate change. The findings indicate
significant glacier retreat in the Blackfoot–Jackson Glacier Basin since
1850 due to rising temperatures, with predictions that all glaciers will
disappear by 2030 under a carbon dioxide–doubling scenario. This
study underscores the profound ecological impacts of climate change
on glacier and vegetation dynamics.
33. Xu Wang, Florian Siegert, Ai-guo Zhou, and Jonas Franke “Glacier
and glacial lake changes and their relationship in the context of climate
change, Central Tibetan Plateau 1972–2010” (2013), investigates the
impact of climate change on glaciers and glacial lakes in the Western
Nyainqentanglha region using remote sensing data and GIS
 17

techniques. The study found significant glacier retreat, thinning, and

an increase in glacier lakes over the past four decades, correlating with
rising temperatures and precipitation. The findings highlight the
sensitivity of the region’s cryosphere to climate warming.
34. Xiangke Xu, Huan Zhang, and Yusheng Sun “The effects of
climatic change and inter-annual variability on glacier retreat from
~1850s AD moraines in the Kuoqionggangri peak region, southern
Tibetan Plateau” (2024) uses cosmogenic nuclide 10Be dating and
glacier dynamical models to reconstruct glacier extents and quantify
the impact of summer temperature variability and long-term climate
change on glacier retreats. The study finds that climate change
significantly contributed to glacier retreats since the 1850s, with inter-
annual temperature and precipitation variability causing minor
fluctuations.
35. Anil V. Kulkarni et al “Monitoring the Glaciers in Himachal
Pradesh” (2007) investigates glacial retreat in the Chenab, Parbati,
and Baspa basins using satellite data from 1962 to 2004. The
methodology includes mapping glacial termini using LISS-III and LISS-IV
satellite images, field investigations, and GPS measurements. The
findings reveal a 21% reduction in glacier area from 2077 sq. km in
1962 to 1628 sq. km in 2004, with significant fragmentation and
increased retreat of smaller glaciers, indicating the impact of climate
change on Himalayan glaciers.
36. Carolina Lorenz Simoes “Collins Glacier Retreat Process and
Regional Climatic Variations, King George Island, Antarctica” (2015)
examines the retreat of Collins Glacier in relation to regional climatic
changes. The study employs remote sensing techniques and field
observations to analyze glacier retreat patterns. The findings indicate a
significant retreat of the glacier, correlating with rising temperatures
and changing precipitation patterns in the region.. Xiaofei Wang, Yue
Huang, Tie Liu, and Weibing Du “Impacts of climate change on glacial
retreat during 1990–2021 in the Chinese Altay Mountains” (2023)
investigates the retreat of glaciers using Landsat images and the
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model
(DEM). The study reveals a 0.55% annual retreat rate of glacier area
from 1990 to 2021, with significant losses at elevations of 2800–3000
meters. The findings highlight the influence of solar radiation and
summer temperature on glacier retreat, noting a slower shrinkage rate
compared to earlier decades.
 18

37. T. J. Chinn “New Zealand glacier responses to climate change of

the past century”(1996). The study investigates 127 glaciers in the
New Zealand Southern Alps, analyzing their retreat and area loss since
the end of the Little Ice Age. Methodologically, it examines glacier
fluctuations, snowline changes, and proglacial lake formations. The
findings indicate an average glacier shortening of 38% and a 25% area
loss, correlating with a 0.6°C temperature rise. The study highlights the
variability in glacier responses and the damping effect of debris cover.
38. Michael R. Kaplan et al. “Glacier retreat in New Zealand during
the Younger Dryas stadial” (2010), investigates the retreat of New
Zealand’s glaciers during the Younger Dryas using landform mapping,
high-precision 10Be chronology, and reconstruction of former ice

retreated after ∼13 kyr BP, indicating a warming of the southern mid-
extents and snow lines. The study finds that New Zealand’s glaciers

latitude atmosphere during the Younger Dryas. This supports the

hypothesis of a strong interhemispheric thermal gradient leading to
Southern Hemisphere warming.

39. Levan G. Tielidze, Nino Lomidze, and Lasha Asanidze “Glaciers

Retreat and Climate Change Effect During the Last One Century in the
Mestiachala River Basin, Caucasus Mountains, Georgia” ( 2015). The
study utilized topographic maps, aerial images, and climate data to
analyze glacier dynamics over a century. Key findings include a Levan
G. Tielidze, Nino Lomidze, and Lasha Asanidze glacier area and a
52.4% decrease in glacier numbers from 1911 to 2014, with significant
glacier retreat linked to rising air temperatures. The research highlights
the impact of climate change on glacier retreat in the Caucasus region.
40. Chandler, B.M.P., Evans, D.J.A., and Roberts, D.H. “Recent retreat
at a temperate Icelandic glacier in the context of the last ~80 years of
climate change in the North Atlantic region”, (2016) examines the
variability in glacier retreat at Skálafellsjökull, SE Iceland, using annual
moraine spacing as a proxy. The study compares three pronounced
retreat phases (1936–1941, 1951–1956, and 2006–2011) and analyzes
associated climate data. Findings indicate that recent retreat and
warming are not unusual in the context of the last 80 years,
highlighting the importance of placing contemporary glacier changes in
a broader historical context.
41. Eric Franquist, Dana McGlone, and Mathias Vuille “Climate
Change and Tropical Andean Glacier Retreat” (2011) explores the
 19

impact of climate change on glaciers in the tropical Andes. The authors

utilized historical climate data, glacier observations, and climate
models to assess changes in temperature, precipitation, and glacier
extent from 1900 to 2011. Their findings indicate significant glacier
retreat due to rising temperatures, with projections suggesting
continued warming and further glacier loss. The study highlights the
implications for water resources, biodiversity, and local communities,
emphasizing the need for adaptation strategies.
42. Francisca Bown and Andrés Rivera “Climate changes and recent
glacier behaviour in the Chilean Lake District” (2007). The study
analyzes temperature and precipitation trends from 1950 to 2000 and
their impact on the Casa Pangue glacier. Using Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs), the authors determined ice elevation changes, revealing a
mean thinning rate of -2.3 m a−1 from 1961 to 1998, which increased
to -3.6 m a−1 between 1981 and 1998. The findings suggest that
upper troposphere warming and decreased precipitation are driving the
glacier’s negative mass balance.
43. Thomas V. Lowell “As climate changes, so do glaciers” (2000).
The study employs stratigraphic records to understand the
synchronous response of glacial systems to climate change, reflecting
global atmospheric conditions. The methodology involves analyzing
detailed spatial and temporal records of abrupt climate changes using
glacial systems as climate trackers. The findings highlight that glacial
systems are effective indicators of climate change, showing a global
synchronous response. This research underscores the importance of
glacial systems in tracking and understanding climate dynamics.

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24