ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

UNIT-I

Syllabus: PN junction diode: Formation of p-n junction, biasing the diode, current equation and V-I
characteristics of diode, static and dynamic resistance, Analysis of Half Wave Rectifier (HWR), Full
Wave Rectifier (FWR), introduction to filters C, L,LC and CLC filters, working of diode as a Switch,
Zener diode and its application as voltage regulator.

PN JUNCTION DIODE
INTRODUCTON
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

INSULATOR: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order
of 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the FIG. 1.1. Band
structure of a material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is
the range of electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to
the electric current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where
electrons are free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of
charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band
gap. It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the

energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the FIG. 1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev.
Because of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is
poor. Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from
VB to CB.

CB
CB CB

Forbidden band
o
Eo =≈6eV
gap Eo ≈6eV

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

FIG: 1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor

CONDUCTORS: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The
resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K).
Therefore at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the
conductor.

SEMICONDUCTOR: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance
electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These
are now free electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room
temperature there are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of
conducting some current at room temperature.
 Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or
current. Typical resistivity values for various materials’ are given as follows.

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

10-6 Ω-cm (Cu) 50Ω-cm (Ge) 1012 Ω-cm
(mica)

50x103 Ω-cm (Si)

Typical resistivity values

SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in

intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important
semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.Let
us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4 electrons
are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond.

FORMATION OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is doped by n type
impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN junction. As
shown in the fig the n type material has high concentration of free electrons, while p type material has
high concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of free electrons to diffuse
over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This process is called diffusion. As the free electrons
move across the junction from N type to P type, the donor atoms become positively charged. Hence a
positive charge is built on the N-side of the junction. The free electrons that cross the junction uncover
the negative acceptor ions by filing the holes. Therefore a negative charge is developed on the p –side
of the junction..This net negative charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the p
side. Similarly the net positive charge on the N side repels the hole crossing from p side to N side. Thus
a barrier sis set up near the junction which prevents the further movement of charge carriers i.e.
electrons and holes.
 As a consequence of induced electric field across the depletion layer, an electrostatic potential
difference is established between P and N regions, which are called the potential barrier, junction
barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential, Vo. The magnitude of the contact potential Vo varies
with doping levels and temperature. Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for Si.

Fig 1.2: Symbol of PN Junction Diode

The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type region tends
to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p type regions tend to drive the
electrons away from the junction. The majority holes diffusing out of the P region leave behind
negatively charged acceptor atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing a negatives pace charge in a
previously neutral region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N region expose positively ionized
donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the junction.

Fig 1.3a
 It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority carriers diffusing
into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the double space of the layer causes an
electric field to be set up across the junction directed from N to P regions, which is in such a direction
to inhibit the diffusion of majority electrons and holes as illustrated in fig 1.3b. The shape of the charge
density, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the junction region is depleted of mobile charge
carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space region, and transition region. The depletion region is
of the order of 0.5µm thick. There are no mobile carriers in this narrow depletion region. Hence no
current flows across the junction and the system is in equilibrium. To the left of this depletion layer,
the carrier concentration is p= NA and to its right it is n= ND.

Fig 1.3b
.
FORWARD BIASED JUNCTION DIODE

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium,
the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow. This is because the
negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over
and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point,
called the "knee" on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little
increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Fig 1.4a: Diode Forward Characteristics

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.
Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

Fig 1.3b: Diode Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents
to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v
for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
"infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are
used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current
specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

PN JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION:

Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-
type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the
holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The
net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a
high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
 Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion

Fig 1.4a: Diode Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current
does flow through the junction which can be measured in microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the
reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will
cause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may
cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this
shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Fig 1.4b: Diode Reverse Characteristics

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits where a series
limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum
value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly
known as Zener Diodes

VI CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:

v

I D  I 0 (e vT
 1)

Where VT = KT/q;
VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts
Io _ temperature-dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
K _ Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x 10 -23J/K)
q _ electron charge 1.6x10-19 C
 = empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

Fig 1.5: Diode Characteristics

Temperature Effects on Diode

Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a silicon semiconductor diode
.It has been found experimentally that the reverse saturation current Io will just about double in
magnitude for every 10°C increase in temperature.

