3.5.

5 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory

John Watson’s Behaviorism

Modern behavioral perspectives on child development were heavily influenced by the ideas of
John Locke and by the theory and research of John B. Watson, who originated the school of
behaviorism. John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that the only way to understand the child
was through the objective observation of behaviors. While behavioral theories actually come in
many forms, they share, in varying degrees, the mechanistic view that children are shaped almost
exclusively by their environments.

Rejecting inborn tendencies and the concept of freedom of choice, behavioral theorists see the
human organism as being almost completely determined by external forces, much as a piece of
clay is molded in a sculptor's hands. The emphasis is on learning and on the role of experience in
the development of the child.

Watson's behaviorism was perhaps the most radical example of a behavioral theory. While he
recognized that motor behaviors were influenced by internal structural development, Watson
believed that, for the most part, a child's pattern of development is determined by what it learns
and not by instinctive or inherited tendencies. For this reason, the caretaker plays a crucial role
in shaping the child into the kind of person it will become. Indeed, Watson believed that children
could be formed into virtually anything that adults wanted them to be. As he once said,
Give me a dozen healthy infants and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I
might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggar man and
thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors, There is no such thing as an inheritance of capacity, talent, temperament,
mental constitution, and behavioral characteristics (Watson, 1925)
Watson agreed that the human mind is a blank slate at birth and that the child is molded by
environmental experience. Because behaviorism has been continually expanded and modified
through social learning theory, particularly the ideas of Albert Bandura (1925), now exerts the
greatest behaviorist influence on the field of child development today. Watson's behaviorism,
with its view of the human being as passively reacting to environmental impressions, was clearly
a mechanistic theory.
Social learning theory, on the other hand, is not nearly so radical. Unlike the early behaviorists,
who described the environment's influence on human behavior in one-directional terms, social
learning theorists maintain that behavior results from an interaction of three interdependent
forces: the individual characteristics of the person, the behavior exhibited by that person, and the
environment in which the person lives. Thus, Bandura suggested that human beings are
influenced by both the outside world and by the environments that they create for themselves.

5.5.5.1 Theories of Learning

Behavioral Learning Theory
Focus on observable behavior/ performance, action of the organism. Classical conditioning and
operant conditioning are two of the models under behavioral theory of learning.
Classical Conditioning
Founder is Ivan Pavlov. It is also named as Pavlovian theory (respondent theory). This theory
aims to account for the way, in which reflexive (automatic) behavior may become associated
with new stimulus that doesn’t naturally activate behavior. Conditioning means modification of
the natural response. The classical conditioning indicates the transformation of unconditioned
stimulus (Us) to conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned response (UR) to conditioned
response (CR). Pavlov’s experiment has three (3) phases. The model would be shown in the
following way.
1. Before conditioning-Where there is presentation of food (NS, UCs)----salivation(UR)
- Sound of the bell-------No response
2. During conditioning – sound of the bell +Food+saliva (UR).
3. After conditioning – sound of the bell (CS) --------Saliva (CR).
Stimulus means anything in the environment that can be detected by our sense, or it is an event
that produces a response.
Basic Elements involved in classical conditioning are the following.
 Unconditioned stimulus (US, UCS, Natural stimulus)- It is a stimulus that naturally cause a
response. For example, food in the Pavlovian experiment.
 Unconditioned response is response to unconditioned stimulus, E.g. Salivation due to food.
 Conditioned stimulus (CS, Neutral stimulus)-It does not produce any specific response, but
it produces a specific response after being paired with unconditioned stimulus (us).
 Conditioned response is response to conditioned stimulus. E.g., Salivation due to bell. This
is stimulus substitution.
Processes involved in the classical conditioning.
 Extinction-it refers to inhibition of the conditioned response due to the termination or stop of
unconditioned stimulus.
 Spontaneous recovery-the reappearance of conditioned response or reappearance of extinct
conditioned response (CR) with the presentation of unconditioned stimuli/UCS.
 Stimulus generalization- is a condition where learners respond to similar stimulus other
than the original one. E.g., responding to the telephone sound instead of original bell.
 Stimulus discrimination-is a condition in which learners respond specifically to the original
stimulus, but not to another stimulus.
 Higher-order conditioning, also known as second-order conditioning, in classical
conditioning is a form of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired
with a conditioned stimulus, that is already associated with a desired response through
conditioning, to become another conditioned stimulus itself.

