SVCE

Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering

Autonomous - Affiliated to Anna University

ME18029 RENEWABLE ENERGY

RESOURCES
UNIT 1
SOLAR ENERGY
ME18029 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES L T P C

(COMMON TO ME & MR) 3 0 03

UNITI SOLAR ENERGY 9

Introduction – Renewable Vs non-renewable sources of energy, Solar Radiation; Solar

collectors -Flat Plate and Concentrating Collectors; Solar Applications – power

generation, green houses, space heating and cooling; Solar Cells - Fundamentals of Solar

Photo Voltaic Cells, Power Generation & Applications

OBJECTIVES:

• To identify the methods and technologies for effective utilization of solar energy, wind

energy and biomass.

• To acquire knowledge about wind energy conversion techniques.

• To learn how biomass could become an energy source.

• To know the energy available in various hydro and geo-based sources in the world and its

conversion

• To get educated about various new forms of energy and its effective usage.
OUTCOMES:
1. The students will have the ability to identify techniques used in direct and indirect usage of
solar energy.
2. Students will be able to present effective methods to harvest and convert wind energy into useful
forms
3. Students will be able to recommend a suitable method for deriving energy from various
biomasses
4. Students will have the ability to explain conversion techniques for effective utilization of
hydro and geo-based renewable sources
5. Students will be able to summarize the techniques involved in utilization of energy from new
resources like hydrogen.
 What is renewable energy?

It is energy derived from natural Sources that are replenished (refilled) at a higher rate than they are
consumed.
Example: Sunlight and wind.
Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us.
Fossil fuels - coal, oil and gas - on the other hand, are non-renewable resources that take hundreds of
millions of years to form.
Fossil fuels, when burnt to produce energy, cause harmful greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon
dioxide.
Generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than burning fossil fuels.
Renewables are now cheaper in most countries, and generate three times more jobs than fossil fuels.
Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Most natural resources,

coal and petroleum, were formed millions of years ago.

Other resources,

sunlight, were present even before the earth was formed.

We all depend on these resources in some way or another.

These resources are termed natural resources and are very important for life on earth.

Natural resources

are classified into renewable resources and non-renewable resources.

Renewable Resources

The resources which cannot be exhausted even after continuous utilization are termed as

renewable resources.

Examples of renewable resources are the sun, wind, and tidal energy.

Non-renewable Resources

The resources which cannot be immediately replaced once they are depleted are called

non-renewable resources.

Examples of non-renewable resources include fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum,

natural gas and rare minerals typically found in meteorites.

Differences between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy

Depletion

Renewable resources cannot be depleted Non-renewable resources deplete over

over time. time.
Sources

Renewable resources include sunlight,

water, wind and also geothermal sources Non-renewable resources includes fossil
such as hot springs and fumaroles. fuels such as coal and petroleum.

Environmental Impact

Most renewable resources have low carbon Non-renewable energy has a comparatively
emissions and low carbon footprint. higher carbon footprint and carbon
emissions
 Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy
Cost
The upfront cost of renewable energy is
high. For instance, generating electricity Non-renewable energy has a
using technologies running on renewable comparatively lower upfront cost.
energy is costlier than generating it with
fossil fuels.
Infrastructure Requirements
Infrastructure for harvesting renewable energy Cost-effective and accessible infrastructure is
is prohibitively expensive and not easily available for non-renewable energy across
accessible in most countries. most countries.

Area Requirements
Requires a large land/ offshore area, Comparatively lower area requirements.
especially for wind farms and solar
farms.
interestingly, some resources, such as uranium, is touted as a renewable resource. However, it is still a subject of
debate as uranium is not exactly a renewable resource, according to many statutory definitions.
Solar radiation
often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the sun.
Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity, using a variety of technologies.
BASIC PRINCIPLES

Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:
Geographic location
Time of day
Season
Local landscape
Local weather.
Because the Earth is spherical, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just

above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead).

When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted

the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and

diffuse.

Because the Earth is spherical, the frigid polar regions never get a high sun, and because of the

tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year.
The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun during part of the

year.

When the sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a little more solar energy.

The Earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern

hemisphere.

However, the presence of vast oceans moderates the hotter summers and colder winters one would

expect to see in the southern hemisphere as a result of this difference.

The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is a more significant factor in determining the amount of

sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location.

This results in longer days in the northern hemisphere from the spring (vernal) equinox to the fall

(autumnal) equinox and longer days in the southern hemisphere during the other 6 months.

Days and nights are both exactly 12 hours long on the equinoxes, which occur each year on or

around March 23 and September 22.

Countries such as the United States, which lie in the middle latitudes, receive more solar energy in

the summer not only because days are longer, but also because the sun is nearly overhead.
The rotation of the Earth is also responsible for hourly variations in sunlight.

In the early morning and late afternoon, the sun is low in the sky.

