Unit- 1 Introduction to biostatistics

Biostatistics (a contraction of biology and statistics; sometimes referred to

as biometry or biometrics) is the application of statistics to a wide range of topics
in biology. The science of biostatistics encompasses the design of biological
experiments, especially in medicine and agriculture; the collection, summarization,
and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and
inference from, the results.

INTRODUCTION

● Statistics plays a vitally important role in the research.

● Health information is very often explained in statistical terms
● Many decisions in the Health Sciences are created through statistical studies
● It enables you:

⮚ to read and evaluate reports and other literature

⮚ to take independent research investigations
⮚ to describe the data in meaningful terms

Applications of biostatistics

● Public health, including epidemiology, health services research, nutrition,

and environmental health
● Design and analysis of clinical trials in medicine
● Population genetics, and statistical genetics in order to link variation in
genotype with a variation in phenotype. This has been used in agriculture to
improve crops and farm animals (animal breeding). In biomedical research,
this work can assist in finding candidates for gene alleles that can cause or
influence predisposition to disease in human genetics
● Analysis of genomics data, for example from microarray or proteomics
experiments. Often concerning diseases or disease stages.
● Ecology, ecological forecasting
● Biological sequence analysis
● Systems biology for gene network inference or pathways analysis.

Statistical methods are beginning to be integrated into medical informatics, public

health informatics, bioinformatics and computational biology.

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DEFINITIONS

1. Statistics: is the study of how to collect, organizes, analyze, and interpret

data.
2. Data: the values recorded in an experiment or observation.
3. Population: refers to any collection of individual items or units that are the
subject of investigation.
4. Sample: A small representative sample of a population is called sample.
5. Observation: each unit in the sample provides a record, as a measurement
which is called observation.
6. Sampling: getting sample from a population
7. Variable: the value of an item or individual is called variable
8. Raw Data: Data collected in original form.
9. Frequency: The number of times a certain value or class of values occurs.
10.Tabulation: can be defined as the logical and systematic arrangement of
statistical data in rows and columns.
11.Frequency Distribution: The organization of raw data in table form with
classes and frequencies.
12.Class Limits: Separate one class in a grouped frequency distribution from
another. The limits could actually appear in the data and have gaps between
the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of the next.
13.Class Boundaries: Separate one class in a grouped frequency distribution
from another.
14.Cumulative Frequency: The number of values less than the upper class
boundary for the current class. This is a running total of the frequencies.
15.Histogram: A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of
various heights to represent frequencies.
16.Frequency Polygon: it is a line graph. The frequency is placed along the
vertical axis and the class midpoints are placed along the horizontal axis.
These points are connected with lines.
17.Pie Chart: Graphical depiction of data as slices of a pie. The frequency
determines the size of the slice. The number of degrees in any slice is the
relative frequency times 360 degrees.
18.Central tendency - a typical or representative value for a dataset.

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VARIABLES

● The value of an item or individual is called variable.

● Variables are of two types:

⮚ Quantitative: a variable with a numeric value. E.g. age, weight.

⮚ Qualitative: a variable with a category or group value. E.g. Gender
(M/F), Religion (H/M/C), Qualification (degree/PG)

● Quantitative variable are two types:

⮚ Discrete /categorical variables

⮚ Continuous variables

● Variables can be

❖ Independent

▪ Are not influenced by other variables.

▪ Are not influenced by the event, but could influence the event.
❖ Dependent
▪ The variable which is influenced by the others is often referred as
dependent variable.

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E.g. In an experimental study on relaxation intervention for reducing HTN, blood
pressure is the dependent variable and relaxation training, age and gender are
independent variable.

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SAMPLING

● Sampling is the process of getting a representative fraction of a population.

● Analysis of the sample gives an idea of the population.
● Methods of sampling:
❖ Random Sampling or Probability sampling
▪ Simple random sampling
▪ Stratified random Sampling
▪ Cluster sampling
❖ Non-random sampling
▪ Convenient Sampling
▪ Purposive Sampling
▪ Quota Sampling

● In Simple Random sampling, each individual of the population has an

equal chance of being included in the sample. Two methods are used in
simple random sampling:
● Random Numbers method
● Lottery method
● In stratified random sampling, the population is divide in to groups or
strata on the basis of certain characteristics.
● In cluster sampling, the whole population is divided in to a number of
relatively small cluster groups. Then some of the clusters are randomly
selected.
● Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling which
involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is
selected because it is readily available and convenient.
● Purposive sampling is a type of non-probability sampling in which
researcher selects participants based on fulfillment of some criteria. E.g.
schizophrenia treatment naive.

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SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

● Four measurement scales are used: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
● Each level has its own rules and restrictions.

Nominal Scale of measurement

● Nominal variables include categories of people, events, and other

phenomena are named.
● Example: gender, age-class, religion, type of disease, blood groups A, B,
AB, and O.
● They are exhaustive in nature, and are mutually exclusive.
● These categories are discrete and non-continuous.
o Statistical operations permissible are: counting of frequency,
Percentage, Proportion, mode, and coefficient of contingency.

Ordinal Scale of measurement

● It is second in terms of its refinement as a means of classifying information.

