COMPOUNDING OF PLASTICS

Polymers in their pure form obtained from the manufacturing plants are called virgin polymers or
virgin resins. Except a few virgin polymers others may not be used for processing straight away.
Virgin PVC for example is a material of horny texture and cannot be moulded without making it
soft by the addition of plasticizers. Depending upon the need the additives/ingredients are
added to the virgin polymers.
The main types of compounding ingredients and their functions are described below:
(i) plasticizer (ii) fillers (iii) stabilizers (iv) fire retardants (v) dyes and pigments

(i)Plasticizers: They are materials that are added to resins to increase their plasticity and
flexibility. These reduce a part of molecular forces of attraction between macromolecules of
resins. Thus they impart greater freedom of movement between the polymeric macromolecules
of resins thereby increasing the flexibility and plasticity of the compounded materials but at the
same time reducing its tensile strength and also decreasing its chemical resistance. Most
commonly used plasticizers are vegetable oils (non-drying type), esters of stearic, oleic, pthalic
acid and some phosphates like tricresyl phosphates, tributyl phosphates and tri phenyl
phosphates.

(ii)Fillers : Fillers are added to give the final product better hardness, tensile strength, opacity,
finish and workability besides reducing the cost, shrinkage on setting and brittleness. There are
two types of fillers, they are particulate fillers and fibrous fillers.

a. Particulate fillers are used to lower the cost of the plastic, for example: carborundum,
quartz and mica to provide extra hardness ; barium salts to make the plastic impervious
to X-rays ; asbestos to provide heat and corrosion resistances ; talc to reduce creep ;
antimony oxide to provide flame resistance and to give white colour ; wood flour to
reduce mould shrinkage and to improve impact resistance etc.,
b. Fibrous fillers are mainly used to increase the tensile strength, impact and wear and tear
resistance. For example ; cotton fiber, nylon, polyester fibres, carbon fibres, fibre glass.

(iii)Stabilizers : They are added to improve the thermal stability during processing. Many
plastics undergo thermal and photochemical degradation during their processing or when they
are put into use. For example : PVC undergo decomposition at moulding temperature, so heat
stabilizers are used. Stabilizers commonly used are : a) white lead, red lead, litharge, lead
chromate, lead silicate and lead naphthenate- they are known as opaque moulding compounds.
B) stearates of lead, cadmium and barium – they are known as transparent moulding
compounds.

(iv)Fire retardants: They are chemical compounds added with an objective to inhibit/retard the
ignition/burning of the plastic. Flame retardants either chemically interfere with the flame
propogation mechanism or produce large volume of incombustible gases which dilute the air
supply and control or put off the combustion reaction. There are several chemical classes of
flame retardants used with polymers including brominates FR’s, organo phosphorus FR’s,
melamine based FR’s, metal hydroxide FR’s etc., Flame retardants that can be incorporated
into a polymer either as additive flame retardants and reactive flame retardants.
a) Additive flame retardants: can be incorporated into the polymeric mixture at any stage of
its manufacturing and added to the polymer through physical mixing.
b) Reactive flame retardants: must be incorporated only during the early stages of
manufacturing and are added to the polymer via chemical reactions.

(v) Dyes and pigments: Inorganic pigments and organic dyes used to impart colour to the
plastic. They do not have any other influence on the properties of the plastics. Organic dyes
give bright, less dense and transparent colours, ex: carbon black –black colour, anthraquinones
– yellow, azodyes – yellow or orange red, phthalocyanins – blue or green colour. Inorganic
pigments produce less bright and opaque colours. Ex: barium sulphate and titaniumdioxide –
white colour, metal chromates – bright yellow etc.,

MOULDING TECHNIQUES OF POLYMERS

Plastic moulding is the process of pouring liquid plastic into a certain container or mould so that
its hardens in that customized shape. These plastics moulds can then be used for a wide range
of purpose.

Methods of processing polymers are

For thermoplastics

1. Injection moulding 2. Extrusion moulding 3. Compression moulding

4. Blow moulding 5. Calendering

For thermosets
1. Compression moulding 2. High pressure lamination
3. Reaction injection moulding 4. Reinforced injection moulding

1. Compression Moulding is a process in which a moulding polymer is squeezed into a

preheated mould taking a shape of the mould cavity and performing curing due to heat and
pressure applied to the material.
The method is used mostly for moulding thermosetting resins (thermosets), but
some thermoplastic parts may also be produced by compression moulding. The method uses a
split mould mounted in a hydraulic press.

