4.03.

2023

Advanced Air Pollution

ENVE/ENVS611

• Instructor: Dr. Sedef Çakır

About myself : Meteorological Engineering, Istanbul Technical University
PhD: ITU, Atmospheric Science
Office: ST209 Phone: 671111- 2448
Office Hour:
Course Hours and class:
Text books:
1. Fundamentals of Air Pollution
Daniel V., Fourth Edition,
2. The atmosphere: An introduction to meteorology
Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck, Dennis Tasa, 2012
3. Air Pollution Control Engineering
Noel de Nevers, 2000

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Course Evaluation
• 1 Midterm %40 (TBA)
• 1 Article Presentation %10 (TBA)
• Final %50

Main subjects of the course:

• Introduction to air pollution
• Definition of a air pollution
• Pollutants
• Their sources
• Effects on all living creatures and materials
• Measurements and emission estimation
• Air Quality Standards
• Air pollution meteorology – transportation and dispertion
• Atmosphere (composition, structure)
• Atmospheric Energy Balance
• Measures of the Atmosphere
• Forces Influencing Atmospheric Motion
• Scales of Motion
• Atmospheric Stability, inversion, ....
• Physical Meteorology and Visibility
• Air pollution modelling

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Links to check air quality

• https://aqicn.org/map/world/
• https://mgm.gov.tr/tahmin/toz-tahmini.aspx
• https://mgm.gov.tr/tahmin/toz-tasinimi.aspx
• ….

https://aqicn.org/map/world/

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Introduction to Air Pollution

Definitions of air pollution:

Air pollution: The presence of contaminants or pollutant substances in
the air that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other
harmful environmental effects.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007)
“Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms”

What does it mean Contaminant?

• Contaminate: “ to corrupt by contact or association,” or “to make inferior, impure,
or unfit.”

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Other definitons:
From the book of Noel, 2000 ;
• Air pollution is the presence of undesirable material in air, in
quantities large enough to produce harmful effect. ... Undesirable
materials may damage human health, vegetation, human property or
global environment as well as create aesthetic insults in the form of
brown or hazy air or unpleasent smells. Pollutants are known that
may do all of these things. ...

Apart from the six Indian cities (shown in yellow), three more cities on this list are in nearby Pakistan (shown
in blue), with Iran's Khoramabad the only city outside of South Asia in the top 10.

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India

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• The WHO global study ranks air pollution as one of the top 10 killers in the
world, with 65 percent of all air pollution deaths occurring in Asia.
• In 2010 alone, particulate matter pollution was the fourth-leading risk factor for
deaths in China, behind high blood pressure and smoking.
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EPI: Environmental Performance Index

http://epi.yale.edu/epi
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The air pollution problem can be schematically presented

as a system consisting of three basic components:
Atmosphere
Major anthropogenic and acts as a medium for; transport Receptors that affected by the
natural emission sources and dispersion, physical and air pollution
chemical transformations

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Pollutant classification based on origins:

• Primary pollutant – one that is emitted directly into the atmosphere, for ex: CO, SO2,
• Secondary pollutant – one that not emitted directly, but is generated through
chemical reactions over time, such as O3, NO2.

Criteria air pollutants are six major pollutants defined by EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency) for which ambient air standards have been set to protect
human health and welfare.
Criteria pollutants (defined by EPA):
1. Ozone, O3.
2. Carbon monoxide, CO.
3. Sulfur dioxide, SO2.
4. Nitrogen oxides, NOx.
5. Lead, Pb.
6. Particulates, PM10.
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Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)

Also known as toxic air pollutants or air toxics, are those pollutants that cause
or may cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive
effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental and ecological effects
Examples of toxic air pollutants include
• benzene, which is found in gasoline;
• perchlorethlyene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; and
• methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number
of industries.
• Examples of other air toxics include dioxin, asbestos, toluene, and metals
such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.

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Air pollution classifications in different aspects:

• According to chemical composition
• 1. Sulfur-containing compounds.
• 2. Nitrogen-containing compounds.
• 3. Carbon-containing compounds.
• 4. Halogen-containing compounds.
• 5. Toxic substances (any of about).
• 6. Radiative compounds.
• According to physical state
• 1. Gaseous.
• 2. Liquid (aqueous).
• 3. Solid.