● It incorporates the functions of nominal scale.
● The ordinal scale is used to arrange (or rank) individuals into a sequence
ranging from the highest to lowest.
● Ordinal implies rank-ordered from highest to lowest.
▪ Grade A+, A, B+, B, C+, C
▪ 1st , 2nd , 3rd etc

Interval scale of Measurement

● Interval scale refers to the third level of measurement in relation to

complexity of statistical techniques used to analyze data.
● It is quantitative in nature
● The individual units are equidistant from one point to the other.
● The interval data does not have an absolute zero.
▪ E.g. temperature is measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit.

Ratio Scale of Measurement

● Equal distances between the increments

● This scale has an absolute zero.
● Ratio variables exhibit the characteristics of ordinal and interval
measurement

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 ● E.g. variable like time, length and weight are ratio scales and also be
measured using nominal or ordinal scale.

[The mathematical properties of interval and ratio scales are very similar, so the
statistical procedures are common for both the scales.

In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the

selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate
characteristics of the whole population.
Researchers rarely survey the entire population because the cost of a census
is too high. The three main advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower, data
collection is faster, and since the data set is smaller it is possible to ensure
homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of the data.
Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location,
color) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In
survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design,
particularly stratified sampling (blocking). Results from probability theory and
statistical theory are employed to guide practice. In business and medical research,
sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.

Process of sampling

The sampling process comprises several stages:

● Defining the population of concern

● Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
● Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
● Determining the sample size
● Implementing the sampling plan
● Sampling and data collecting

Population definition
Successful statistical practice is based on focused problem definition. In sampling,
this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn. A
population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic
one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to
gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes
finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population.

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 Sometimes that which defines a population is obvious. For example, a
manufacturer needs to decide whether a batch of material from production is of
high enough quality to be released to the customer, or should be sentenced for
scrap or rework due to poor quality. In this case, the batch is the population.
Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not be the
same as the population about which we actually want information. Often there is
large but not complete overlap between these two groups due to frame issues etc.
(see below). Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we might
study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health, or we might study
records from people born in 2008 in order to make predictions about people born in
2009.

Sampling frame
In the most straightforward case, such as the sentencing of a batch of material from
production (acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to identify and measure
every single item in the population and to include any one of them in our sample.
However, in the more general case this is not possible. There is no way to identify
all rats in the set of all rats

Probability and nonprobability sampling

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population
has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this
probability can be accurately determined. Probability sampling includes: Simple
Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Probability
Proportional to Size Sampling, and Cluster or Multistage Sampling.

Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of

the population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out
of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection can't be
accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence,
because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not
allow the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions give rise to exclusion
bias, placing limits on how much information a sample can provide about the

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population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is
limited, making it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population.

Nonprobability Sampling includes: Accidental Sampling, Quota Sampling and

Purposive Sampling.

Sampling methods / Techniques

Within any of the types of frame identified above, a variety of sampling methods
can be employed, individually or in combination. Factors commonly influencing
the choice between these designs include:

1. Nature and quality of the frame

2. Availability of auxiliary information about units on the frame
3. Accuracy requirements, and the need to measure accuracy
4. Whether detailed analysis of the sample is expected
5. Cost/operational concerns

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic sampling

3. Stratified sampling

4. Probability proportional to size sampling

5. Cluster sampling

6. Quota sampling

7. Convenience sampling or Accidental Sampling

8. Line-intercept sampling

9. Panel sampling

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 1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the
frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal
probability of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore,
any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair
(and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimises bias and simplifies analysis of
results. In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a
good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy
to estimate the accuracy of results.
However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness
of the selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the
population. For instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given
country will on average produce five men and five women, but any given trial is
likely to overrepresent one sex and underrepresent the other. Systematic and
stratified techniques, discussed below, attempt to overcome this problem by using
information about the population to choose a more representative sample.
1. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to
some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with
the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population
size/sample size). It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first
in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in
the list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone
directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of
probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can
make it efficient, if the variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the
variable of interest. 'Every 10th' sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling
from databases.
3. Stratified sampling
Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame
can be organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then
sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can
be randomly selected.[1] There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling.