Its rays travel further through the atmosphere than at noon, when the sun is at its highest point.

On a clear day, the greatest amount of solar energy reaches a solar collector around solar noon.
DIFFUSE AND DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION
DIFFUSE SOLAR RADIATION
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by:
Air molecules , Water vapor, Clouds
Dust, Pollutants , Forest fires , Volcanoes.
This is called diffuse solar radiation.
DIRECT BEAM SOLAR RADIATION
The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam solar
radiation.
GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION
The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric
conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick,
cloudy days.
MEASUREMENT
Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at different times of the year.
They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling on regions at the same latitude with similar
climates.
Measurements of solar energy are typically expressed as total radiation on a horizontal surface, or as
total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.
Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatt-hours per
square meter (kWh/m2).
Direct solar energy may also be expressed as watts per square meter (W/m2).
Radiation data for solar water heating and space heating systems are usually represented in British
thermal units per square foot (Btu/ft2).
 SOLAR IRRADIANCE

The solar irradiance is the output of light energy from the entire disk of the Sun, measured at the

Earth.

The solar spectral irradiance is a measure of the brightness of the entire Sun at a wavelength of light.

For example, the radiation from visible and IR light warms surfaces like the skin and the roofs of

buildings.

Also, changes in solar EVU output effects space weather which is an important concern for spacecraft

and space travel.

The irradiance at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is about 1361 W/m2.
Uses of irradiation

The study and measurement of solar irradiance have several important applications, including the

prediction of energy generation from solar power plants, the heating and cooling loads of

buildings, climate modeling and weather forecasting, passive daytime radiative cooling

applications, and space travel.

 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources and can even be harnessed in cloudy

weather.

The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate

at which humankind consumes energy.

Solar technologies can deliver heat, cooling, natural lighting, electricity, and fuels for a host of

applications.

Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic panels or

through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation.

Although not all countries are equally endowed (tried) with solar energy, a significant contribution to the

energy mix from direct solar energy is possible for every country.

The cost of manufacturing solar panels has plummeted (dropped) dramatically in the last decade, making

them not only affordable but often the cheapest form of electricity.

Solar panels have a lifespan of roughly 30 years, and come in variety of shades depending on the type of

material used in manufacturing.

 For power generation fossil fuels will be the main fuel

 But it may be exhausted

 Therefore system based on Non-conventional and renewable source are being tried.
They are

1. solar
2. Wind
3. Sea
4. Geothermal
5. Bio mass
SOLAR ENERGY
Major source & power
178 billon MW
Sun rays can be used Thermal & Photo voltaic
Thermal – used for steam & hot water
Solar hits atmosphere is 1017 W
Solar hits on earth is 1016 W
World wide power demand is 1013 W.
So 1000 times more power can produced
If we use 5% it will be 50 times power can be produced
1 kW/m2 energy is radiated in sunny days
Draw Back
Large space is required
Uncertainty of availability of energy
Energy cannot be stored
Application
1. Heating and cooling
2. Solar water heating
3. Solar cooks
4. Food refrigeration
5. Solar furnace
6. Solar ponds
7. Solar photovoltaic cells
Solar Energy
General Terms
1. Solar constant (I).
It is the energy from sun per unit time, received on unit area of surface perpendicular
W kJ
to the radiation . I = 135 2 Or 487
m m2 h
2. Beam Radiation
The solar radiation received from the sun with out change of direction
3. Diffuse Radiation
The solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by
reflection and scattering by the atmosphere.
4. Air mass
It is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere, considering the vertical
path at sea level as unity.
 solar angles
solar energy is one of the most prominent renewable energy source in India.

The solar panel’s output efficiency at max is ~22% and it heavily depends upon various internal and external

factors.

To begin with, solar angles are one of the crucial external factors to be considered while installing the PV

panel on any roof.

7 types solar angles

.
 1. Azimuth angle
As we all know heaven’s objects such as the Sun, the
Moon and the stars are far away from the Earth.
Therefore, to simplify the motion measurements of these
objects, the imaginary sphere is used, which contains an
arbitrary radius and it is concentric towards the Earth.

Azimuth angle
It is calculated by measuring the angle between North 0 and the
altitude angle.

the altitude angle [a] is nothing but the angular elevation of the object above the observer’s horizon.
The range of angular elevation varies from [-90 to 90 degrees], where -90 stands for the object being below the horizon and
thus not visible. In this case, the observer’s horizon can also be called the fundamental plane. on the other hand, the
azimuth angle can be calculated in 4 main constituents, such as A= 0, 90, 180, 270 degrees which correspond respectively
to North, East, South, and West.
2. Zenith Angle
It is angle between the sun rays and the vertical direction
3 Hour Angle
The hour angle is the angular distance between the line of
longitude (also known as the meridian) of the observer and the
line of longitude which contains the Sun.
Besides, the hour angle becomes zero at noon. Also, whenever
the observers longitudinal plane contains the Sun, the hour
angle increases by 15 for every hour.
The hour angle can be calculated as:

(It varies from -ve before the solar noon to +ve after the solar
noon)
For Example:
4. Declination Angle It is the angle made between the ray of the Sun, extended to the
centre of the Earth, and the equatorial plane of the Earth.
Whenever the rays of Sun reaches to the centre of the Earth via
Northern hemisphere, the declination angle becomes positive and
whenever it reaches from the Southern hemisphere, it becomes
negative.