Fig 1.6: Variation in Diode Characteristics with temperature change

It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an I o in the order of 1 or 2 A at 25°C to have a leakage
current of 100 A - 0.1 mA at a temperature of 100°C. Typical values of Io for silicon are much lower than
that of germanium for similar power and current levels. The result is that even at high temperatures
the levels of Io for silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained. For germanium—a very
important reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development and utilization in
design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse bias region is better realized at any
temperature with silicon than with germanium. The increasing levels of Io with temperature account
for the lower levels of threshold voltage. Simply increase the level of Io in and not rise in diode current.
Of course, the level of TK also will be increase, but the increasing level of I o will overpower the smaller
percent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward characteristics are actually becoming
more “ideal,”

DC OR STATIC RESISTANCE
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the diode
at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown
in FIG. 1.12 and applying the following Equation:

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained for
the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will
naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a relatively constant-current source, the
resistance determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few mill amperes).
 Fig 1.7 Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

AC or Dynamic Resistance
The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the region
surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the situation will
change completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a
region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage. With no applied
varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q- point appearing determined by the applied dc
levels. The designation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.” A
straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point will define a particular change in voltage
and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode
characteristics. In equation form,

Where Δ Signifies a finite change in the quantity

Fig 1.8: Determining the ac resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

BREAK DOWN MECHANISMS

When an ordinary P-N junction diode is reverse biased, normally only very small reverse
saturation current flows. This current is due to movement of minority carriers. It is almost independent
of the voltage applied. However, if the reverse bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction
breaks down and the reverse current increases abruptly. This current could be large enough to destroy
the junction. If the reverse current is limited by means of a suitable series resistor, the power
dissipation at the junction will not be excessive, and the device may be operated continuously in its
breakdown region to its normal (reverse saturation) level. It is found that for a suitably designed diode,
the breakdown voltage is very stable over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality gives the
breakdown diode many useful applications as a voltage reference source.

The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs, is called the
breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in
turn, depends on the doping level. The junction offers almost zero resistance at the breakdown point.

There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N junction:

1. AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
2. ZENER BREAKDOWN.

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction acquire a
kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse
voltage (say 5 V or more), the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out
electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated
electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading to the breakdown
of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the avalanche breakdown. The breakdown
region is the knee of the characteristic curve. Now the current is not controlled by the junction voltage
but rather by the external circuit.

ZENER BREAKDOWN

Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier
increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will break some of
the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers,
which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a
particular and constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage, it is found that Zener
breakdown occurs at electric field intensity of about 3 x 107 V/m.
 Fig 1.8: Diode characteristics with breakdown

Either of the two (Zener breakdown or avalanche breakdown) may occur independently, or
both of these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5 V are caused by
Zener effect. Junctions that experience breakdown above 5 V are caused by avalanche effect. Junctions
that breakdown around 5 V are usually caused by combination of two effects. The Zener breakdown
occurs in heavily doped junctions (P-type semiconductor moderately doped and N-type heavily doped),
which produce narrow depletion layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions,
which produce wide depletion layers. With the increase in junction temperature Zener breakdown
voltage is reduced while the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The Zener diodes have a negative
temperature coefficient while avalanche diodes have a positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that
have breakdown voltages around 5 V have zero temperature coefficient. The breakdown phenomenon
is reversible and harmless so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.

ZENER DIODES

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When biased
in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as soon
as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes
breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value
(which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation current remains
fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage point, V B is called the
"zener voltage" for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This
zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

Fig 1.9 : Zener diode characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener
diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of
the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large
changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current I Z(min)
and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source against
supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The
function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in
spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will
continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum I Z(min) value in the
reverse breakdown region.

RECTIFIERS & FILTERS

INTRODUCTION

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage
into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier,
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

Fig 1.10: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier,
filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to
provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the
input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as
voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.
RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-
zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating

d.c. voltage (Unidirectional).

CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS
Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half – wave is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltageusing only one half cycle of the
applied a.c. voltage.