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 First, dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable
researchers to draw inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more
generalized random sample.
Second, utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient
statistical estimates (provided that strata are selected based upon relevance to the
criterion in question, instead of availability of the samples). Even if a stratified
sampling approach does not lead to increased statistical efficiency, such a tactic
will not result in less efficiency than would simple random sampling, provided that
each stratum is proportional to the group's size in the population.
Third, it is sometimes the case that data are more readily available for
individual, pre-existing strata within a population than for the overall population;
in such cases, using a stratified sampling approach may be more convenient than
aggregating data across groups (though this may potentially be at odds with the
previously noted importance of utilizing criterion-relevant strata).
Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different
sampling approaches can be applied to different strata, potentially enabling
researchers to use the approach best suited (or most cost-effective) for each
identified subgroup within the population.
4. Probability proportional to size sampling
In some cases the sample designer has access to an "auxiliary variable" or
"size measure", believed to be correlated to the variable of interest, for each
element in the population. These data can be used to improve accuracy in sample
design. One option is to use the auxiliary variable as a basis for stratification, as
discussed above.
Another option is probability-proportional-to-size ('PPS') sampling, in which
the selection probability for each element is set to be proportional to its size
measure, up to a maximum of 1. In a simple PPS design, these selection
probabilities can then be used as the basis for Poisson sampling. However, this has
the drawback of variable sample size, and different portions of the population may
still be over- or under-represented due to chance variation in selections. To address
this problem, PPS may be combined with a systematic approach.
5. Cluster sampling
Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select respondents in groups
('clusters'). Sampling is often clustered by geography, or by time periods. (Nearly
all samples are in some sense 'clustered' in time - although this is rarely taken into
account in the analysis.) For instance, if surveying households within a city, we
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might choose to select 100 city blocks and then interview every household within
the selected blocks.
Clustering can reduce travel and administrative costs. In the example above,
an interviewer can make a single trip to visit several households in one block,
rather than having to drive to a different block for each household.
It also means that one does not need a sampling frame listing all elements in
the target population. Instead, clusters can be chosen from a cluster-level frame,
with an element-level frame created only for the selected clusters. In the example
above, the sample only requires a block-level city map for initial selections, and
then a household-level map of the 100 selected blocks, rather than a
household-level map of the whole city.
6. Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive
sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the
subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example,
an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age
of 45 and 60.
7. Convenience sampling or Accidental Sampling
Convenience sampling (sometimes known as grab or opportunity
sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population
is selected because it is readily available and convenient. It may be through
meeting the person or including a person in the sample when one meets them or
chosen by finding them through technological means such as the internet or
through phone. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be
representative enough. For example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a
survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that
he/she could interview would be limited to those given there at that given time,
which would not represent the views of other members of society in such an area,
if the survey were to be conducted at different times of day and several times per
week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
8. Line-intercept sampling
Line-intercept sampling is a method of sampling elements in a region
whereby an element is sampled if a chosen line segment, called a "transect",
intersects the element.

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9. Panel sampling
Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of participants
through a random sampling method and then asking that group for the same
information again several times over a period of time. Therefore, each participant
is given the same survey or interview at two or more time points; each period of
data collection is called a "wave".
Replacement of selected units
Sampling schemes may be without replacement ('WOR' - no element can be
selected more than once in the same sample) or with replacement ('WR' - an
element may appear multiple times in the one sample). For example, if we catch
fish, measure them, and immediately return them to the water before continuing
with the sample, this is a WR design, because we might end up catching and
measuring the same fish more than once. However, if we do not return the fish to
the water (e.g. if we eat the fish), this becomes a WOR design.
Sample size
Formulas, tables, and power function charts are well known approaches to
determine sample size.

❖ Sampling and data collection

Good data collection involves:

● Following the defined sampling process

● Keeping the data in time order
● Noting comments and other contextual events
● Recording non-responses

Sampling errors and biases

Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. They include:

1. Selection bias: When the true selection probabilities differ from those
assumed in calculating the results.
2. Random sampling error: Random variation in the results due to the
elements in the sample being selected at random.

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Non-sampling error
Non-sampling errors are caused by other problems in data collection and
processing. They include:

1. Overcoverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the population.

2. Undercoverage: Sampling frame does not include elements in the
population.
3. Measurement error: E.g. when respondents misunderstand a question, or
find it difficult to answer.
4. Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.
5. Non-response: Failure to obtain complete data from all selected individuals.

Sampling bias

In statistics, sampling bias is when a sample is collected in such a way that

some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others.
It results in a biased sample, a non-random sample[1] of a population (or
non-human factors) in which all individuals, or instances, were not equally likely
to have been selected.[2] If this is not accounted for, results can be erroneously
attributed to the phenomenon under study rather than to the method of sampling.
Medical sources sometimes refer to sampling bias as ascertainment bias.[3][4]
Ascertainment bias has basically the same definition,[5][6] but is still sometimes
classified as a separate type of bias. selection bias and sampling bias are often used
synonymously

Types of sampling bias

● Selection from a specific area. For example, a survey of high school

students to measure teenage use of illegal drugs will be a biased sample
because it does not include home-schooled students or dropouts. A sample is
also biased if certain members are underrepresented or overrepresented
relative to others in the population. For example, a "man on the street"
interview which selects people who walk by a certain location is going to
have an overrepresentation of healthy individuals who are more likely to be
out of the home than individuals with a chronic illness. This may be an
extreme form of biased sampling, because certain members of the population
are totally excluded from the sample (that is, they have zero probability of
being selected).
● Self-selection bias, which is possible whenever the group of people being
studied has any form of control over whether to participate. Participants'
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 decision to participate may be correlated with traits that affect the study,
making the participants a non-representative sample. For example, people
who have strong opinions or substantial knowledge may be more willing to
spend time answering a survey than those who do not. Another example is
online and phone-in polls, which are biased samples because the respondents
are self-selected. Those individuals who are highly motivated to respond,
typically individuals who have strong opinions, are overrepresented, and
individuals that are indifferent or apathetic are less likely to respond. This
often leads to a polarization of responses with extreme perspectives being
given a disproportionate weight in the summary. As a result, these types of
polls are regarded as unscientific.
● Pre-screening of trial participants, or advertising for volunteers within
particular groups. For example a study to "prove" that smoking does not
affect fitness might recruit at the local fitness center, but advertise for
smokers during the advanced aerobics class, and for non-smokers during the
weight loss sessions.
● Exclusion bias results from exclusion of particular groups from the sample,
e.g. exclusion of subjects who have recently migrated into the study area
(this may occur when newcomers are not available in a register used to
identify the source population). Excluding subjects who move out of the
study area during follow-up is rather equivalent of dropout or nonresponse, a
selection bias in that it rather affects the internal validity of the study.
● Healthy user bias, when the study population is likely healthier than the
general population, e.g. workers (i.e. someone in ill-health is unlikely to
have a job as manual laborer).
● Overmatching, matching for an apparent confounder that actually is a result
of the exposure. The control group becomes more similar to the cases in
regard to exposure than the general population.