In the summer solstice, the value of solar declination angle is marked

as +23.5º and during the winter solstice, it is marked as -23.5º
Hence the solar declination angle varies from -23.5º < d <23.5º.
5. Altitude Angle The solar altitude angle is the angular distance between the rays of
Sun and the horizon of the Earth.
The solar altitude angle varies because of the three main factors
which are, the time of the day, the time of the year, and the latitude
of the Earth respectively.

The altitude angle [a] is nothing but the angular elevation of the object above the
observer’s horizon.
The range of angular elevation varies from [-90º to 90º ], where -90 stands for
the object being below the horizon and thus not visible. In this case, the
observer’s horizon can also be called the fundamental plane. on the other hand,
the azimuth angle can be calculated in 4 main constituents, such as A= 0, 90,
180, 270º which correspond respectively to North, East, South, and West.
The altitude angle can be calculated as:
6. Incident angles Angle
With respect to solar energy systems: the angle of the sun’s
ray renders a line perpendicular to the earth;
for example, the earth directly facing the sun has an angle of
zero incidence, and the surface parallel to the sun (such as a
sunrise reaching a horizontal rooftop ) has an angle of 90°.
Sunlight at 90° angle of incident tends to be absorbed, while
lower angles tend to be reflected.

Incidence angle can be calculated as:

 10.Shadowing
While installing the solar panels on the roof or the facade, the
shadowing factor plays a crucial role. It is the shadow projected by
the surrounding objects on the panel. Besides, it is necessary to be
aware of the shadow cast, as it changes daily.
The shadowing factor can be regulated by a “solar profile angle” and
it can be calculated as:

11. Solar (or) Short Wave Radiation

It is the radiation originating from the sun, at a source
of temperature of about 6000 K in the wave length range
of 0.3 to 3 µm
12. Long – wave Radiation
Radiation originating from the sources at a temperature
and wave length greater than 3µm.
Solar Collector
It is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy.
Types of Solar Collectors
1. Non – Concentrating (or) Flat Plate.
2. Concentration (Focusing ) type
 Connected with absorber used to convert solar radiation energy in to more usable form
( heat or electrical).
In Non – Concentrating Type
Area of absorber = Collector area
In concentrating Type
Area intercepting the Solar radiation is greater
Many different arrangement of mirror & lenses to concentrate the sun ray’s on the boiler
Efficiency of concentration is better.
Physical Principle of Conversion of Solar Radiation in to Heat
 Most of the energy received in form of light & Short wave radiation
 Some of themes are invisible
 Radiation striker solids & liquids, it is absorbed and transferred in to heat energy

Light is absorbed by CO2 & part is back radiated to ground

Isentropic heat emission in to space infra-red light.
Green House effect of CO2
Visible lights are absorb by ground at 20o C for example
Emits infra-red light at a wave length 10 µm
CO2 absorb this radiation
Green house effect brings an accumulation of energy
 Glass easily transmits short-wave radiation
 But for long wave length it is very poor
 If sun rays are passed through glass and has been absorbed by some metered
inside, the heat will hot re-radiated Emittance of block body at
10 different temperature
Infra-red emission
8
Glass

Emittance
6
4

2
Black absorber
0
1 2 3 5 14 15
Wave length m
 Fig shows black-painted plate
By wines law  max
T  C  2989mK
T = surface Temperature
Flat- Plate Collector ( Non-Concentrating)
Temperature < 90ºC are for space & service heating flat plate.
Types
1. Liquid heating collector
2. Air Collector (or) Solar Air Heaters.
Based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.
Main Components
1. Transparent Cover
One (or) more sheets of glass Solar Radiation

Plastic film
2. Tubes, fins, passages Transparent cover
Connect with absorber plate absorber (thickness 1 2 mm)
Tubes
Insulation
3. Absorber Plate
Metallic with a black surface
( Copper, Al, steel)
4. Insulation
Provided at back & side
To prevent heat losses
5. Container
Enclose the other components and Solar Radiation
protects them from weather

Transparent cover

absorber (thickness 1 2 mm)

