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SQL is a language for communicating with databases, allowing users to query, insert, update, and delete data. It consists of various commands categorized into Data Query Language (DQL), Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Manipulation Language (DML), and Data Control Language (DCL). Key concepts include basic and advanced SQL queries, functions, normalization, indexes, and views.

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13 views4 pages

New Microsoft Word Document (2)

SQL is a language for communicating with databases, allowing users to query, insert, update, and delete data. It consists of various commands categorized into Data Query Language (DQL), Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Manipulation Language (DML), and Data Control Language (DCL). Key concepts include basic and advanced SQL queries, functions, normalization, indexes, and views.

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ciket64575
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Sure!

Here’s a simple set of SQL (Structured Query Language) class notes:

SQL Basics - Simple Notes


1. What is SQL?
• SQL is a language used to communicate with databases.
• It is used to query, insert, update, and delete data in a database.

2. SQL Commands
SQL commands are grouped into different categories:

a. Data Query Language (DQL)

• SELECT: Retrieves data from a database.


• SELECT * FROM customers;
o * means select all columns.
o FROM customers specifies the table.

b. Data Definition Language (DDL)

• CREATE TABLE: Creates a new table in the database.


• CREATE TABLE students (
• student_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
• first_name VARCHAR(50),
• last_name VARCHAR(50),
• age INT
• );
• ALTER TABLE: Modifies an existing table (e.g., adding or removing columns).
• ALTER TABLE students ADD COLUMN email VARCHAR(100);
• DROP TABLE: Deletes a table from the database.
• DROP TABLE students;

c. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

• INSERT INTO: Adds new rows (records) into a table.


• INSERT INTO students (student_id, first_name, last_name, age)
• VALUES (1, 'John', 'Doe', 20);
• UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table.
• UPDATE students
• SET age = 21
• WHERE student_id = 1;
• DELETE: Removes data from a table.
• DELETE FROM students
• WHERE student_id = 1;

d. Data Control Language (DCL)

• GRANT: Gives users permissions (e.g., SELECT, INSERT, etc.).


• GRANT SELECT ON students TO user1;
• REVOKE: Removes permissions.
• REVOKE SELECT ON students FROM user1;

3. Basic SQL Queries


• SELECT Specific Columns: To select specific columns (e.g., first name and age):
• SELECT first_name, age FROM students;
• WHERE Clause:
Filters data based on a condition.
• SELECT * FROM students
• WHERE age > 18;
• AND/OR:
Combines multiple conditions.
• SELECT * FROM students
• WHERE age > 18 AND last_name = 'Doe';
• ORDER BY:
Sorts the results in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order.
• SELECT * FROM students
• ORDER BY age DESC;

4. Advanced SQL Queries


• GROUP BY:
Groups rows that have the same values into summary rows.
• SELECT COUNT(*), age FROM students
• GROUP BY age;
• HAVING:
Filters results after a GROUP BY operation.
• SELECT COUNT(*), age FROM students
• GROUP BY age
• HAVING age > 18;
• JOIN:
Combines rows from two or more tables based on a related column.
o INNER JOIN: Returns rows that have matching values in both tables.
o SELECT students.first_name, courses.course_name
o FROM students
o INNER JOIN enrollments ON students.student_id =
enrollments.student_id
o INNER JOIN courses ON enrollments.course_id = courses.course_id;
o LEFT JOIN: Returns all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the
right table.
o SELECT students.first_name, courses.course_name
o FROM students
o LEFT JOIN enrollments ON students.student_id =
enrollments.student_id
o LEFT JOIN courses ON enrollments.course_id = courses.course_id;
• DISTINCT:
Removes duplicate values.
• SELECT DISTINCT age FROM students;

5. SQL Functions
• COUNT():
Returns the number of rows.
• SELECT COUNT(*) FROM students;
• AVG():
Returns the average of a column.
• SELECT AVG(age) FROM students;
• SUM():
Returns the sum of a numeric column.
• SELECT SUM(age) FROM students;
• MIN() / MAX():
Returns the minimum or maximum value of a column.
• SELECT MIN(age) FROM students;
• SELECT MAX(age) FROM students;
• CONCAT():
Combines two or more strings.
• SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM students;

6. Normalization
• What is Normalization?
o The process of organizing data to reduce redundancy and dependency by dividing
large tables into smaller ones.
o Aims to ensure that the database is efficient and free of data anomalies.

Normal Forms:

o 1NF (First Normal Form): No repeating groups of data.


o 2NF (Second Normal Form): No partial dependency (all non-key attributes are
fully dependent on the primary key).
o 3NF (Third Normal Form): No transitive dependency (non-key attributes are not
dependent on other non-key attributes).

7. Indexes and Views


• Index:
A special data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations.
• CREATE INDEX idx_age ON students (age);
• View:
A virtual table based on the result of a query.
• CREATE VIEW student_view AS
• SELECT first_name, last_name, age FROM students WHERE age > 18;

Key Points to Remember:


• SQL is used to interact with databases.
• SELECT is used to retrieve data, INSERT adds data, UPDATE modifies data, and
DELETE removes data.
• Use WHERE to filter results and ORDER BY to sort data.
• JOIN is used to combine data from multiple tables.

This is a simplified summary of SQL. If you need more in-depth explanations or specific
examples, feel free to ask!

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