Problems caused by sampling bias

A biased sample causes problems because any statistic computed from that
sample has the potential to be consistently erroneous. The bias can lead to an over-
or underrepresentation of the corresponding parameter in the population
The word bias in common usage has a strong negative word connotation,
and implies a deliberate intent to mislead or other scientific fraud
Statistical corrections for a biased sample

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 If entire segments of the population are excluded from a sample, then there
are no adjustments that can produce estimates that are representative of the entire
population. But if some groups are underrepresented and the degree of
underrepresentation can be quantified, then sample weights can correct the bias.
For example, a hypothetical population might include 10 million men and 10
million women. Suppose that a biased sample of 100 patients included 20 men and
80 women. A researcher could correct for this imbalance by attaching a weight of
2.5 for each male and 0.625 for each female. This would adjust any estimates to
achieve the same expected value as a sample that included exactly 50 men and 50
women, unless men and women differed in their likelihood of taking part in the
survey.
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Data

Statistics is the field of science that deals with organization, interpretation

and analyzing of a data. The term statistical data refers to the data collected form
different sources through methods experiments, surveys and analysis. This data is
then interpreted by statistical methods and formulae for their analysis.

There are mainly four types of statistical data:

1. Primary statistical data

2. Secondary statistical data
3. Qualitative statistical data
4. Quantitative statistical data.

Some classifications divide the data into two broad types i.e. primary and
secondary and qualitative and quantitative. But in this classification each of the
type is divided individually.

1. Primary Statistical Data

The primary data is the data that is collected directly and is not taken from a
source. This data includes the data collected through direct interviews, surveys and
experiments. Basically this data comprises of results obtained through surveys on
which the statistical operations have not been applied.

The primary data is of following types:

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● Data Collected Through Personal Investigation:

This data is collected by the investigator or the researcher or the researching

team personally. The researcher or the team of researchers collects this data
through the surveys that they conduct themselves. This type of data is more
accurate as it is collected directly by the researcher.

● Data Collected Through Workers:

The researcher or the researching team may hire another person or a group
of people for conducting a survey to collect a data.

2. The Secondary Statistical Data

The secondary statistical data is the data that is obtained by the researcher
from another source. This data may be collected form various sources.
Many important and current data which was initially a primary data can be
published in books, research papers, journals or can be kept in record books to be
used as the secondary data for another researcher.
The primary data on which the statistical operations have been applied is
also defined as the secondary data.
The secondary data can be official i.e. obtained form a ministry or a
department for example the ministry of health or the department of health and
sciences or the secondary data can be semi official i.e. obtained form books and
journals

3. Qualitative Statistical Data

The qualitative statistical data is the data which is expressed in words rather
than in numbers. In other words, the qualitative data is the data in which the
measurement of a category is expressed in words. For example in a qualitative data
measurement of height will be explained a tall, short or medium.

There are two types of qualitative data:

● Nominal data which is the data which includes measurements of categories

such as gender, religion and sports.
● The ordinal data which has variable measurements of variable categories
such as size, color and behavior.

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 The qualitative data only tells us about something but does not tell the extent
of something.
For example if we make a survey of climate of different cities of a country
we may record the climate of different cities as cold, warm or moderate, this data
would simple summarize the kind of climate of the city but this would not tell us
the average maximum or minimum temperature of the city which would explain
the extent of the weather in the city.
4. Quantitative Statistical Data
The quantitative statistical data is the data in which the measurements are
numerically expressed. For example the temperature of a city in this data would be
given in accurate measurement like 25 degrees C.
The quantitative data represents measurements taken with a scale includes
the variables such as temperature, weight and size that can be measured in a
precise scale are expressed in their actual measurements in quantitative data

Other numeric expressions in the qualitative data can be for example: the number
of people in a town, the social security numbers of the citizens or the number of
deaths occurring due to a disease.

The quantitative data is more accurate than the qualitative data as it tells us
the extent of something.

There are two common scales used the quantitative measures:

● The ratio scale which is used to measure variables such as age and money.
The observations that can be counted are measured by this scale.
● The interval scale which is used to measure variables such as temperatures,
height and weight

⮚ Types of Primary Data Collection

Primary data are always collected from the source. It is collected either by the
investigator himself or through his agents. There are different methods of
collecting primary data. Each method has its relative merits and demerits.
1. Direct Personal observation:
2. Indirect Oral Interviews :

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3. Mailed Questionnaire method:
4. Schedule Method:
5. From Local Agents:
1. Direct Personal observation:
Here the investigator directly contacts the informants, solicits their
cooperation and enumerates the data. The information are collected by direct
personal interviews. It is neither difficult for the enumerator nor the informants.
Because both are present at the spot of data collection. This method provides most
accurate information as the investigator collects them personally. But as the
investigator alone is involved in the process, his personal bias may influence the
accuracy of the data. So it is necessary that the investigator should be honest,
unbiased and experienced. In such cases the data collected may be fairly accurate.
However, the method is quite costly and time-consuming. So the method should be
used when the scope of enquiry is small.