Compression moulding process involves the following steps:

 A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with additives and fillers (charge) is placed into
the lower half of the mould. The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like
masses or pre-formed blanks.

 The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mould. Preheated polymer
becomes softer resulting in shortening the moulding cycle time.
 The upper half of the mould moves downwards, pressing on the polymer charge and forcing
it to fill the mould cavity. The mould, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-
linking) of the polymer(if thermoset is processed).
 The mould is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.
 If thermosetting resin is moulded, the mould may be open in hot state – cured thermosets
maintain their shape and dimensions even in hot state. If thermoplastic is moulded, the
mould and the moulded part are cooled down before opening.

Compression Moulding cycle time is about 1-6 min, which is longer than Injection
Moulding cycle.
The method is suitable for moulding large flat or moderately curved parts.

Materials commonly processed by Compression Moulding are:

 Epoxies (EP) Urea Formaldehyde (UF) Melamine Formaldehyde (MF)
 Phenolics (PF)
Compression Moulding is used for manufacturing electrical wall receptacles, brush and mirror
handles, meter cases, trays, circuit breakers, cookware knobs, clothes dryer blower fan blade,
electronic and cooking utensils, milling machine adjustment wheel, automotive parts, water
testing equipment buttons, television cabinets, dinnerware, appliance housings, radio cases,
aircraft main power terminal housing, hoods, pot handles, spoilers, electric plugs and sockets,
fenders, dinnerware plates, scoops.

2. Extrusion moulding : Extrusion is a process of manufacturing long products of constant

cross-section (rods, sheets, pipes, films, wire insulation coating) forcing soften polymer through
a die with an opening.
Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an extruder through a hopper. The material
is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced through a die, converting to continuous
polymer product.
 Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer. The temperature
of the material is controlled by thermocouples. The product going out of the die is cooled by
blown air or in water bath. Extrusion of polymers (in contrast to extrusion of metals) is
continuous process lasting as long as raw pellets are supplied.
Extrusion is used mainly for thermoplastics, but elastomers and thermosets are also may
be extruded. In this case cross-linking forms during heating and melting of the material in the
extruder. The thermoplastic extruded products may be further formed by
the thermoforming method. A principal scheme of an extruder is shown in the picture.

3. Injection Moulding is a process in which molten polymer is forced under high pressure into a
mould cavity through an opening (sprue). Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an
Injection Moulding machine through a hopper. The material is then conveyed forward by a
feeding screw and forced into a split mould, filling its cavity through a feeding system with sprue
gate and runners.
Injection Moulding machine is similar to Extruder. The main difference between the two
machines is in screw operation. In extruder screw rotates continuously providing output of
continuous long product (pipe, rod, sheet).
Screw of injection moulding machine is called reciprocating screw since it not only
rotates but also moves forward and backward according to the steps of the moulding cycle. It
acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer is injected into the mould and then it
retracts backward in the moulding step. Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and
melt the polymer. The mould is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling and
solidification of the material.
The polymer is held in the mould until solidification and then the mould opens and the
part is removed from the mould by ejector pins. Injection Moulding is used mainly
for Thermoplastics, but Elastomers and Thermosets are also may be extruded. In this
case cross-linking occurs during heating and melting of the material in the heated barrel.
A principal scheme of an Injection Moulding Machine is shown in the picture.
Injection Moulding is highly productive method providing high accuracy and control of shape of
the manufactured parts. The method is profitable in mass production of large number of
identical parts.

Thermoplastics commonly used in Injection Moulding are as follows:

 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
 Nylon 6 (N6)
Injection Moulding is used for manufacturing DVDs, pipe fittings, battery casings, toothbrush
bases, bottle lids, disposable razors, automobile bumpers and dash boards, power-tool housing,
television cabinets, electrical switches, telephone handsets, automotive power brake,
automotive fascias, transmission, and electrical parts, mirror housings, steam irons, washer
pumps, spoilers, butter tubs, moisture vaporizers, yogurt containers, toilet seats, cell-phone
housings, cradles or bases for personal digital assistants, case of a notebook-computer,
computer mouse, electrical connector housings, lawn chairs, automotive ashtrays, and
cookware appliance handles and knobs, aerosol caps, household items, bottle caps, toys.