Basic structure of Half-Wave Rectifier

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-
n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer
 V=Vm sin (wt)
The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts.
Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode
current (or) load current.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no
power is delivered to the load.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a
power rectifier circuit.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the
applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this
circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap
transformer is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency
but out of phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave
rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below
 During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows
in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

Advantages

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (fig
7).

The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1
and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is
also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC
voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows
through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2
x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input V MAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply
frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)
FILTERS

The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are used to minimize
the undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.

Some important filters are:

1. Inductor filter

2. Capacitor filter

3. LC or L section filter

4. CLC or Π-type filter

CAPACITOR FILTER

This is the most simple form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor C is
placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period it gets
charged and stores up energy to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the time
duration during which Ft is to be noted here that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak because
there is no resistance (except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging path. But the
discharging time is quite large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time depending upon the
value of RL) because it discharges through load resistance RL.

The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value capacitor C
offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high impedance to the
dc component. Thus ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc component flows through
the load resistance RL
CAPACITOR FILTER WITH HWR

CAPACITOR FILTER WITH FWR

The worthnoting points about shunt capacitor filter are:

1. For a fixed-value filter capacitance larger the load resistance RL larger will be the discharge time
constant CRL and therefore, lower the ripples and more the output voltage. On the other hand lower
the load resistance (or more the load current), lower will be the output voltage.

2. Similarly smaller the filter capacitor, the less charge it can hold and more it will discharge. Thus the
peak-to-peak value of the ripple will increase, and the average dc level will decrease. Larger the filter
capacitor, the more charge it can hold and the less it will discharge. Hence the peak-to-peak value of
the ripple will be less, and the average dc level will increase. But, the maximum value of the
capacitance that can be employed is limited by another factor. The larger the capacitance value, the
greater is the current required to charge the capacitor to a given voltage. The maximum current that
can be handled by a diode is limited by the figure quoted by the manufacturer. Thus the maximum
value of the capacitance, that can be used in the shunt filter capacitor is limited.

Series Inductor Filter.

In this arrangement a high value inductor or choke L is connected in series with the rectifier element
and the load, as illustrated in figure. The filtering action of an inductor filter depends upon its property
of opposing any change in the current flowing through it. When the output current of the rectifier
increases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the form of magnetic field and this energy is
given up when the output current falls below the average value. Thus by placing a choke coil in series
with the rectifier output and load, any sudden change in current that might have occurred in the circuit
without an inductor is smoothed out by the presence of the inductor L.

The function of the inductor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The choke offers high
impedance to the ac components but offers almost zero resistance to the desired dc components. Thus
ripples are removed to a large extent. Nature of the output voltage without filter and with choke filter
is shown in figure.

For dc (zero frequency), the choke resistance Rc in series with the load resistance RL forms a voltage
divider and dc voltage across the load is given as

where Vdc is dc voltage output from a full-wave rectifier. Usually choke coil resistance Rc, is much small
than RL and, therefore, almost entire of the dc voltage is available across the load resistance RL.

Since the reactance of inductor increases with the increase in frequency, better filtering of the higher
harmonic components takes place, so effect of third and higher harmonic voltages can be neglected.

As obvious from equation , if choke coil resistance Rc is negligible in comparison to load resistance RL,
then the entire dc component of rectifier output is available across 2 R L and is equal to — VL max. The ac
voltage partly drops across XL and partly over RL.

L-SECTION FILTER:

A simple series inductor reduces both the peakand effective values of the output current and output
voltage. On the other hand a simple shunt capacitor filter reduces the ripple voltage but increases the
diode current. The diode may get damaged due to large current and at the same time it causes greater
heating of supply transformer resulting in reduced efficiency.

In an inductor filter, ripple factor increases with the increase in load resistance RL while in a capacitor
filter it varies inversely with load resistance RL.

From economical point of view also, neither series inductor nor shunt capacitor type filters are
suitable.