2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

This is an indirect method of collecting primary data. Here information are
not collected directly from the source but by interviewing persons closely related
with the problem. This method is applied to apprehend culprits in case of theft,
murder etc. The informations relating to one's personal life or which the informant
hesitates to reveal are better collected by this method. Here the investigator
prepares 'a small list of questions relating to the enquiry. The answers
(information) are collected by interviewing persons well connected with the
incident. The investigator should cross-examine the informants to get correct
information.
This method is time saving and involves relatively less cost. The accuracy of
the information largely depends upon the integrity of the investigator. It is desirable
that the investigator should be experienced and capable enough to inspire and
create confidence in the informant to collect accurate data.
3. Mailed Questionnaire method:
This is a very commonly used method of collecting primary data. Here
information are collected through a set of questionnaire. A questionnaire is a
document prepared by the investigator containing a set of questions. These
questions relate to the problem of enquiry directly or indirectly. Here first the
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questionnaires are mailed to the informants with a formal request to answer the
question and send them back.
For better response the investigator should bear the postal charges. The
questionnaire should carry a polite note explaining the aims and objective of the
enquiry, definition of various terms and concepts used there. Besides this the
investigator should ensure the secrecy of the information as well as the name of the
informants, if required.
Success of this method greatly depends upon the way in which the
questionnaire is drafted. So the investigator must be very careful while framing the
questions
4. Schedule Method:
Here the questionnaires are sent through the enumerators to collect
informations. Enumerators are persons appointed by the investigator for the
purpose. They directly meet the informants with the questionnaire. They explain
the scope and objective of the enquiry to the informants and solicit their
cooperation. The enumerators ask the questions to the informants and record their
answers in the questionnaire and compile them. The success of this method
depends on the sincerity and efficiency of the enumerators. So the enumerator
should be sweet-tempered, good-natured, trained and well-behaved.
Schedule method is widely used in extensive studies. It gives fairly correct
result as the enumerators directly collect the information. The accuracy of the
information depends upon the honesty of the enumerators. They should be
unbiased. This method is relatively more costly and time-consuming than the
mailed questionnaire method.
5. From Local Agents:
Sometimes primary data are collected from local agents or correspondents.
These agents are appointed by the sponsoring authorities. They are well conversant
with the local conditions like language, communication, food habits, traditions etc.
Being on the spot and well acquainted with the nature of the enquiry they are
capable of furnishing reliable information.
The accuracy of the data collected by this method depends on the honesty
and sincerity of the agents. Because they actually collect the information from the
spot. Information from a wide area at less cost and time can be collected by this
method. The method is generally used by government agencies, newspapers,
periodicals etc. to collect data.
19
⮚ Types of Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data are second hand informations. They are not collected from
the source as the primary data. In other words, secondary data are those which have
already been collected. So they may be relatively less accurate than the primary
data. Secondary data are generally used when the time of enquiry is short and the
accuracy of the enquiry can be compromised to some extent.

Secondary data are already collected informations. They might have been collected
for some specific purposes. So they must be used with caution. It is generally very
different to verify such information to find out inconsistencies, errors, omissions
etc. Therefore scrutiny of secondary data is essential. Because the data might be
inaccurate, unsuitable or inadequate. Thus it is very risky to use statistics collected
by other people unless they have been thoroughly edited and found reliable,
adequate and suitable for the purpose.

Secondary data can be collected from a number of sources which can

broadly be classified into two categories.
i) Published sources
ii) Unpublished sources
i) Published Sources:
Mostly secondary data are collected from published sources. Some
important sources of published data are the following.
1. Published reports of Central and State Governments and local bodies.
2. Statistical abstracts, census reports and other reports published by different
ministries of the Government.
3. Official publications of the foreign Governments.
4. Reports and Publications of trade associations, chambers of commerce, financial
institutions etc.
5. Journals, Magazines and periodicals.
6. Periodic Publications of Government organizations like Central Statistical
Organization (C. S. O.), National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).
20
7. Reports submitted by Economists, Research Scholars, Bureaus etc.
8. Published works of research institutions and Universities etc.

ii) Unpublished Sources:

Statistical data can also be collected from various unpublished sources.
Some of the important unpublished sources from which secondary data can be
collected are:
1. The research works carried out by scholars, teachers and professionals.
2. The records maintained by private firms and business enterprises. They may not
like to publish the information considering them as business secret.
3. Records and statistics maintained by various departments and offices of the
Central and State Governments, Corporations, Undertakings etc.