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Air pollution classifications in different aspects (cont.):

• According to the manner in which they reach the atmosphere:

• 1. Primary pollutants (those emitted directly from the sources).
• 2. Secondary pollutants (those formed in the atmosphere by chemical
interactions among primary pollutants and normal atmospheric conditions).

• According to the space scales of their effects:

• 1. Local (or indoor).
• 2. Urban
• 3. Regional
• 4. Continental
• 5. Global.

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Pollutants and Sources

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Classification of air pollutants based on origins:

1. Primary pollutant – one that is emitted directly
into the atmosphere
• Particulates Matters (PM)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Sulphure dioxide (SO2)
• Nitric oxides (NOx)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Lead (Pb)
• ...

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Secondary pollutant –
2. Secondary pollutant -one that not emitted directly, but is generated
through chemical reactions over time:
• O3 (Ozone)
• SO3 (Sulfur trioxide)
• H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
• HNO3 (Nitric acid)
• H2O2 (Hydrogen peroxide)
• PANs (peroxyacetyl nitrate)
• ...

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Criteria air pollutants

• are six major pollutants (identified and monitored by the Ministry of
Environment and Forestry) defined by EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) for which ambient air standards have been set to protect
human health and welfare.
• Criteria pollutants (defined by EPA):
• 1. Ozone, O3.
• 2. Carbon monoxide, CO.
• 3. Sulfur dioxide, SO2.
• 4. Nitrogen oxides, NOx.
• 5. Lead, Pb.
• 6. Particulates, PM10.

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Main sources of air pollutants:

• Point – power plants,

industry, dry cleaners, ...

Stationary • Area- Residential areas,

apartments, office
buildings, hospitals, and
schools

• Line sources-
highways, motor
Mobile vehicles

Radon, fog and mist,

and ozone are the
most common natural
(Lutgens et all, 2012) air pollutants
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Figure 13–3 An example of natural air pollution that has been accentuated by human activities. This dust
storm near Elkhart, Kansas, in May 1937, occurred because the natural vegetative cover that anchored the
soil had been removed from a marginal environment so that the land could be farmed. Severe drought
made the plowed fields vulnerable to strong winds. It was because of storms like this that portions of the
Great Plains were called the Dust Bowl in the 1930s. (Photo reproduced from the collection of the Library
of Congress)
(Lutgens et all, 2012)
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Quarrying...
Rafineries ...

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Definitions of mobile and stationary sources:

• A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that
does not move, also known as a point source. Stationary sources
include factories, power plants, dry cleaners and degreasing
operations. The term area source is used to describe many small
sources of air pollution located together whose individual emissions
may be below thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions
can be significant.
• A mobile source of air pollution can be defined as one capable of
moving from one place to another under its own power. According to
this definition, an automobile is a mobile source.

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Combustion:
• Combustion is defined as the rapid union of a substance with oxygen
accompanied by the evolution of light and heat.
• The economies of highly industrialized nations are heavily dependent on
combustion.
• Much of the transportation by automobile, rail, and airlines is based on
internal combustion engines that burn gasoline or diesel fuels.
• Chemically, efficient combustion is
(CaHb)x + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Compound that contain carbon and hydrogen

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Brief informations about the pollutants...

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Particulates matter (PM)

• The atmosphere contains a mixture of small (0.001-100 μm)
liquid and solid particles that are suspended in the air. These
particles are referred to as aerosols or Particulate Matter. Figure 13–6 Particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture of
extremely small particles and liquid droplets. The size of

• Particulate air pollutants are highly diverse in chemical particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health
problems. Particles that are 10 micrometers in diameter or
smaller frequently pass through the nose and throat and
composition and size. Sizes vary from 0.001 μm to 100 μm enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can cause
serious health effects. PM10 stands for “inhalable coarse
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particles” that are larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller

• PM10 -> particles with diameter less than 10 micrometer than 10 micrometers. PM2.5 stands for “fine particles” that
2.5

• PM2.5 -> particles with diameter less than 2.5 micrometer are 2.5 micrometers and smaller.
(Lutgens et all, 2012)
• Natural Sources are fires, volcanic eruptions, breaking sea
waves, plants (pollen)
• Because of their weight, particulates tend to settle out near their
source.