Tubes
Insulation
 The main element of a flat-plate collector is the absorber plate.
 It covers the full aperture area of the collector
Functions:
 absorb the maximum possible amount of solar irradiance,
 conduct this heat into the working fluid at a minimum temperature difference
 lose a minimum amount of heat back to the surroundings.
Absorption.
 Solar irradiance passing through the glazing is absorbed directly on the
absorber plate without intermediate reflection as in concentrating collectors.
 Surface coatings that have a high absorptance for short-wavelength (visible)
light, are used on the absorber.
 Usually these coatings appear dull or "flat," indicating that they will absorb
radiation coming from all directions equally well.
 Either paint or plating is used, and the resulting black surface will typically
absorb over 95 percent of the incident solar radiation.
Highly efficient absorber surfaces
 Absorbers are usually black, as dark surfaces demonstrate a particularly high
degree of light absorption.
 As the absorber warms up to a temperature higher than the ambient temperature,
it gives off a great part of the accumulated solar energy in form of long-wave
heat rays.
 The usual coatings provide a degree of absorption of over 90%.
 Solar paints which can be mechanically applied to the absorbers (with either
brushes or sprays), are less or not at all selective, as they have a high level of
emission.
 Galvanically applied selective coatings include black chrome, black nickel, and
aluminum oxide with nickel.
 Relatively new is a titanium-nitride-oxide layer, which is applied via steam in a
vacuum process.
 This type of coating stands out not only because of its quite low emission rates,
but also because its production is emission-free and energy-efficient.
Fin Heat Removal.
 This is normally done by conducting the absorbed heat to tubes or ducts
that contain the heat-transfer fluid.
 The heat-transfer fluid may either be a liquid (water or water with
antifreeze) or gas (air).
 The important design criterion here is to provide sufficient heat transfer
Tubes
Copper
diameter 1 1.5 cm
Tubes are soldered , brazed (or) Clamped
Cover Sheets
 The absorber is usually covered with one or more transparent or translucent cover
sheets to reduce convective heat loss.
 In the absence of a cover sheet, heat is lost from the absorber as a result of not only
forced convection caused by local wind, but also natural convective air currents
created because the absorber is hotter than ambient air.
 The cover sheet forms a trapped air space above the absorber, thereby reducing these
losses.
 However, convective loss is not completely eliminated because a convective current
is set up between the absorber and the cover sheet, transferring heat from the absorber
to the cover sheet.
 External convection then cools the cover sheet, producing a net heat loss from the
absorber. In addition, heat loss is reduced because of the thermal resistance of the
added air space.
Materials.
 Because of its superior resistance to the environment, glass is used
as the outer cover sheet on most commercial collectors.
 Usually the glass is tempered, with a low iron content and 3.2-6.4
mm (0.12-0.25 in.) thick.
 The surface may be either smooth, making the glass transparent,
or with a surface pattern, making it translucent.
 Both types have a transmittance of around 90 per cent.
2. Air Collector (or) Solar Air heater

Solar Radiation

Transparent cover
(thickness 1 2 mm)
absorber
Tubes
Insulation
A solar air heater is a type of solar thermal system where air is heated in a collector and either transferred
directly to the interior space or to a storage medium, such as a rock bin.
Solar air heaters use solar panels to warm air which is then conveyed into a room. The basic components of
a solar air heater include solar collector panels, a duct system and diffusers. Systems can operate with or
without a fan. Without a fan the air is distributed by the action of a natural ventilation system.
Solar air heaters provide free interior heating to complement conventional climate control systems

It is important to note that the output from solar heaters is reduced when clouds reduce the amount of
sunlight.
A typical solar air heater collector panel would assist in the heating of a small room.
Solar air heating is potentially suitable for any building that requires heating, providing the collector panel
can be placed on an appropriate unshaded south-facing (in the northern hemisphere) roof or wall.
Evacuated-tube collectors
 In this type of vacuum collector, the absorber strip is located in an evacuated
and pressure proof glass tube.
 The heat transfer fluid flows through the absorber directly in a U-tube or in
countercurrent in a tube-in-tube system.
 Several single tubes, serially interconnected, or tubes connected to each other
via manifold, make up the solar collector.
 A heat pipe collector incorporates a special fluid which begins to vaporize
even at low temperatures.
 The steam rises in the individual heat pipes and warms up the carrier fluid in
the main pipe by means of a heat exchanger.
 The condensed liquid then flows back into the base of the heat pipe.
 The pipes must be angled at a specific degree above horizontal so that the process of vaporizing and
condensing functions.
 There are two types of collector connection to the solar circulation system.
 Either the heat exchanger extends directly into the manifold ("wet connection") or it is connected to the
manifold by a heat-conducting material ("dry connection").
 A "dry connection" allows to exchange individual tubes without emptying the entire system of its fluid.
 Evacuted tubes offer the advantage that they work efficiently with high absorber temperatures and with low
radiation.
 Higher temperatures also may be obtained for applications such as hot water heating, steam production, and
air conditioning.
2.Concentrating Collector

Devices which collecting solar energy with high intensity

It uses the optical system in the form of reflector

Collector can have radiation increases from low value of 1.5 – 2 to high value of 10000

Concentrate only direction radiation coming from a specific direction

Types

1. Line focusing

2. Point focusing
2.Concentrating Collector
Parabolic trough
 This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants.
 A trough-shaped parabolic reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube
(Dewar tube) or heat pipe, placed at the focal point, containing coolant which transfers
heat from the collectors to the boilers in the power station.