4. Blow moulding of polymers: Blow Moulding is a process in which a heated

hollow thermoplastic tube (parison) is inflated into a closed mould conforming the shape of the
mould cavity.
The most widely used materials for Blow Moulding are:
 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET)
Disposable containers of various sizes and shapes, drums, recyclable bottles, automotive fuel
tanks, storage tanks, globe light fixtures, toys, tubs, small boats are produced by Blow Moulding
method.
There are three principal techniques of Blow Moulding, differing in the method by which
parisons are prepared:
 Extrusion Blow Moulding
 Injection Blow Moulding
 Stretch Blow Moulding
Extrusion Blow Moulding
Extrusion Blow Moulding involves manufacture of parison by conventional extrusion method
using a die similar to that used for extrusion pipes.

Extrusion Blow Moulding is commonly used for mass production of plastic bottles.

The production cycle consists of the following steps:

 The parison is extruded vertically in downward direction between two mould halves.
 When the parison reaches the required length the two mould halves close resulting in
pinching the top of parison end and sealing the blow pin in the bottom of the parison end.
 Parison is inflated by air blown through the blow pin, taking a shape conforming that of the
mould cavity. The parison is then cut on the top.
 The mould cools down, its halves open, and the final part is removed.
Injection Blow Moulding
In Injection Blow Moulding method a parison is produced by injecting a polymer into a hot
injection mould around a blow tube or core rod.

Then the blow tube together with the parison is removed from the injection mould and
transferred to a blow mould.
Following operations are similar to those in the extrusion blowing moulding.

Injection Blow Moulding is more accurate and controllable process as compared to the
Extrusion Blow Moulding.

It allows producing more complicated products from a wider range of polymer materials.

However production rate of Injection Blow Moulding method is lower than that of Extrusion
BlowMoulding.

Stretch Blow Moulding

Stretch Blow Moulding is similar to Injection blow Moulding.

Stretch Blow Moulding involves injection moulding of a parison, which is then stretched in the
downward direction by means of the blow tube.

The extended parison is then inflated in a blow mould.

In this method biaxial molecular orientation is produced. The specific molecular orientation
provides higher mechanical strength, rigidity and transparency of the material.

Material, commonly used in this method is Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET).

Stretch Blow Moulding is used for manufacturing containers for carbonated beverages.

Rubber

There are two general types of rubber:

1. Natural rubber is produced from latex - milky emulsion drawn from the rubber tree (Hevea
brasiliensis) or some other plants. When coagulated latex transforms into soft, plastic and sticky
substance (crude rubber), which is then vulcanized (cured). Natural rubber is composed of
polyisoprene molecules.
2. Synthetic rubbers are Elastomers, elastic properties of which are similar to those of the
natural rubber. Synthetic rubber may have chemical composition similar to the natural rubber
(synthetic polyisoprene). Other kinds of synthetic rubbers are: polybutadiene, poly(styrene-
butadiene-styrene), polychloroprene (Neoprene), polyisobutylene (Butyl rubber), silicone.
Natural rubber though useful has some problems associated with its use. These limitations are
discussed below:

1. Natural rubber is quite soft and sticky at room temperature. At elevated temperatures (> 335
K), it becomes even softer. At low temperatures (< 283 K), it becomes brittle. Thus, to maintain
its elasticity, natural rubber is generally used in the temperature range of 283 K-335 K.
2. It has the capacity to absorb large amounts of water.
3. It has low tensile strength and low resistance to abrasion.
4. It is soluble in non-polar solvents.
5. It is easily attacked by oxidizing agents.
Vulcanization of natural rubber is done to improve upon all these properties.

Vulcanization process was invented by Charles Goodyear in 1839.

Vulcanization of rubber is a process of improvement of the rubber elasticity and strength by

heating it in the presence of sulfur, which results in three-dimensional cross-linking of the chain
rubber molecules (polyisoprene) bonded to each other by sulfur atoms.

Vulcanization technique comprises the following principal stages:

 Mixing of crude rubber with about 5-30% of sulfur (cross-linking agent) and other additives
such as:
 activator (commonly zinc oxide or stearic acid),
 accelerator (guanidines, thiazoles, dithiocarbamates, xanthates, thiurams) ,
 coagulants (acetic acid, calcium chloride),
 anti-oxidants (amines, phenolics, phosphites),
 color pigments,
 surfacants,
 softeners (oils),
 ant-foaming agents,
 anti-tack agents (Rosin derivates, coumarone-indene resins, aliphatic petroleum resins, alkyl-
modified phenol-formaldehyde resins).