❖ Methods of data presentation,

The purpose of data presentation is to summarize data and present them in a

form which is more precise, but still
gives an accurate view of the raw data. There are several ways in which data can
be summarized in diagrams, and we shall classify the most important of these as:
1. Tables of numerical data
2. Graphs
3. Graphical representation to show relationships between variables
(i) Bar graphs
(ii) Histograms and Frequency polygons
(iii) Ogive curves
(iv) Pictographs
(v) Pie charts

Pie charts, Bar charts and Pictograms show relative frequencies and
Histograms show relative frequencies of continuous data

1. Tables or Tabulation:

Tabulation is the process of condensation. It is the systematic and orderly

presentation of classified data in a definite form so as to elucidate the
21
characteristics of the data. In statistical tables the numerical information is
presented in such a form that the information so presented turns to be readily
understandable. Tables are designed to summaries facts revealed by enquiry and to
present them in such a way that all the important factors contained in the data
under review are displayed. Tables tend to simplify the presentation and facilitate
comparison between related facts. Tabular presentation takes the form of arranging
statistical date in columns and rows. The idea of a table will be clear if we look to
the different parts of a table.

❖ Construction of a table:

The preparation of a good table is an art. The purpose of tabulation must

always be kept in mind before the preparation of a statistical table. A good
statistical table must contain at least the following components.

i. Table number: A table should always be numbered for easy identification

and reference in future
ii. Title of the table: A table mu8st have a suitable title. Title is the description
of the contents of the table. So the title should be clear, brief and
self-explanatory.
iii. Caption: Caption refers to the column headings. It explains what the column
represents. A caption should be brief, concise and self-explanatory. Captions
are usually written in the middle of the columns in small letters to economies
space.
iv. Stubs: These refer to the headings of horizontal rows. They are at the
extreme left.
v. Body: The body of the table contains the numerical information. This is the
most vital part of the table. Data presented in the body arranged according to
descriptions are classifications of the captions and stubs.
vi. Head note : It is a brief explanatory statement applying to all or a major part
of the material in the table, and in placed below the title and enclosed in
brackets.
vii. Footnote: Anything in a table that the reader may find difficult to understand
form the title, captions and stubs should be explained in footnotes. If
footnotes are needed, they are placed directly below the body of the table. In

22
 most cases footnotes are used to mention the source of data especially in
case of secondary data.

Types of Tables:

Tables may broadly be classified into two categories:

i. Simple and complex tables; and

ii. General purpose and special purpose (or summary) tables

(i) Simple table or one-way table. In this type of table only one characteristic is
shown. This is the simplest of tables. The following is the illustration of such a
table:

(ii) Two-way table. Such a table shows two characteristics and is formed when
either the stub or the caption is divided into two coordinate parts. The example
given on page 56 illustrates the nature of such a table:

2. GRAPHS

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 Besides formal tables, statistical data can also be presented in the form of
various types of graphs. Graphs are a useful way of conveying information very
quickly and briefly. With the same ease and efficiency, they help in comparing data
over time and space. They are visual aids and have a powefi impact on the people.
It is ofien said, "a picture is worth a thousand words". They attract a
reader's attention to what they are supposed to convey about the data. Further, they
may help us to estimate some values at a glance, and serve as a pictorial check on
the accuracy of our solutions.
However, graphical presentation of data, although usem in different ways
mentioned above, is only one method of describing data. T ' s cannot and is not a
substitute for other forms of presentation as well as firher statistical analysis. In the
following, we discuss some of the graphical methods of presentation.
Line graphs can be used to show how something changes over time. Line
graphs are good for plotting data that has peaks (ups) and valleys (downs), or that
was collected in a short time period. The following pages describe the different
parts of a line graph.

The Title
The title offers a short explanation of what is in your graph. This helps the
reader identify what they are about to look at. It can be creative or simple as long
24
as it tells what is in the graph. The title of this graph tells the reader that the graph
contains information about the changes in money spent on students of elementary
and secondary schools from 1961 to 2002.
The Legend
The legend tells what each line represents. Just like on a map, the legend
helps the reader understand what they are looking at. This legend tells us that the
green line represents the actual dollar amount spent on each child and the purple
line represents the amount spent when adjusted for inflation.
The Source
The source explains where you found the information that is in your graph.
It is important to give credit to those who collected your data! In this graph, the
source tells us that we found our information from NCES.
Y-Axis
In line graphs, the y-axis runs vertically (up and down). Typically, the y-axis
has numbers for the amount of stuff being measured. The y-axis usually starts
counting at 0 and can be divided into as many equal parts as you want to. In this
line graph, the y-axis is measuring the amount of money spent on individual
students for public education.
The Data
The most important part of your graph is the information, or data, it
contains. Line graphs can present more than one group of data at a time. In this
graph, two sets of data are presented.
X-Axis
In line graphs, like the one above, the x-axis runs horizontally (flat).
Typically, the x-axis has numbers representing different time periods or names of
things being compared. In this line graph, the x-axis measured different school
years.

25
3. Graphical Representation of Data

INTRODUCTION

Whenever verbal problems involving a certain situation is presented visually

before the learners, it makes easier for the learner to understand the problem and
attempt its solution. Similarly, when the data are presented pictorially (or
graphically) before the learners, it makes the presentation eye-catching and more
intelligible. The learners can easily see the salient features of the data and interpret
them.
There are many forms of representing data graphically. They are

(i) Bar graph

(ii) Histograms and Frequency polygons
(iii) Ogive curves
(iv) Pictographs
(v) Pie charts

i) Bar Graph

A bar graph is a graphical representation of frequency distributions of

ungrouped data. It is a pictorial representation of the numerical data by a number
of bars (rectangles) of uniform width erected vertically (or horizontally) with equal
spacing between them.