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• They be grouped into two broad classifications:

• Primary aerosols, emitted directly from sources
• Secondary aerosols, formed in the atmosphere by chemical or physical reactions.
• Gravitational settling and precipitation removes particulates
Effects: Reduce visibility
• Those smaller than 2.5 μm most readily enter the lungs and cause
tissue damage

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Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Colorless and odorless gas
Natural Surces: Most released naturally by volcanic eruptions, wild fires, bacteria,
biomass burning etc.
• Soil microorganisms consume it
Anthropogenic sources: petrol engined motor cars, cigarette smoke, biomass
burning
• Poorly running automobiles emit large amounts by incomplete burning (produced
when carbon does not burn in fossil fuels)
Effects: Extremely toxic – causes heart disease long-term, or death within an hour if
concentration is 1600 ppm or more
• Headaches/nausea/fatigue/ death
• Hemoglobin in the blood is 200 times more attracted to carbon monoxide than
oxygen (leading to oxygen starvation of the body)
• Most hazardous to human health of all criteria pollutants
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Sulfur Compounds
• 2/3 comes from natural processes (volcanic eruptions, bacterial
release of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sea spray)
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released by burning sulfur-based fossil fuels
(coal and fuel oil) and other industrial activities
• Sulfur dioxide is colorless but highly corrosive and irritates the lungs

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• The major anthropogenic source of anthropogenic SO2 is the combustion of

sulfur- carrying coal-fired power plants.

• In recent decades, the amount of SO2 being released into the atmosphere has
been reduced due to the decreasing use of coal for power generation and its
replacement by natural gas.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released by burning sulfur-based fossil fuels (coal and
fuel oil) Other industrial activities (petroleum refineries, power plants, paper
mills and smelters)

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Effects of SO2
Sulfur dioxide is highly corrosive and irritates the lungs

• Short-term intermittent exposures

• Broncho-constriction (temporary breathing difficulty)
• Ear/Nose/Throat irritation
• Mucus secretion
• Long-term exposures
• Respiratory illness
• Aggravates existing heart disease

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Oxides of Nitrogen or Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

• NO (nitric oxide) and NO2 (nitrogen dioxide ) are referred together as
NOx (Nitrogen oxides) due to their interconvertibility in
photochemical reaction
• NO is a colorless, odorless, non-flammable, highly reactive and toxic
gas.
• Also considered a pollutant because it readily oxidizes into nitrogen dioxide (a
toxic secondary pollutant)
• Created when high temperature combustion forces atmospheric oxygen (O2)
and nitrogen (N2) to react to form NO.
• NO2 is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent odor. Their hourly average
concentrations are 0.02-1000 ppb and 1 ppb-0.5 ppm, respectively.

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Sources and sinks of NOx

• On a global scale, NO is emitted naturally by microorganisms in soils, by natural
combustion processes and storms with lightning strikes.
• Nevertheless, the major NO sources are anthropogenic. The major anthropogenic
source of nitric oxide is the high temperature combustion of fuel in automobile
engines and power plants.
• Well over 90% of all the man-made nitrogen oxides are formed when oxygen in
the air and nitrogen in the fuel react at high temperatures during combustion, N2
(dinitrogen) + O2 → 2NO
• then NO is rapidly oxidized to NO2 by homogeneous reactions: 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
• During the day, the NO2 undergoes photolysis. Photolysis is a process in which the
sunlight causes transformations of compounds.
• NO2 + hν → NO + O

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx-> NO and NO2)

• NO2 + hν → NO + O
This reaction is one of the most important photochemical reactions in the lower atmosphere, since it
produces highly active O, which regenerates tropospheric ozone and nitric oxide
• During the daytime, NO2 can be removed slowly from the photostationary state cycle, as
it reacts with hydroxyl radicals, producing nitric acid: NO2 + ·OH → HNO3

Effects of NOx:
High concentrations of nitrogen oxides can result in respiratory problems, lowering the body's
resistance to infections, as well as participate in the production of photochemical smog
• Toxic effects at 10-30 ppm NOx
• Nose and eye irritation
• Lung tissue damage
• Pulmonary edema (swelling)
• Bronchitis
• Defense mechanisms
• Pneumonia
• Aggravate existing heart disease

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Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

• Also called hydrocarbons, entirely made of carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Examples include methane, butane, propane, and octane
• Most emitted naturally by plant and animal emissions and decomposition
of organic matter by bacteria.
• Industrial activities/automobiles are a source of anthropogenic VOCs
• VOCs are volatized or released into the air mostly during manufacture or use of
everyday products and materials
• No direct adverse health effects, but they react with other substances to
form smog

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The term Non Methanic Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOC) includes hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes y aromatics),
oxygenated compounds (alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids and ethers) and halogenated compound

Lead (Pb)
• Was used as a fuel additive to make engines run smoother, and for
plumbing pipes and in paints
• Can be inhaled or ingested
• Results in brain damage and memory loss, as well as low IQ in children
• Sources:
• gasoline (historical)
• metals processing
• Highest air Pb concentrations
• in the vicinity of nonferrous and ferrous smelters, and battery manufacturers.