Practical filter-circuits are derived by combining the voltage stabilizing action of shunt capacitor with
the current smoothing action of series choke coil. By using combination of inductor and capacitor
ripple factor can be lowered, diode current can be restricted and simultaneously ripple factor can be
made almost independent of load resistance (or load current). Two types of most commonly used
combinations are choke-input or L-section filter-and capacitor-input or Pi-Filter.
Choke-input filter is explained below:

Choke-input filter consists of a choke L connected in series with the rectifier and a capacitor C
connected across the load . This is also sometimes called the L-section filter because in this
arrangement inductor and capacitor are connected, as an inverted L. ln figure only one filter section is
shown. But several identical sections are often employed to improve the smoothing action. (The choke
L on the input side of the filter readily allows dc to pass but opposes the flow of ac components
because its dc resistance is negligibly small but ac impedance is large. Any fluctuation that remains in
the current even after passing through the choke are largely by-passed around the load by the shunt
capacitor because Xc is much smaller than RL. Ripples can be reduced effectively by making XL greater
than Xc at ripple frequency. However, a small ripple still remains in the filtered output and this is
considered negligible if it than l%. The rectified and filtered output voltage waveforms from a full-wave
re with choke-input filter are shown in figure.
Π-SECTION FILTER:

Capacitor-Input or Pi-Filter.

Such a filter consists of a shunt capacitor C1 at the input followed by an L-section filter formed by
series inductor L and shunt capacitor C 2. This is also called the n-filter because the shape of the circuit
diagram for this filter appears like Greek letter n (pi). Since the rectifier feeds directly into the capacitor
so it is also called capacitor input filter.

As the rectified output is fed directly into a capacitor C1. Such a filter can be used with a half-wave
rectifier (series inductor and L-section filters cannot be used with half-wave rectifiers). Usually
electrolytic capacitors are used even though their capacitances are large but they occupy minimum
space. Usually both capacitors C1 and C2 are enclosed in one metal container. The metal container
serves as, the common ground for the two capacitors.

A capacitor-input or pi- filter is characterized by a high voltage output at low current drains. Such a
filter is used, if, for a given transformer, higher voltage than that can be obtained from an L-section
filter is required and if low ripple than that can be obtained from a shunt capacitor filter or L-section
filter is desired. In this filter, the input capacitor C1 is selected to offer very low reactance to the ripple
frequency. Hence major part of filtering is accomplished by the input capacitor C1. Most of the
remaining ripple is removed by the L-section filter consisting of a choke L and capacitor C2.)
The action of this filter can best be understood by considering the action of L-section filter, formed by L
and C2, upon the triangular output voltage wave from the input capacitor C1 The charging and
discharging action of input capacitor C1 has already been discussed. The output voltage is roughly the
same as across input capacitor C1 less the dc voltage drop in inductor. The ripples contained in this
output are reduced further by L-section filter. The output voltage of pi-filter falls off rapidly with the
increase in load-current and, therefore, the voltage regulation with this filter is very poor.

SALIENT FEATURES OF L-SECTION AND PI-FILTERS.

1. In pi-filter the dc output voltage is much larger than that can be had from an L-section filter with the
same input voltage.

2.In pi-filter ripples are less in comparison to those in shunt capacitor or L-section filter. So smaller
valued choke is required in a pi-filter in comparison to that required in L-section filter.

3.In pi-filter, the capacitor is to be charged to the peak value hence the rms current in supply
transformer is larger as compared in case of L-section filter.

4.Voltage regulation in case of pi-filter is very poor, as already mentioned. So n-filters are suitable for
fixed loads whereas L-section filters can work satisfactorily with varying loads provided a minimum
current is maintained.

5.In case of a pi-filter PIV is larger than that in case of an L-section filter.

COMPARISON OF FILTERS
1) A capacitor filter provides Vm volts at less load current. But regulation is poor.
2) An Inductor filter gives high ripple voltage for low load currents. It is used for
high load currents
3) L – Section filter gives a ripple factor independent of load current. Voltage
Regulation can be improved by use of bleeder resistance
4) Multiple L – Section filter or π filters give much less ripple than the single L –
Section Filter.
 UNIT III

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

INTRODUCTION

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogues to
vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used as amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as
a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern
communication systems.

CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes
the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are
made.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act
as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's ability
to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching" (digital
electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to
operate within three different regions:

 1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

 2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through
them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a
current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is
exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for
each type(fig 1).
Bipolar Transistor Construction

Fig 3.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor Symbol

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional
current flow" between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow
always points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor
types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
 TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS:

Fig 3.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor Current Components

The above fig 3.2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased emitter
junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current IE consists of hole current IPE (holes
crossing from emitter into base) and electron current InE (electrons crossing from base into
emitter).The ratio of hole to electron currents, I pE / InE , crossing the emitter junction is proportional to
the ratio of the conductivity of the p material to that of the n material. In a transistor, the doping of
that of the emitter is made much larger than the doping of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p
transistor) that the emitter current consists an almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since
the current which results from electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter do not
contribute carriers, which can reach the collector.

Not all the holes crossing the emitter junction JE reach the the collector junction JC
Because some of them combine with the electrons in n-type base. If IpC is hole current at junction JC
there must be a bulk recombination current ( IPE- IpC ) leaving the base.
Actually, electrons enter the base region through the base lead to supply those charges, which have
been lost by recombination with the holes injected in to the base across J E. If the emitter were open
circuited so that IE=0 then IpC would be zero. Under these circumstances, the base and collector
current IC would equal the reverse saturation current ICO. If IE≠0 then
IC= ICO- IpC
For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across JC from left to right (base to collector) and
electrons crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for ICO i.e. from right to left,
then for a p-n-p transistor, ICO is negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is positive.The basic operation will
be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the
roles played by the electron and hole are interchanged.

One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.

3.3a Forward-biased junction of a pnp transistor

3.3b Reverse-biased junction of a pnp transistor

c Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and minority
carrier flows indicated.

Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material.

A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base terminal. Resulting IB is
typically in order of microamperes.

The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the p-type
material connected to the collector terminal

Applying KCL to the transistor :

IE = IC + IB

The comprises of two components – the majority and minority carriers

IC = ICmajority + ICOminority

ICO – IC current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current

Various parameters which relate the current components is given below

Emitter efficiency:

currentofinjectedcar riersatJ E

totalemitt ercurrent

I PE I
  pE
I pE  InE I nE
 Transport Factor:

injectedca rriercurrentreachingJC
* 
injectedca rrierncurrentatJ E
I pC
* 
InE

Large signal current gain:

The ratio of the negative of collector current increment to the emitter current change from zero (cut-
off)to IE the large signal current gain of a common base transistor.

 (I C  ICO )

IE

Since IC and IE have opposite signs, then α, as defined, is always positive. Typically numerical values of
α lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995

I pC I pC I pE
  *
IE InE I E    *

The transistor alpha is the product of the transport factor and the emitter efficiency. This
statement assumes that the collector multiplication ratio  * is unity.  * is the ratio of total current
crossing JC to hole arriving at the junction.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect
it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each
method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static
characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

 1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 2 Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
 COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION

Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the : base is common to both input and output
of t configuration. base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Majority carriers can
cross the reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers
in the n-type material. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all
electronic symbols have a direction defined by this convention.

Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction
indicated for each branch.

Fig 3.4 CB Configuration

To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

1. Input or driving point characteristics.

2. Output or collector characteristics

The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:

 Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements

 Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
  Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

Fig 3.5 CB Input-Output Characteristics

The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship
between IE and IC in the active region is given by

IC ≈IE

Once a transistor is in the ‘on’ state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed to beVBE = 0.7V
In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha
= αdc

IC = IE + ICBO

It can then be summarize to IC = IE (ignore ICBO due to small value)

For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac alpha defined
by αac

Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the current percent
from current flow from emitter to collector. The value of  is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998.

Biasing:Proper biasing CB configuration in active region by approximation IC  IE (IB  0 uA)

Fig 3.6 CE Configuration

 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Fig 3.7 Basic Transistor Amplifier Circuit

Common-Emitter Configuration

It is called common-emitter configuration since : emitter is common or reference to both input and
output terminals.emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.

Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage.

Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and
output (collector terminal) parameters.

Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region

Fig 3.8 CE Configuration

IB is microamperes compared to miliamperes of IC.

IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium

Before this value IB is very small and no IB.

Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

Fig 3.9a Input characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor

Fig 3.9b Output characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor

For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of VCE

VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE  constant IC

IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB cause big increase in IC

IB=0 A  ICEO occur.

Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of current flows.