 With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic dishes concentrate solar energy at a
single focal point, similar to the way a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish
antenna focuses radio waves.
 This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.
 The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays which are parallel to the dish's axis
will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive.
 Light from the sun arrives at the Earth's surface almost completely parallel.
 So the dish is aligned with its axis pointing at the sun, allowing almost all incoming
radiation to be reflected towards the focal point of the dish.
 Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and
imperfect reflection.

 Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal.

 However, on a hazy or foggy day, light is diffused in all directions through the atmosphere,
which reduces the efficiency of a parabolic dish significantly.
 In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo, is placed at the
focus of the dish.
 This absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into electricity.
Types of line focusing
a. Parabolic through collector
b. Mirror strip collector
c. Fresnel lens collector
d. Flat plate collector with adjustable mirror
e. Compound parabolic concentrator
 a. Parabolic Trough

Solar radiation is collected over the area of Reflecting surface and is concentrated
at the Focus of parabolic
Mostly cylindrical parabolic used
Length of tube 3 to 5 m
Width 1.5 to 2.4 m
Made up of highly polished Al (or) Silvered glass
 b. Mirror Strip Reflector Type Concentrating Collector

It is a line focusing type collector as shown in Fig.

It has the plane or slightly curved (concave) mirror strips mounted on a
flat base.
The individual mirrors are placed at such angles that the reflected solar
radiations fall on the same focal line where the absorber pipe is placed.
The collector pipe is strips rotated so that the reflected rays on the
absorber remain focused with respect to changes in sun's elevation.
 c. Fresnel Lens Concentrating Collector :

In this collector a Fresnel lens which consists of fine, linear grooves on

the surface of refracting material of optical quality on one side and flat on
the other side is used.
The angle of each groove is so designed that the optical behavior of the
Fresnel lens is similar to spherical lens.
The solar radiations which fall normal to the lens are refracted by the lens
and are focused on a line where the absorber (receiver) tube is placed to
absorb solar radiations.
It is made of acrylic plastic sheets having overall dimensions of 4.7 m in
length and 0.05 m in width.
Applications of Solar Energy
May be applied in three general categories
1. Direct Thermal applications
directly used for heating (ex) Space heating
2. Solar Electric applications
Solar energy converted directly (or) indirectly into electric energy
a). Solar thermal methods
high temperature absorbed from solar radiation and used in boiler
b). Photovoltaic method
Solar cells absorb solar radiation and its directly convert into electric energy
c). Thermo electric conversion
Solar energy into Electric energy without machining
With thermo electric effect
d. Wind energy
e. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OCTEC)
F. Energy from Biomass
Other applications
1. Solar water Heating
2. Solar Space heating
3. Solar space cooling
4. Solar Energy
5. Solar distillation
6. Solar pumping
7. Agricultural and industrial process heat
8. Solar furnace
9. Solar cooking
10.Solar green house
 Solar Power Generation

There are Two methods

1. Heat can be converted into electrical energy by
solar cell (or) Thermionic (or) Thermo electric methods
2. Solar thermal power production
Solar energy is utilized to heat the working fluid like gas, water, (or) volatile liquid
heat mechanical energy electric energy
Power cycles
a. low- flat plate collector used 100° C
b. Medium 150 t0 300° C
c. Above 300° C
Rankine cycle – for low and medium temperature
Temperature should be 175° C
Brayton cycle Concentrating collectors are used
High Temperature
Strilling cycle

Two Basic arrangements for converting solar radiation into electric system

1. Central receiver system (or) Power Tower System

2. Distributed system
Tower Power Concept
Array of sun tracking mirror ( Heliostats) reflect solar radiation in to receiver
on the top of the tower
Heat is transferred to working fluid
Preferable for large scale generation
Soar energy falling large area
Mixture of sodium chloride (60%) & Potassium nitrate (40%) is used
Temperature above 550° C
Now it is in U.S.A, France, Italy & Japan
Heliostat capable of concentrating 5 million thermal Watts of power
Its works on Brayton cycle
 A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats.
 These mirrors align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of
tower, collected heat is transferred to a power station below.
 This design reaches very high temperatures. High temperatures are suitable for
electricity generation using conventional methods like steam turbine or a direct high
temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt.
 By concentrating sunlight current systems can get better efficiency than simple
solar cells.
 A larger area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than
using expensive solar cells.
 Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via optical fiber cable for
such uses as illuminating buildings.
Types of sub system