Operant Conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

For this theory the originator is B.F Skinner. The central principle of operant conditioning is that
when an operant is followed by reinforcement the probability of its latter occurrence increases.
In addition to this behavioral formation is basically the result of the effect of behavioral
contingencies. The issue of Reinforcement and Punishment is central in this model.
Reinforcement refers to an event, action (stimuli) following a response that increases the
likelihood (the probability of behavior) to occur again. There are two types of reinforcement.
A. Positive reinforcement-refers to the presentation of pleasant stimulus (action), which
increases the likelihood or the response to occur again. Positive reinforcement can be primary
and secondary reinforcement. Primary reinforcers are any event or stimulus that satisfies our
basic or biological needs like water, sex, food, air, sleep…while secondary reinforcers are
that do not satisfy our basic needs directly like money, grade…
B. Negative reinforcement- any consequence that increases the likelihood or response by
removing a bad stimulus (unpleasant stimulus).

Punishment- actions or consequences taken following response that decrease the probability that
the response will occur again. Punishment can be also positive or negative.

A. Positive punishment-indicates the presentation of unpleasant stimulus. Positive punishment

is a form of behavior modification. In this case, the word “positive” doesn’t refer to
something pleasant. Positive punishment is adding something to the mix that will result in an
unpleasant consequence. The goal is to decrease the likelihood that the unwanted behavior
will happen again in the future.
 When a behavior decreases following the application of unpleasant stimuli. Example:
Beating  Misbehavior; getting spanking for disobeying
B. Negative punishment- is removal of reinforcement.
What happened when you were a child, and you did something wrong? Often, I suppose you
were punished. Maybe you had to do extra chores or give away some of your allowance money.
Negative punishment is the act of removing a stimulus to remove a certain undesirable
behavior. Negative punishment, an operant conditioning technique, reduces a behavior or
response by taking away a favorable stimulus. For example, if your child is making a mess of
their toys, you can take a toy away to incentivize them to pick them up next time. We’ll start by
defining exactly what negative punishment is. It decreases the probability of a behavior to be
repeated by removing pleasant stimuli. Example: Reducing salary  Absence; losing a
privilege for not studying.

Shaping- is teaching a chain of simple response that leading to the final response. It is
reinforcing the simple response to reach the final response. The final response is learned
because; steps leading to the final response are reinforced. Since, these steps are approximation
of the final responses the method sometimes called method of successive approximation.
Schedules of Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement refers to the patterns by which reinforcement is given. In some case,
a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be
reinforced at all. Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used,
depending on the situation. There are two types of reinforcement schedules.
 Continuous reinforcement- the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.
 Partial reinforcement- it is also known as intermittent reinforcement. In partial
reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. There are four schedules of
partial reinforcement.
 Fixed-ratio schedule- a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
 Variable-ratio schedule- occurs when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable
number of responses. This schedule creates a highly steady rate of responding. Gambling
and unpredictability winning lottery games.
 Fixed-interval schedule- are those where the first response is rewarded only after a
specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding
near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of
the reinforce. For example- providing food to dog every 5 minutes.
  Variable- interval schedule- occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable
amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a remarkably, stable and uniform
performance that is resistant to extinction.