Beta () or amplification factor

The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is dc beta (dc ) which is dc current
gain where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating point, Q-point (quiescent point). It’s
define by the following equation:

30 < dc < 300  2N3904

On data sheet, dc=hfe with h is derived from ac hybrid equivalent cct. FE are derived from forward-
current amplification and common-emitter configuration respectively.
For ac conditions, an ac beta has been defined as the changes of collector current (IC) compared to
the changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are determined at operating point. On data sheet,
ac=hfe It can defined by the following equation:

From output characteristics of commonemitter configuration, find ac and dc with an

Operating point at IB=25 A and VCE =7.5V

Relationship analysis between α and β

COMMON – COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Also called emitter-follower (EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal
source and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection point.The output voltage
is obtained at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is
 similar with common-emitter. configuration.Common-collector circuit configuration is provided
with the load resistor connected from emitter to ground. It is used primarily for impedance-
matching purpose since it has high input impedance and low output impedance.

Fig 3.10 CC Configuration

For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of IE vs VCE for a range

of values of IB.

Fig 3.11 Output Characteristics of CC Configuration for npn Transistor

Limits of opearation

Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of operations.At
least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet.

There are:

a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax or PD

b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO) or VCEO.

c) Maximum collector current: ICmax

There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
transistor need to be operate in active region!

IC < ICmax

PC < PCmax

Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICMAX=ICEO) in the cutoff region. IC is at

maximum and VCE is at minimum (VCE max = Vcesat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The transistor
operates in the active region between saturation and cutoff.
Refer to the FIG. Example; A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power dissipation is
reduced2mW each degree centigrade increase of temperature.

Step1:

The maximum collector power dissipation,

PD=ICMAX x VCEmax= 18m x 20 = 360 mW

Step 2:

At any point on the characteristics the product of and must be equal to 360 mW.

Ex. 1. If choose ICmax= 5 mA, substitute into the (1), we get

VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW

VCEmax(5 m)=360/5=7.2 V
 Ex.2. If choose VCEmax=18 V, substitute into (1), we get

VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW

(10) ICMAX=360m/18=20 mA

Derating PDmax

PDMAX is usually specified at 25°C.

The higher temperature goes, the less is PDMAX

Example;A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power dissipation is reduced 2mW each degree
centigrade increase of temperature.

BJT HYBRID MODEL

Small signal low frequency transistor Models:

All the transistor amplifiers are two port networks having two voltages and two currents. The positive
directions of voltages and currents are shown in FIG. 1.

FIG. 1

A two-port network is represented by four external variables: voltage V1 and current I1 at the input port,
and voltage V2 and current I2 at the output port, so that the two-port network can be treated as a black
box modeled by the relationships between the four variables,V1,V2, I1,I2 . Out of four variables two can
be selected as are independent variables and two are dependent variables.The dependent variables can
be expressed interns of independent variables. This leads to various two port parameters out of which
the following three are important:

1. Impedance parameters (z-parameters)

2. Admittance parameters (y-parameters)
3. Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)
z-parameters

A two-port network can be described by z-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

Where

Input impedance with output port open circuited

Reverse transfer impedance with input port open circuited

Forward transfer impedance with output port open circuited

Output impedance with input port open circuited

Y-parameters

A two-port network can be described by Y-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

 Input admittance with output port short circuited

Reverse transfer admittance with input port short circuited

Forward transfer admittance with output port short circuited

Output admittance with input port short circuited

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)

If the input current I1 and output voltage V2 are taken as independent variables, the dependent
variables V1 and I2 can be written as

Where h11, h12, h21, h22 are called as hybrid parameters.

Input impedence with o/p port short circuited

 Reverse voltage transfer ratio with i/p port open circuited

Forward voltage transfer ratio with o/p port short circuited

output impedence with i/p port open circuited

THE HYBRID MODEL FOR TWO PORT NETWORK:

Based on the definition of hybrid parameters the mathematical model for two pert networks known as
h-parameter model can be developed. The hybrid equations can be written as:

(The following convenient alternative subscript notation is recommended

by the IEEE Standards:
i=11= input o = 22 = output

f =21 = forward transfer r = 12 = reverse transfer)

We may now use the four h parameters to construct a mathematical model of the device of FIG. (1). The
hybrid circuit for any device indicated in FIG. (2). We can verify that the model of FIG. (2) satisfies above
equations by writing Kirchhoff'svoltage and current laws for input and output ports.
If these parameters are specified for a particular configuration, then suffixes e,b or c are also included,
e.g. hfe ,h ib are h parameters of common emitter and common collector amplifiers

Using two equations the generalized model of the amplifier can be drawn as shown in FIG. 2.