1. The tower with the central eceivef on top of it

2. The conversion system

3. Heat storage system

4. Field or oriented mirror

2. Distributed Collector System (or) Total Energy (or) Cogeneration
Consist of parabolic trough type (line focusing)
Absorber pipe collectors collect heat
Energy is carried as heat
Suitable for smaller electrical power plant < 2 MW
So it is called Total energy system (or) Co-generation system.
Solar energy is more competitive
Tower power plants 100-200 MW in 3-6 hours
Arizoma public service company – proposed to
-60 MW by tower power plant
-175 m height
-9000 heliostats
 Solar Ponds
 It appears that the least expensive type of solar collector is
a large solar pond.
 However, they have been considered primarily for large
industrial applications because their cost decreases
considerably with increases in size.
 There are two basic types of solar ponds:
(i). the shallow pond and (ii). the salt-gradient pond.
 Both are equivalent to horizontal flat-plate collectors,
 since they are non-concentrating, accept both direct and
diffuse solar energy, and are limited to low temperature
applications.
Shallow Ponds.
 A shallow solar pond consists of a group of collectors made of black plastic liners
lying on top of insulation that has been laid on flat graded ground.
 Above the water bag is at least one translucent cover sheet, supported by side
curbs. When there is adequate sunshine,
 water is pumped into the collectors from an underground storage tank.
 The water inside the collectors is heated by solar radiation absorbed by the pond
liner and can attain temperatures of up to 60ºC (140ºF).
 Once heated, the water in the collectors may be pumped to an industrial demand or
a hot storage tank for later use.
 At night or during periods of low solar irradiance, the water in the collectors may
be drained back into the underground tank, thereby conserving the heat collected.
 A design guide for shallow ponds has been prepared by Casamajor and Parsons
(1979).
 Figure shows a shallow pond collector design proposed by Dickenson et al.
(1976) for use in a low-temperature solar thermal power system.
 The collector modules are 4 m (14 ft) wide and 200 m (656 ft) long.
 The width was determined by the width of commercially available
unseamed, weatherable plastic sheets.

SALT-GRADIENT PONDS.
 When an open body of water absorbs solar energy, convection currents are created.
 As the sunrays that pass through the surface layer are absorbed in lower layers,
 this water is heated and rises to the surface, where heat is transferred away by
convection to ambient air.
 Once the water cools, the density increases and the surface water moves downward.
 This movement of water equalizes the temperature throughout the body of water.
 A salt-gradient solar pond employs a salt concentration gradient to suppress natural convection.
 Heated water holds more dissolved salt than does cooler water.
 The salty, heated water is also heavier and thus remains at the bottom of the solar pond.
 Sunlight penetrating through the top layers of the pond is absorbed at the bottom and trapped by the
non- convecting gradient layer, which acts as an effective thermal insulator against convection.
In practice, salt-gradient solar ponds consist of three layers, or zones:
(1) a surface convecting zone of low-salinity water, typically 0.2-0.4 m thick salinity <5 %;
(2) a non- convecting or 1.0-1.5 m thick salinity increases
(3) a storage zone 1-3 m (3.3-10 thick salinity ≈20%
 For utilization of the heat stored at the bottom of the pond, hot brine is drawn from the
storage zone (bottom layer) of the pond and pumped through a heat exchanger and back
to the bottom of the storage zone.
 For power production applications where a Rankine cycle is used, condenser cooling
water is drawn off the top of the pond and passed through the condenser and back to the
surface, where it cools.
 Construction of economical solar ponds requires the availability of inexpensive, flat land;
accessibility to water; and an inexpensive source of salt or brine.
 A typical arrangement for this process is shown in Figure
Solar pond Electric system
 A salt-gradient solar pond can provide heat at temperatures in excess of 90ºC (194ºF).
 Such a pond provides built-in thermal storage of such large volume that heat can be
collected in the summer and stored for use during the winter.
 Pioneering work on salt-gradient solar ponds has been done in Israel.
 Tabor (1981) gives an extensive review of the status and problems in this field [ see
also Tabor (1983)].
 An extensive bibliography on the subject has been published in SERI (1981a).
 The basic physical principles of salt-gradient ponds were defined by Weinberger
(1964).
 Rabl and Nielsen (1975) subsequently presented a model that included a convective
bottom layer.
 A computational procedure for determination of the thermal efficiency of a pond with
a diffusely reflecting bottom may be found in Hull (1982) and a parametric analysis of
various design considerations in Wang and Akbarzadeh (1983).
 Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions can be
accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids.
 Molten salts have been used to good effect. Other working fluids, such as liquid metals,
have also been proposed due to their superior thermal properties.