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Estimated Population at Risk:

1.9 Million

http://www.worstpolluted.org/projects_reports/display/86

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Secondary Pollutants
• Particulates Matter
• Nitrogen Dioxide
• Ozone

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Particulates
• Secondary particulates can be created by the coagulation of gases
• This happens when the humidity is high
• Hygroscopic aerosols are particularly effective at being secondary
particulate pollutants

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Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

• Can be emitted directly as a primary pollutant, but most is created by the oxidation
of Nitric Oxide (NO)
• Present in car exhaust and power plants
• Toxic gas that has a pungent odor and gives the air a yellow to reddish-brown color
• Corrosive and can react with other substances to produce other secondary
pollutants
• Irritates the lungs and can reduce immunity to infection at high levels
• Breaks down readily, so at its highest levels when traffic levels are the highest

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Ozone
• Ozone can be found in both the stratosphere and
lower troposphere
• At the surface, ozone (O3) is a pollutant - it
irritates the respiratory system and damages
plants
• Created differently than it is produced in the
stratosphere
• Nitrogen dioxide is created when nitrous oxide is
oxidized. NO2 is broken down by sunlight back
into NO and O. The loose O reacts with O2 to
create ozone
• NO2
• Because it is created by sunlight, ozone is at its
highest levels in the afternoon

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The series of reactions with CO that leads to the formation of ground level ozone:

Hydroxide: OH
Hydroperoxy radical: HO2

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Bad and good ozone

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Air toxics or Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

“gaseous, aerosol or particulate pollutants (other than the six

criteria pollutants)
that are present in the air in low concentrations with
characteristics such as toxicity or persistence so as to be a
hazard to human, plant or animal life”

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Air Toxics / HAPs

• Types of toxic compounds
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• formaldehyde: lung, eye, skin irritants
• benzene, 1,3-butadiene: carcinogens
• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
• DDT, PCB, dioxins: toxic, persistent, bioaccumulate
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
• Benzo[a]pyrene: Incomplete combustion of organic matter – lung cancer, immune
system suppression, respiratory problems
• Toxic Metals (associated with PM or as gases)
• Arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, chromium: persistent, bioaccumulate, toxic -
kidney/liver damage, Central nervous System (CNS) disorders

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Air Toxics / HAPs

• Sources
• point sources: industries and other facilities emitting in a localised area
• mobile sources (eg: road vehicles, boats),
• area based sources (eg: wood burning, dry cleaning, paints, thinners)

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Scales of the air pollution

• The local scale is up to about 5 km of the earth’s surface
• The urban scale extends to the order of 50 km.
• The regional scale is from 50 to 500 km.
• Continental scales are from 500 to several 1000 km. Global

• Global scale extends worldwide Continental

Regional

Urban
Local
Scale
Neighborhood

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Scale of the air pollution problem...

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Indoor Air Pollution- Local scale

Indoor pollutants may create largest portion of health risks from air
pollution.
• ➔ We spend a lot of time indoors
• ➔ We are not far from the sources
• ➔ The biggest of these (on average) is from smoking and radon
• –Yet health effects correlate strongly with outdoor pollutant
concentrations.

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Indoor air quality is influenced by:

• Outdoor air pollution: vehicles and industrial plants
• Secondhand tobacco smoke
• Fuels used for heating and cooking
• Confined and poorly ventilated spaces
• Overcrowded homes and insufficient living space
• Customs, habits, traditions
• Level of economic development: Industrialized ≠ developing countries

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Some indoor pollutants:

• Particulate matter
•Carbon monoxide
•Secondhand tobacco smoke
•Pesticides
•Solvents
•Volatile organic compounds
•Biological pollutants - Mites - Allergens - Moulds
•Built environment
•Radon
•Asbestos

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