Social /Observational Learning Theory

The proponent of the theory was Albert Bandura. According to him, learning is not simply a
matter of reacting to stimuli: but to people’s interpretations of stimuli after they have been
processed. In observational learning, people serve as models, and we learn complete patterns of
behavior from them (learning by imitation). Cultural influences, Peer pressure, group dynamics
and film and television are some of the significant factors. Albert Bandura, notes that there are
four stages to be considered in learning through modeling.
Attention: In order to learn through modeling, we have to pay attention to the behavior of the
model. We typically, pay, attention people who are attractive, popular, competent, or admire.
Retention: In order to imitate the behavior of a model, you have to remember it. This involves
mentally representing the model’s actions in some way.
Reproduction: Mental rehearsal or by actual practice helps us remember the element of the
desired behavior
Motivation and Reinforcement: - Reinforcement can play several roles in observational
learning. If we anticipate being reinforced for imitating the actions of a model, we may be move
motivated to pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behaviors.

3.5.6 Cognitive and Moral Developmental Theories

In contrast to behavioral theories, cognitive developmental theories emphatically reject the idea
of a single, or even a primary, direction of influence on a child's development. Rather than
emphasizing environmental influences on behavior, they instead stress the interaction between
the organism and the external world.
The underlying assumption of cognitive developmental theory is the organismic view that
children grow to be what they make themselves to be rather than what the environment makes
them.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The most influential of the cognitive-developmental theorists was Jean Piaget (1896-1980),
whose ideas revolutionized our understanding of children's cognitive abilities.
Piaget suggested that the way children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults
think. Let us discuss four underlying assumptions of the theory that make it typical of the
cognitive developmental approach.
First, the human being is an active, dynamic organism. Piaget believed that human beings are
self-regulating, in that they constantly seek a balance between their inner selves and the
external world. Therefore, the motivation for growth is internal. For example, if a teenager
holding a set of political views is given new information that is not consistent with his or her
philosophy, and if that information is comprehensible, the teenager feels compelled to integrate
the new material into his or her way of thinking. In a sense, he or she tries to restore a balance
between the worlds as they think of it and the world as they experience it. Thus, the human being
is a constantly changing organism.
Second, development involves interaction between the self and the environment. Piaget was a
true interactionist, as are all cognitive-developmental theorists. The individual simultaneously
influences and is influenced by the environment; as a result, the relative contributions of innate
characteristics and external factors to development are impossible to determine. This means, a
cognitive development is a progressive reorganization of mental process as a result of biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.
Third, development occurs in a series of qualitatively different stages. Unlike quantitative
change, which is characterized by differences in the amount of information a person has,
qualitative change is characterized by differences in the way that person thinks. The stages of
development occur in an invariant sequence. They are characterized not by specific
accomplishments but by general patterns of thinking. A developmental stage is a time period
within the life cycle characterized by a particular cluster of physical, emotional, intellectual, or
social characteristics. Cognitive-developmental theorists are interested primarily in the
intellectual characteristics. These stages are hierarchically arranged, meaning that each stage
incorporates and elaborates upon those that came before.
Fourth, the interest is in the underlying structure and process of human thought rather than on
the external behaviors that result from it. Unlike behavioral theories, cognitive-developmental
theories are unapologetically process-oriented. The emphasis is neither on what people do nor on
what they know, but on how they think about the world around them. Whereas psychoanalytic
theories stress the importance of the unconscious, cognitive theories emphasize conscious
thoughts.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory states that children go through four stages of cognitive
development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. Two processes underlie
this cognitive construction of the world: organization and adaptation. To make sense of our
world, we organize our experiences. In addition to organizing our observations and experiences,
individuals adapt, adjusting to new environmental demands. Adaptation involves two
complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is the process of fitting reality into one’s current cognitive organization. In every
cognitive encounter with objects or events, there is a degree of “bending” or distorting of
experience as people attempt to incorporate, understand, or interpret this experience. In other
words, people apply what they know in order to understand properties of objects and events as
well as relationships between properties and events.
Accommodation is the other side of the coin. This term refers to adjustments in cognitive
organization that result from the demands of reality. Every object or event has special
characteristics that must be taken into account sooner or later. In a sense, accommodation occurs
because the current structures have failed to interpret a particular object or event satisfactorily.
The resulting reorganization of thought leads to a different and more satisfactory assimilation of
the experience.
Assimilation and accommodation are so related, in fact, that Piaget sometimes defines adaptation
as an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation. In a state of equilibrium, neither
assimilation nor accommodation dominates.
Piaget held that we go through four stages in understanding the world Each stage is age-related
and consists of a distinct way of thinking, a different way of understanding the world.
Sensormotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, is the first Piagetian stage. In
this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences
(such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions—hence the term sensorimotor. The
most important concept acquired during the sensorimotor period is the notion of object
permanence: An object continues to exist even when one cannot see, hear, or feel it.
The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age, is Piaget’s second
stage. In this stage, children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with
physical action and represent the world with words, images, and drawings. However, according
to Piaget, preschool children still lack the ability to perform what he calls operations, which are
internalized mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously could only do
physically. The main characteristics of preoperational thought are egocentrism, rigidity of
thought, semilogical reasoning, and limited social cognition. Egocentrism does not refer to
selfishness or arrogance, and Piaget did not use it in a derogatory way. Rather, the term refers to
(a) the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world, including other people, and (b) the
tendency to perceive, understand, and interpret the world in terms of the self.
The concrete operational stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age, is the third
Piagetian stage. In this stage, children can perform operations that involve objects, and they can
reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. For
instance, concrete operational thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete an
algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development. Children also
Achieve conservation.
The formal operational stage, which appears between the ages of 11 and 15 and continues
through adulthood, is Piaget’s fourth and final stage. In this stage, individuals move beyond
concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more
abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances. They might think about what an
ideal parent is like and compare their parents to this ideal standard. They begin to entertain
possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what they can be. In solving problems, they
become more systematic, developing hypotheses about why something is happening the way it is
and then testing these hypotheses.
Human Nature
Piaget’s worldview clearly fits into the organismic rather than the mechanistic or contextual
views. He posited an inherently active organism. Children tirelessly explore, hypothesize, test,
and evaluate; they do this either overtly (particularly in the sensorimotor period) or covertly (as
in the manipulation of symbols, concrete operations, and formal operations).