 However, concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain sunlight focus at the
collector.
 They are unable to provide significant power in diffused light conditions.
 Solar cells are able to provide some output even if the sky becomes cloudy,
 but power output from concentrating systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as
diffused light cannot be concentrated.
Some of the major application of solar energy are as follows:

(a) Solar water heating

(b) Solar heating of buildings

(c) Solar distillation

(d) Solar pumping

(e) Solar drying of agricultural and animal products

(f) Solar furnaces

(g) Solar cooking

(h) Solar electric power generation

(i) Solar thermal power production

How They Work

Solar water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. There are

two types of solar water heating systems:

active, which have circulating pumps and controls,

and passive, which don't.

Active Solar Water Heating Systems

There are two types of active solar water heating systems:

Direct circulation systems

Pumps circulate household water through the collectors and into the home. They work well in

climates where it rarely freezes.

Indirect circulation systems

Pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and a heat

exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. They are popular in climates

prone to freezing temperatures

Passive Solar Water Heating Systems
Passive solar water heating systems are typically less expensive than active systems, but they're usually
not as efficient. However, passive systems can be more reliable and may last longer. There are two basic
types of passive systems:
Integral collector-storage passive systems
These consist of a storage tank covered with a transparent material to allow the sun to heat the
water. Water from the tank then flows into the plumbing system. These work best in areas where
temperatures rarely fall below freezing. They also work well in households with significant daytime and
evening hot-water needs.
Thermosyphon systems
Water is heated in a collector on the roof and then flows through the plumbing system when a hot water
faucet is opened. The majority of these systems have a 40 gallon capacity.
Storage Tanks and Solar Collectors

Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an additional outlet and

inlet connected to and from the collector. In two-tank systems, the solar water heater preheats water before it

enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the back-up heater is combined with the solar storage

in one tank.

Three types of solar collectors are used for residential applications:

Flat-plate collector

Glazed flat-plate collectors are insulated, weatherproofed boxes that contain a dark absorber plate under one or

more glass or plastic (polymer) covers. Unglazed flat-plate collectors -- typically used for solar pool heating --

have a dark absorber plate, made of metal or polymer, without a cover or enclosure.
Integral collector-storage systems

Also known as ICS or batch systems, they feature one or more black tanks or tubes in

an insulated, glazed box.

Cold water first passes through the solar collector, which preheats the water.

The water then continues on to the conventional backup water heater, providing a

reliable source of hot water.

They should be installed only in mild-freeze climates because the outdoor pipes could

freeze in severe, cold weather.

Evacuated-tube solar collectors

They feature parallel rows of transparent glass tubes.

Each tube contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin.

The fin's coating absorbs solar energy but inhibits radiative heat loss.

These collectors are used more frequently for U.S. commercial applications.

Solar water heating systems almost always require a backup system for cloudy

days and times of increased demand.

Conventional storage water heaters usually provide backup and may already be part of the

solar system package.

A backup system may also be part of the solar collector, such as rooftop tanks with

thermosiphon systems.

Since an integral-collector storage system already stores hot water in addition to collecting

solar heat, it may be packaged with a tankless or demand-type water heater for backup.
Solar Cookers

A solar cooker is a type of solar thermal collector.

It “gathers” and traps the Sun’s thermal (heat) energy.

Heat is produced when high frequency light (visible and ultraviolet) is converted into low frequency infrared
radiation.
Ultraviolet and visible light easily pass through glass, however when they strike a darkened surface they are
converted into long wave infrared radiation (heat).

There are three basic types of solar cookers on the market today:

1. box,

2. parabolic reflector and

3. panel cookers
Box Cookers

Box cookers (also known as box ovens) can cook the same foods you would cook in a

standard oven or a slow cooker.

As the name suggests, they have an interior chamber (“box”), although it does not

have to be square shaped.

They use reflectors to concentrate more sunlight into the box, glazing to allow sunlight

into the box and then trap the heat, and insulation to retain as much heat as possible.

Commercially made box ovens can reach 400o on a clear sunny day. Box ovens can be

easily made from inexpensive or recycled materials, and are suitable for classroom

construction and cooking.

Parabolic Reflector Cookers

Parabolic cookers produce the highest temperatures,

and can be used to fry or grill food; pot lids and

cooking bags are not necessary.

Parabolic cookers use reflectors to concentrate a

large amount of sunlight into a single focal point,

where the temperature can reach 500o.

Panel Cookers
Panel cookers can cook the same foods that you would cook in a
covered pot on top of the stove.
They use reflectors to “gather” a larger area of sunlight and direct it
towards a black cooking pot that is placed in a high temperature oven
bag.
The air inside the bag that surrounds the pot is the insulation that
retains the heat.
The temperature inside the pot of a panel cooker can reach and
maintain boiling.
Active solar heating systems use solar energy to heat a fluid -- either liquid or air --

and then transfer the solar heat directly to the interior space or to a storage system

for later use.