FIG.
2
TRANSISTOR HYBRID MODEL:
The hybrid model for a transistor amplifier can be derived as follow:

Let us consider CE configuration as show in FIG. 3. The variables, iB, iC ,vC, and vB represent total
instantaneous currents and voltages iB and vC can be taken as independent variables and vB, IC as
dependent variables.
FIG. 3

VB = f1 (iB ,vC )

IC = f2 (iB ,vC).

Using Taylor 's series expression, and neglecting higher order terms we obtain.

The partial derivatives are taken keeping the collector voltage or base current constant. The Δ v B, Δ vC, Δ
iB, Δ iC represent the small signal (incremental) base and collector current and voltage and can be
represented as vB, iC, iB ,vC

The model for CE configuration is shown in FIG. 4.

FIG. 4

To determine the four h-parameters of transistor amplifier, input and output characteristic are used.
Input characteristic depicts the relationship between input voltage and input current with output
voltage as parameter. The output characteristic depicts the relationship between output voltage and
output current with input current as parameter. FIG. 5, shows the output characteristics of CE
amplifier.

FIG. 5

The current increments are taken around the quiescent point Q which corresponds to i B = IB and to the
collector voltage VCE = VC

The value of hoe at the quiescent operating point is given by the slope of the output characteristic at
the operating point (i.e. slope of tangent AB).
hie is the slope of the appropriate input on FIG. 6, at the operating point (slope of tangent EF at Q).

FIG. 6

A vertical line on the input characteristic represents constant base current. The parameter hre can be
obtained from the ratio (VB2– V B1 ) and (VC2– V C1 ) for at Q.

Typical CE h-parametersof transistor 2N1573 are given below:

hie = 1000 ohm.

hre = 2.5 * 10 –4
hfe = 50
hoe = 25 A / V

ANALYSIS OF A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER USING H-PARAMETERS:

To form a transistor amplifier it is only necessary to connect an external load and signal source as
indicated in FIG. 1 and to bias the transistor properly.
FIG. 1

Consider the two-port network of CE amplifier. RS is the source resistance and ZL is the load impedence
h-parameters are assumed to be constant over the operating range. The ac equivalent circuit is shown
in FIG. 2. (Phasor notations are used assuming sinusoidal voltage input). The quantities of interest are
the current gain, input impedence, voltage gain, and output impedence.

Current gain:

For the transistor amplifier stage, Ai is defined as the ratio of output to input currents.

Input impedence:

The impedence looking into the amplifier input terminals ( 1,1' ) is the input impedance Zi
Voltage gain:

The ratio of output voltage to input voltage gives the gain of the transistors.

Output Admittance:

It is defined as

Av is the voltage gain for an ideal voltage source (Rv = 0).

Consider input source to be a current source IS in parallel with a resistance RS as shown in FIG. 3.

FIG. 3

In this case, overall current gain AIS is defined as

h-parameters
To analyze multistage amplifier the h-parameters of the transistor used are obtained from manufacture
data sheet. The manufacture data sheet usually provides h-parameter in CE configuration. These
parameters may be converted into CC and CB values. For example FIG. 4 hrc in terms of CE
parametercan be obtained as follows.

FIG. 4

For CE transistor configuaration

Vbe = hie Ib + hre Vce

Ic = h fe Ib + hoe Vce

The circuit can be redrawn like CC transistor configuration as shown in FIG.