No external motivation is necessary. Children are intrinsically motivated; schemes are used
simply because they exist. Once activated, they tend to be repeated. In other words, “To be is to
do.” The Piagetian child is a self-regulating, organized whole as he strives to maintain
equilibrium both within himself and with the environment.

Nature Versus Nurture

Piaget was an interactionist. All knowledge, from the most specific and concrete sensorimotor
behavior to the most general and abstract formal thought, is a by-product of the intertwined
influences of innate and experiential factors. Innate factors include physical structures (for
example, the structure and positioning of the particular species’ eyes), reflexes, physical
maturation, and the invariant functions (organization and adaptation). Given these innate factors
and the nature of the physical and social world, development inevitably proceeds in the way it
does. It could not be otherwise.
Piaget proposed the following four-factor “formula” for development:
Development = Physical maturation + Experience with the physical environment + Social
experience + Equilibration
Applications
 Educators have applied Piaget’s theory to instruction. One example is his notion of
“readiness”—that a child can profit from instruction only if she is cognitively ready to
assimilate it to her present cognitive structures or accommodate her structures to the
experience. Instruction in calculus would not be successful with most 5-year-olds.
 Another important notion is that learning is most likely to occur when the child actively
participates and, for children who have not yet reached formal operations, when teachers
present problems in a concrete rather than abstract way. Moreover, the theory suggests that
teachers should teach concepts in a particular sequence of developmental steps. In addition,
for true understanding, children must learn the concepts underlying mathematical and
scientific knowledge, rather than just memorize facts. Piaget would have been critical of
“teaching to the test.” He criticized typical educational assessments for focusing on correct
answers rather than on children’s thought processes for reaching the answers. In short, a
teacher mainly provides guidance and resources so that children can teach themselves.
 Provide educational experience for children based on the developmental level of children.
 Encourage self-learning environment: classroom activities that encourage and assist self-
learning must be incorporated.
 Incorporate practice learning in the classroom learning.
  Inclination of o-curricular activities that enhance cognitive development of children.
 Development of mature thinking-children learn and think different from adults differently
and they should be taught accordingly.