Construction of Bar Graphs

For the construction of bar graphs, we go through the following steps:

Step 1 : We take a graph paper and draw two lines perpendicular to each other and
call them horizontal and vertical axes.
Step 2 : Along the horizontal axis, we take the values of the variables and along
the vertical axis, we take the frequencies.
Step 3 : Along the horizontal axis, we choose the uniform (equal) width of bars
and the uniform gap between the bars, according to the space available.
Step 4 : Choose a suitable scale to determine the heights of the bars. The scale is
chosen according to the space available.
Step 5 : Calculate the heights of the bars, according to the scale chosen and draw
the bars.
Step 6 : Mark the axes with proper labelling
26
Let us take some examples to illustrate :

The number of trees planted by an agency in different years is given below

Solution : The bar graph is given below in

Step 1 : We draw two perpendicular lines OX and OY.

Step 2 : On OX, we represent years, from 1997–2002 and on OY we represent the
number of trees planted.
Step 3 : On OY, we start with 400 and marks points at equal intervals of 200.
Step 4 : The height of the bars are calculated according to the number of trees.
A kink (~) has been shown on the vertical axis showing that the marking on
the vertical axis starts from zero but has been shown to start from 400 as the data
needs.

27
Example - 01

The data below shows the number of students present in different classes on
a particular day :

Example – 02

28
Interpretation of Bar graphs

After drawing a bar graph, we can draw some conclusions, which is called
interpreting bar graphs.
Let us take some examples and do the same.

Example – 1

i. In which year the maximum number of trees were planted ?

ii. What trend the number of trees planted show ?
iii. In which years the number of trees planted differ by 50 only ?

Example – 2

i. Which cause is responsible for maximum accidents in factories ? Which is

for minimum ?
ii. Can you think of one of the “other” causes ?
iii. How many percent of accidents could have been avoided by timely action?

Bar Diagram

It is also called a columnar diagram. The bar diagrams are drawn through
columns of equal width. Following rules were observed while constructing a bar
diagram:
(a) The width of all the bars or columns is similar.

29
(b) All the bars should are placed on equal intervals/distance.
(c) Bars are shaded with colours or patterns to make them distinct and attractive.

Three types of bar diagrams are used to represent different data sets:

⮚ The simple bar diagram

⮚ Compound bar diagram
⮚ Polybar diagram.

⮚ Simple Bar Diagram

A simple bar diagram is constructed for an immediate comparison. It is

advisable to arrange the given data set in an ascending or descending order and plot
the data variables accordingly. However, time series data are represented according
to the sequencing of the time period.

Construction Steps:

Draw X and Y-axes on a graph paper. Take an interval and mark it on Y-axis
to plot data.
Divide X-axis into equal parts to draw bars. The actual values will be plotted
according to the selected scale.

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 ⮚ Line and Bar Graph

The line and bar graphs as drawn separately may also be combined to depict
the data related to some of the closely associated characteristics such as the
climatic data of mean monthly temperatures and rainfall.

Construction:

a) Draw X and Y-axes of a suitable length and divide X-axis into parts to show
months in a year.
b) Select a suitable scale with equal intervals on the Y-axis and label it at its right
side.
c) Similarly, select a suitable scale with equal intervals on the Y-axis and label at
its left side.
d) Plot data using line graph and columnar diagram.

⮚ Multiple Bar Diagram

Multiple bar diagrams are constructed to represent two or more than two
variables for the purpose of comparison. For example, a multiple bar diagram may
be constructed to show proportion of males and females in the total, rural and

31
urban population or the share of canal, tube well and well irrigation in the total
irrigated area in different states.

Construction

a) Mark time series data on X-axis and variable data on Y-axis as per the selected
scale.
b) Plot the data in closed columns.

⮚ Compound Bar Diagram

When different components are grouped in one set of variable or different

variables of one component are put together, their representation is made by a
compound bar diagram. In this method, different variables are shown in a single
bar with different rectangles.

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a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
b) A single bar will depict the set of variables by dividing the total length of the
bar as per percentage.

(ii) Histograms and Frequency polygons

A histogram is a graphical representation of a continuous frequency

distribution i.e. grouped frequency distributions. It is a graph, including vertical
rectangles, with no space between the rectangles. The class-intervals are taken
along the horizontal axis and the respective class frequencies on the vertical axis
using suitable scales on each axis. For each class, a rectangle is drawn with base as
width of the class and height as the class frequency. The area of the rectangles must
be proportional to the frequencies of the respective classes.
A frequency polygon is the join of the mid-points of the tops of the
adjoining rectangles. The mid-points of the first and the last classes are joined to
the mid-points of the classes preceding and succeding respectively at zero
frequency to complete the polygon.
Let us illustrate these with the help of examples.

Example – 1 The following is the frequency distribution of weights of 30 students

of class IX of a school. Draw a histogram to represent the data.

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Solution : For drawing a histogram we go through the steps similar to those of a
bar graph.
They are given below :
Step 1 : On a paper, we draw two perpendicular lines and call them horizontal and
vertical axes.
Step 2 : Along the horizontal axis, we take classes of equal width :
45–50, 50–55, ...... As the axis starts from 45–50, we take one interval 40–45
before it and put a kink on axis before that.
Step 3 : Choose a suitable scale on the vertical axis to represent the frequency. It
can start from 0 to 12, with a step of 2, i.e., 0, 2, 4, 6, ...., 12, 14
Step 4 : Draw the rectangles as shown in Fig. shows the histogram required.