Vulcanization, chemical process by which the physical properties of natural

or synthetic rubber are improved; finished rubber has higher tensile strength and resistance to
swelling and abrasion, and is elastic over a greater range of temperatures. In its simplest form,
vulcanization is brought about by heating rubber with sulfur.
FIBRE AND CARBON REINFORCED PLASTICS

Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) also Fibre reinforced plastic, is a composite material

made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon or aramid
although other fibres such as paper or wood or asbestos have been sometimes used. The
polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic and phenol
formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive,
marine and construction industries.

Fibre reinforced polymer are composites used in almost every type of advanced
engineering structure, with their usage ranging from aircraft, helicopters and spacecraft through
to boats, ships and offshore platforms and to automobiles, sports goods, chemical processing
equipment and civil infrastructure such as bridges and buildings. The usage of FRP composites
continues to grow at an impressive rate as these materials are used more in their existing
markets and become established in relatively new markets such as biomedical devices and civil
structures.

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic(CRPF or CRP) is a

very strong and light fiber-reinforced polymer which contains carbon fibers. Carbon fibres are
created when polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN), pitch resins or rayon are carbonized (through
oxidation and thermal pyrolysis) at high temperatures. Through further processes of graphitizing
or stretching the fibres strength or elasticity can be enhanced respectively. Carbon fibres are
manufactured in diameters analogous to glass fibres with diameters ranging from 9 to 17µm.
These fibres wound into larger threads for transportation and further production processes.
Carbon fibers are a new breed of high-strength materials. Carbon fiber has been described as a
fiber containing at least 90% carbon obtained by the controlled pyrolysis of appropriate fibers.
 Types of adhesives and sealants

“Any substance that is capable of holding materials together by surface attachment is

called an adhesive ”.

Adherents: The bodies which are held together by adhesives

Bonding: The process of holding one adherent to another by an adhesive.

Basis on curing method

a) Non-reactive adhesives:

1.Drying adhesives

2.Hot Melt Adhesives

3.Pressure sensitive adhesives

b) Reactive adhesives:

1.UV light curing adhesives

2.Heat curing adhesives

3.Moisture curing adhesives

Advantages of adhesives

 Different materials can be joined together such as glass & metal, metal & metal, metal &
plastic and ceramic & ceramic.

 Free from any residual stresses. No heat is required in several cases of bonding.

 Surfaces are easily and rapidly attached together.

 Adhesives can act as heat & electrical insulating layers in between the bonding surfaces.

 Adhesive bonding requires less after finishing as compared to other joining process like
welding,soldering ,etc..,

 It gives smoother surfaces. So it is best suited for articles such as brake and clutch
,facings or aircraft assemblies, where rivet-heads affect the performance.

 Novel composites can be designed. (Eg. Flush-doors, Metal-faced plywood, etc.)

 Bonding two dissimilar metals can reduce galvanic corrosion at the joints by preventing
metal to metal contact.

 The joints are leak-proof for gases and liquids. Can be used for wooden boats.
  The metals joined by adhesives can resist corrosion.

Limitations of Adhesive Bonding

• Bond strength decreases rapidly as the temperature rises

• Careful selection of adhesives must be done-specific in its action.

• They are susceptible to high humidity.

• Plain and clean surfaces give for a reliable strength of adhesives.

• Generally, Adhesive strength are lower than welding, reverting, etc..,

Inspection and testing of adhesive joints are difficult.

Adhesive Action

• Specific Adhesion: Chemical (valance) or physical (intermolecular) forces of attraction.

• Permanent adhesion: ‘Interfacial boundary energy of the adhesive and the adherent
surfaces is lower than the sum of the surface energies of the adhesive and adherents.’

• Mechanical Adhesion: The Adhesive may fill the voids or the porous of rough surfaces
and hold the surfaces by interlocking action.

• Fusion Adhesion: If the surfaces are partially dissolved in the adhesive and bonding
takes place.