The Neo-Piagetians
Many of the problems and limitations raised concerning Piaget’s theory have been addressed by
a group of developmental psychologists labeled “neo-Piagetian.” They are Piagetian in their
belief in children’s active construction of some sort of stages and in structural change. They
believe that lower-level concepts are integrated to form more complex higher-level concepts.
However, they are “neo” in their inclusion of information-processing constructs such as skills,
limited memory capacity, and domain-specific concepts.

Domain-specific concepts or cognitive structures are those that pertain only to a particular area
or areas, such as role taking or number. Thus, a careful analysis of particular tasks is necessary.
In contrast, Piaget tended to emphasize the domain-general application of cognitive structures.
Neo-Piagetians also are “neo” in that they draw on the social-contextual idea of social supports
for emerging cognitive skills and on dynamic systems theory. There are two main neo-
Piagetians;

Robbie Case: Case, like Piaget, addressed cognitive changes from one level to the next. Case,
however, attributed much of such change to increased working memory capacity or, in his
words, executive processing space: “the maximum number of independent schemes a child can
activate at any one time”. For Case, an increase in the efficiency of using one’s working memory
capacity, rather than the equilibration process, is a major mechanism for development. Capacity
can increase in two ways. First, practice with a skill, such as counting, makes it faster and more
automatic. Second, brain maturation increases the amount of information children can handle on
many different tasks.
When children experiment during attempts to solve problems, they explore objects, observe and
imitate other people, and interact with others as together they solve a problem. Case’s theory is
an interesting attempt to integrate a structural model and a processing model of development. He
showed how limits in processing capacity and social experience limit logical reasoning and
constrain what the child can learn at any developmental level.
Kurt Fischer: Fischer agrees with Case in many ways. Fischer’s particular contribution is that
he addresses one of the main challenges to Piaget’s stage theory—the observed variability in
children’s behavior, when stage like consistency would be predicted level are routine and
pervasive and they need to be explained, not ignored”. Fischer’s dynamic structuralism offers a
solution by addressing why and how variability occurs. Dynamic structuralism refers to
organized thinking, constantly changing and variable in its expression, depending on past and
current contexts. Thus, Fischer, like Case, keeps the notion of cognitive structures but argues that
they are not static; he focuses on children’s activities in social-cultural contexts that both
construct and express these structures. He draws on dynamic-systems theory to describe stability
(e.g., patterns of variability) underlying the constantly changing cognitive system. The context,
especially the supportive social context, is key. Children gradually construct their thinking and
learning skills as they use them in activities in various contexts. A skill, defined as “the capacity
to act in an organized way in a specific context” (Fischer & Bidell, 2006), includes abilities such
as storytelling, counting, forming relationships with others, and reading. Children are most likely
to be advanced in their concept of number, and use it, if they are raised in an environment with
support for developing and using this skill. They may be less advanced with respect to other
skills generally considered to be in the same stage if they have had little support or training for
these skills. Thus, children are not “in” one stage or another.