If the solar system cannot provide adequate space heating, an auxiliary or back-up

system provides the additional heat.

Liquid systems are more often used when storage is included, and are well suited

for radiant heating systems, boilers with hot water radiators, and even absorption

heat pumps and coolers.

Both liquid and air systems can supplement forced air systems.
Liquid-Based Active Solar Heating

Solar liquid collectors are most appropriate for central heating.

They are the same as those used in solar domestic water heating systems.

Flat-plate collectors are the most common, but evacuated tube and concentrating collectors are also

available.

In the collector, a heat transfer or "working" fluid such as water, antifreeze (usually non-toxic

propylene glycol), or other type of liquid absorbs the solar heat.

At the appropriate time, a controller operates a circulating pump to move the fluid through the

collector.
The liquid flows rapidly, so its temperature only increases 10° to 20°F (5.6° to 11°C ) as it moves

through the collector.

Heating a smaller volume of liquid to a higher temperature increases heat loss from the collector and

decreases the efficiency of the system.

The liquid flows to either a storage tank or a heat exchanger for immediate use.

Other system components include piping, pumps, valves, an expansion tank, a heat exchanger, a

storage tank, and controls.

The flow rate depends on the heat transfer fluid..

 SOLAR FURNACE

Solar furnace uses heliostats to reflect the sun’s rays onto a set of parabolic mirrors. The parabolic

mirrors then focus the sun’s rays onto a furnace at the top of a tower.

The temperature of the furnace is very hot, typically higher than 800 degrees Celsius. Molten salt is

pumped into the furnace and its temperature increases from approximately 300 degrees Celsius to over 600

degrees Celsius.

The hot molten salt is then delivered to a storage tank.

The hot molten salt leaves the storage tank and passes through a steam generator.

Water is heated by the molten salt until it turns to steam. T

The steam is then sent to a steam turbine and the ‘cold’ molten salt is returned to a storage tank.
Steam enters a steam turbine and causes it to rotate as it passes through the blades.
The steam turbine is connected to an alternator via a gearbox and the generator generates electricity.
The steam is then condensed by a condenser and pumped back to the steam generator where it is again
turned to steam.
Generated electricity from the generator is distributed to an electrical transformer where the voltage is
increased.
The electrical current is then sent through an open air switchyard and into the national grid.
Increasing the voltage reduces losses when the power is distributed through the national grid.
Space heating and cooling
Space heating (or) Solar heating of Building
- Heat building
Types
1. Passive system
Solar radiation is collected by elements & allows into building through south facing windows
2. Active system
Heat is transferred from the collectors by means of fan coil units, hot (or) cold water
Types
a. Separate solar collector
b. Storage device
c. backup system
1. Passive system
basic design principles
1. Direct gain 2. Thermal storage 3. attached sun space
4. Roof storage 5. Convective loop
1. Direct gain
building has south wall with a large number of windows
Two layers of glass to minize the heat loss
2. Thermal storage wall
What is a Solar Cell?

A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device

that converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.

A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode.

Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical

characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed to light.

Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels.

The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage

of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

By itself this isn’t much – but remember these solar cells are tiny. When combined into a

large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy can be generated.

Modular cooling towers are used to cool the steam back to condensate.
Cold cooling water is sent from the cooling tower to the condenser where it is heated
by the steam.
The steam changes state and becomes condensate.
The ‘hot’ cooling water is then distributed to the cooling tower where the heat is
passed to the ambient air.
Construction of Solar Cell
A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different

from conventional p-n junction diodes.

A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively thicker n-type

semiconductor.

Then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of the p-type semiconductor layer.

These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer.

Just below the p-type layer there is a p-n junction.

Also provide a current collecting electrode at the bottom of the n-type layer.

encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any

mechanical shock.
Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the

junction, through very thin p-type layer.

The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction

to create a number of electron-hole pairs.

The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction.

The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of

the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the

junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot

further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the junction.

Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further

cross the junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the

concentration of electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the

junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another side, i.e. the p-type

side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A voltage

is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the

junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.

V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell
Materials Used in Solar Cell

The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to

1.5ev.

Commonly used materials are-

Silicon.

GaAs.

CdTe.

CuInSe2
Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell

Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.

It must have high optical absorption.

It must have high electrical conductivity.

The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material

must be low.
Advantages of Solar Cell
No pollution associated with it.
It must last for a long time.
No maintenance cost.
Disadvantages of Solar Cell
It has high cost of installation.
It has low efficiency.
During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will
not get solar energy.
Uses of Solar Generation Systems
It may be used to charge batteries.
Used in light meters.
It is used to power calculators and wrist watches.
It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.