Note : A frequency polygon has been shown in dotted lines, as explained in the
steps shown
above.

Example – 2

The daily earnings of 100 shopkeepers are given below :

34
The histogram and frequency polygon representing the above data are given below

Draw a frequency polygon for the following data without-drawing a histogram:

Step 4 : Join the points A, B, C, D, E and F and complete the polygon as

explained before The frequency polygon is given below :

35
In addition to histograms and frequency polygons, we are sometimes faced with
graphs of other types. When a patient is admitted in a hospital with fever the
doctor/nurses prepare a temperature-time graph, which can be referred to any time
for reference. Similarly, the velocity time graph and pressure-volume graph are of
day-to-day use. We shall learn to draw these graphs and interpret them in the
sections below :

Temperature-Time Graph-Reading and Construction

The body temperature of a patient admitted in a hospital with typhoid fever

at different times of a day are given below :

Solution : The graph of the above data is given in Fig. 28.10. The graph has been
obtained by joining the points corresponding to pairs, like (7, 102), (9, 103), .........,
(23, 99) in the rectangular system of coordinates, by line-segments.

36
Note : While drawing the graph it has been assumed that during the time interval
in between times, the same trend was present.

Velocity Time Graph

During a journey from one place to other, the speeds of vehicles keep on
changing according to traffic congestions. This can be very well shown by a
velocity-time graph. Let us illustrate it with the help of example:
During a journey from city A to city B by car the following data regarding
the time and velocity of the car was recorded :

Solution : As before the graph can be obtained by plotting the ordered pairs (6,
60), (7, 60), ... (15, 65), ..., (17, 50) in the rectangular system of coordinates and
then by joining them by line-segments.

37
Pressure-Volume Graph

For a fixed quantity of a gas at a constant temperature, is there any relation

between pressure and volume of the gas ? Let us see that from the following
example :
The following data pertains to pressure and volume of a fixed quantity of gas:

38
The graph is obtained by joining the plot of the ordered pairs (60, 90), (90, 60), .....
(75, 72) by free hand curve.

iii) Ogive curves

A curve that represents the cumulative frequency distribution of grouped
data is called an ogive or cumulative frequency curve. The two types of Ogives
are more than type ogive and less than type ogive.
An ogive representing a cumulative frequency distribution of ‘more than’
type is called a more than ogive. An ogive representing a cumulative frequency
distribution of ‘less than’ type is called a less than ogive.
Ogives can be used to find the median of a grouped data. The median of
grouped data can be obtained graphically by plotting the Ogives of the less than
type and more than type and locate the point of intersection of both the Ogives.
The x-coordinate of the point of intersection of two Ogives gives the median of the
grouped data.

39
40
iv) Pie Diagram

Pie diagram is another graphical method of the representation of data. It is

drawn to depict the total value of the given attribute using a circle. Dividing the
circle into corresponding degrees of angle then represent the sub– sets of the data.
Hence, it is also called as Divided Circle Diagram. The angle of each variable is
calculated using the following formulae.
If data is given in percentage form, the angles are calculated using the given
formulae.

41
If data is given in percentage form, the angles are calculated using the given
formulae.

Calculation of Angles

a) Arrange the data on percentages in an ascending order.

b) Calculate the degrees of angles for showing the given values.
c) It could be done by multiplying percentage with a constant of 3.6 as derived by
dividing the total number of degrees in a circle by 100, i. e. 360/100.
d) Plot the data by dividing the circle into the required number of divisions to
show the share different regions/countries Construction.
e) Select a suitable radius for the circle to be drawn. A radius of 3, 4 or 5 cm may
be chosen for the given data set.
f) Draw a line from the centre of the circle to the arc as a radius.
g) Measure the angles from the arc of the circle for each category of vehicles in an
ascending order clock-wise, starting with smaller angle.
h) Complete the diagram by adding the title, sub – title, and the legend. The legend
mark be chosen for each variable/category and highlighted by distinct
shades/colours.

Precautions

a) The circle should neither be too big to fit in the space nor too small to be
illegible.
b) Starting with bigger angle will lead to accumulation of error leading to the plot
of the smaller angle difficult.

42
v) Pie Charts

Pie charts are useful to compare different parts of a whole amount. They
are often used to present financial information. E.g. A company's expenditure can
be shown to be the sum of its parts including different expense categories such as
salaries, borrowing interest, taxation and general running costs (i.e. rent, electricity,
heating etc).

A pie chart is a circular chart in which the circle is divided into sectors.
Each sector visually represents an item in a data set to match the amount of the item
as a percentage or fraction of the total data set.

Example
A family's weekly expenditure on its house mortgage, food and fuel is as follows:

Draw a pie chart to display the information.

Solution:

We can find what percentage of the total expenditure each item equals.
Percentage of weekly expenditure on:

43
 To draw a pie chart, divide the circle into 100 percentage parts. Then allocate
the number of percentage parts required for each item.

Note:

● It is simple to read a pie chart. Just look at the required sector representing
an item (or category) and read off the value. For example, the weekly
expenditure of the family on food is 37.5% of the total expenditure
measured.
● A pie chart is used to compare the different parts that make up a whole
amount.

44