Development of Adhesive Strength

i. By loss of solvent: Adhesive is dissolved in water or any suitable solvent. This

dispersion is applied to the surfaces and brought in contact, some part of the solvent is
lost by evaporation or by entering into pores on the surfaces and gelling or hardening
occurs resulting in Bonding. Eg: Water-soluble or oil-soluble Elastomers.

ii. By cooling of hot molten mass: Fusible adhesives like thermoplastics are applied to
the surfaces in liquid conditions and on cooling the mass solidifies resulting Bonding of
the surfaces.

iii. By applying pressure: Highly viscous and pressure-sensitive adhesives develop

instantaneous strength when high pressure is applied.

iv. By chemical reaction: The ingredients of thermosetting adhesive materials react

together during the curing and cross-linking process, thereby developing bond strength.
 Thermosetting Synthetic Resins:

They form three-dimensional compounds with cross-linked structures and

possess great adhesive property. The bonds obtained are insoluble, infusible and
posses resistance to moisture, heat, insects, fungi, etc..,

a) Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin: Available as solid, liquid or impregnated film. The resin

coated first on the surfaces and cured by heating and pressing. The bonds are resistant
to water, fungi, insects, etc..,. Used in Water-proof plywood, laminates.

b) Urea-Formaldehyde Resin: Transparent and syrupy compound which can be used as

such or after mixing in water. It helps in avoiding Cracks in the bond film. A little heat can
increase the setting process. The bond produced is strong, resistant to moisture and
fungi. Used on wooden surface bonding, plywoods, etc..,

c) Epoxy resins: Heat is not required for curing, have resistance to chemicals, less
shrinkage on curing, good electrical resistance. Used in bonding of Glass, Metallic and
ceramic surfaces. Eg.Araldite.

Vegetable Glues or Protein Glues:

These are prepared from Soyabeans, corn, casein, albumin, peanuts, etc..,

a) Soya bean glue: Dry Soyabeans are crushed to extract oils. The ‘left over’ material is
mixed with milk of lime[Ca(OH)₂] and Caustic soda (NaOH) to form a jelly like adhesive
paste.

b) Casein glue: Skimmed milk is curdled with dilute acid when solid Casein precipitates.
The casein is separated, dried and mixed with lime preservative. The powder so-
formed is mixed with water to form jelly-like adhesive paste. They are cheaper and have
very poor bond strength. Used for common adhesive jobs.

Animal Glues:

 These are popular-variety of protein glues, prepared from the bones of dead animals,
wastes of animals, wastes of slaughter-houses and hide scraps from leather
industry.
 The waste is purified by lime, degreased (by adding benzene) and then treated with
HCl (to remove calcium phosphate). The product is then hydrolyzed by hot water to
get liquor glue.
 The liquor glue is filtered and bleached (with SO₂) and mixed with Borax. The
concentrated liquor is allowed to cool into cakes. The cakes are powdered and is
boiled with water to get a jelly adhesive.
 Animal glues have good adhesive strength, but possess poor resistance to moisture
and fungi.

Uses: They are used in manufacturing furniture, radio-cabinets, card-boxes, etc..,

 SEALANTS

Sealant is a viscous material that changes state to become solid, once applied, and is
used to prevent the penetration of air, gas, noise, dust, fire, smoke, or liquid from one
location through a barrier into another.

 A material that has the necessary adhesive and cohesive properties to

form a seal.

 Sealants are used to close small openings that are difficult to shut with
other materials, such as concrete, and drywall

 They seal top structures to the substrate, and are particularly effective in
waterproofing processes by keeping moisture out (or in) the components
in which they are used.

 They can provide thermal and acoustical insulation, and may serve as fire
barriers.

Types of Sealants

• Silicone Sealants: A flexible and waterproof substance normally used as a sealant for
sealing joins around baths, sinks or other plumbing fixtures. It can withstand very high
temperatures, making it ideal for applications that suffer high heat exposure.

• Elastic Sealant : A sealant made of a flexible material in a plastic state during forming
or application. Eg. polysulfide polymer or rubber.

• Thermoplastic Sealant : Sealants that are soft when they are heated and hard when
cooled.

Adhesives Vs Sealants

• Sealants typically have lower strength and higher elongations than adhesives do.

• Sealants generally contain inert filler material and are usually formulated with an
elastomer to give the required flexibility and elongation.

• They usually have a paste consistency to allow filling of gaps between substrates.

• Low shrinkage after application is often required.