5.Vbc = hie Ib + hrc Vec

Ic = hfe Ib + hoe Vec

hybrid model for transistor in three different configurations

Typical h-parameter values for a transistor
Parameter CE CC CB
hi 1100 Ω 1100 Ω 22 Ω
hr 2.5 × 10-4 1 3 × 10-4
hf 50 -51 -0.98
ho 25 µA/V 25 µA/V 0.49 µA/V

Analysis of a Transistor amplifier circuit using h-parameters

A transistor amplifier can be constructed by connecting an external load and signal source and
biasing the transistor properly.
 FIG. 1.4 Basic Amplifier Circuit

The two port network of FIG. 1.4 represents a transistor in any one of its configuration. It is
assumed that h-parameters remain constant over the operating range.The input is sinusoidal and I 1,V-
1,I2 and V2 are phase quantities

FIG. 1.5 Transistor replaced by its Hybrid Model

Current Gain or Current Amplification (Ai)

For transistor amplifier the current gain Ai is defined as the ratio of output current to input
current,i.e,
Ai =IL /I1 = -I2 / I1
From the circuit of Fig
I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Substituting V2 = ILZL = -I2ZL

I2= hf I1- I2ZL ho

 I2 + I2ZL ho = hf I1

I2( 1+ ZL ho) = hf I1

Ai = -I2 / I1 = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho)

Therefore,

Ai = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho)

Input Impedence (Zi)

In the circuit of Fig , RS is the signal source resistance .The impedence seen when looking into the
amplifier terminals (1,1’) is the amplifier input impedence Zi,

Zi = V1 / I1

From the input circuit of Fig V1 = hi I1 + hrV2

Zi = ( hi I1 + hrV2) / I1

= hi + hr V2 / I1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Zi = hi + hr A1I1ZL / I1

= hi + hr A1ZL

Substituting for Ai

Zi = hi - hf hr ZL / (1+ hoZL)

= hi - hf hr ZL / ZL(1/ZL+ ho)

Taking the Load admittance as YL =1/ ZL

Zi = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho)
Voltage Gain or Voltage Gain Amplification Factor(Av)

The ratio of output voltage V2 to input voltage V1 give the voltage gain of the transistor i.e,

Av = V2 / V1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Av = A1I1ZL / V1 = AiZL / Zi

Output Admittance (Yo)

Yo is obtained by setting VS to zero, ZL to infinity and by driving the output terminals from a generator
V2. If the current V2 is I2 then Yo= I2/V2 with VS=0 and RL= ∞.

From the circuit of fig

I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Dividing by V2,

I2 / V2 = hf I1/V2 + ho

With V2= 0, by KVL in input circuit,

RSI1 + hi I1 + hrV2 = 0

(RS + hi) I1 + hrV2 = 0

Hence, I2 / V2 = -hr / (RS + hi)

= hf (-hr/( RS + hi)+ho

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi)

The output admittance is a function of source resistance. If the source impedence is resistive then Y o is
real.

Voltage Amplification Factor(Avs) taking into account the resistance (Rs) of the source
 FIG. 5.6 Thevenin’s Equivalent Input

CircuitThis overall voltage gain Avs is given by

Avs = V2 / VS = V2V1 / V1VS = Av V1/ VS

From the equivalent input circuit using Thevenin’s equivalent for the source shown in FIG.

5.6V1 = VS Zi / (Zi + RS)

V1 / VS = Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Then, Avs = Av Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Substituting Av = AiZL / Zi

Avs = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

Avs = AiZL RS / ( Zi + RS) RS

Avs = AisZL / RS

Current Amplification (Ais) taking into account the sourse Resistance(RS)

FIG. 1.7 Norton’s Equivalent Input Circuit

 The modified input circuit using Norton’s equivalent circuit for the calculation of Ais is shown in FIG. 1.7
Overall Current Gain, Ais = -I2 / IS = - I2I1 /I1 IS = Ai I1/IS
From FIG. 1.7 I1= IS RS / (RS + Zi)
I1 / IS = RS / (RS + Zi)
and hence, Ais = Ai RS / (RS + Zi)

Operating Power Gain (AP)

The operating power gain AP of the transistor is defined as
AP = P2 / P1 = -V2 I2 / V1 I1 = AvAi = Ai AiZL/ Zi
AP = A i2(Z L/ Z i)

Small Signal analysis of a transistor amplifier

Ai = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho) Av = AiZL / Zi

Zi = hi + hr A1ZL = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho) Avs = Av Zi / ( Zi + RS) = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

= AisZL / RS

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi) = 1/ Zo Ais = Ai RS / (RS + Zi) = Avs = Ais RS/ ZL