Rather, children will show various levels of cognitive functioning across various domains,
depending on the opportunities for developing a particular skill in their social environments.
Fischer uses the term dynamic skills to communicate their changing, self-organizing, variable
nature.
In summary, neo-Piagetians enrich and specify Piaget’s theory, rather than contradict it. Their
main contributions are to draw on information processing and dynamic systems theories to (1)
propose a promising set of processes, such as social support and increases in working memory,
that account for developmental change and intrachild and interchild variability, and (2) clarify
and refine the notion of stages, for example, by attempting to differentiate domain-general and
domain-specific achievements.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Objectives: after completing this section, the student-teachers should be able to:-
 Define the term moral development.
 Identify the various views of moral development.
 Describe Kohlberg levels of moral development.
 State the educational implications of moral theories.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of the
stages of moral development.
The Heinz Dilemma and Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development
Sometimes in life, we are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to do something supposedly
bad under normal circumstances, in order to salvage a dire situation, and restore positivity and
order. Most of these times, we choose to go for it, and commit the not so pleasant act, reasoning
that the intention behind, and expected outcome of such an action is positive, and involves
good faith. This is the part of the premises of ethics and morality, where the concept of Heinz
dilemma comes into the picture.
Heinz is the name of the nominal character of this case study on moral dilemma. Heinz’s wife
was suffering from a type of cancer and was fast approaching mortality. Around that time, a local
druggist had discovered a kind of radium-based drug, which was touted by doctors as the only
cure for this malady at that time. However, this druggist intended on commercializing his
discovery, and making as much money as he could by selling the drug at a price of USD 2000,
which was ten times the cost (USD 200) of manufacturing it. Heinz knew this and went to
everyone he knew to borrow money to pay for that drug, in order to save his wife’s life.
However, he could only manage to get USD 1000, which was half of what the druggist had
charged. All his entreaties for being allowed to have the drug in return for paying the rest of the
amount later fell on deaf ears. Hence, Heinz followed the adage called desperate times call for
desperate measures, broke into the druggist’s shop and stole the drug. This is where the first and
most significant of Heinz dilemma questions arise: should he or should he not have stolen the
drug? To answer this, we must take a brief look of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.

What is moral development?

Morality can be defined as the correctness and wrongness or the goodness and badness of certain
behavior. Look at the following situations: cheating at exam, killing people or animals,
respecting elders, sharing the problems of your neighbor. Are such issues always bad or good?
There is a vast of moral question in every culture. Morality involves evaluation or judgment
which are specifically related to the goodness and badness of something and the evaluation of
ideas and actions as right or wrong is so personal, subjective, and relative that what is considered
as right by one person may be considered wrong by another person.

Moral development concerns the development of moral values and behavior. Moral values are
beliefs about what is right and wrong; moral behavior refers to actions consistent with these
beliefs. Moral development is closely tied to other aspects of psychological growth. The ability
to think and reason enables moral judgment, social and emotional development leads to moral
values and empathy, and personality development includes the growth of conscience. Moral
development influences the development of “prosocial” or altruistic behavior—actions such as
sharing, cooperating, and helping performed for the benefit of others without expectation of a
reward. There are six stages of moral development which are grouped into three levels: pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.

A. Pre-Conventional
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults
can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners in the pre-conventional level judge the
morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first
and second stages of moral development and is purely concerned with the self in an egocentric
manner.
In stage one- (obedience and punishment orientation): individuals focus on the direct
consequences that their actions will have for themselves. For example, an action is perceived as
morally wrong if the person who commits it gets punished. The worse the punishment for the act
is, the worse i.e., the more 'bad' the act is perceived to be.
There are two approaches for this stage.
 The first one says that Heinz should not have stolen the drug, as it would get him
imprisoned, making him a bad person in the eyes of the society.
 The second approach says that Heinz did nothing wrong as the druggist was overcharging
him. The druggist wanted USD 2000 for a USD 200 worth medicine, and when Heinz
offered to pay him USD 1000, he was as it is ready to overpay. Besides, when Heinz
broke in, he didn’t steal any other object except the drug.
In stage two (self-interest orientation): espouses what’s in it for me position; right behavior
being defined by what is in one's own best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest
in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further one's own interests, such as you
scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours. In stage two, concern for others is not based on loyalty or
intrinsic respect.

This is all about self-centered priorities. If Heinz feels that saving his wife’s life would make him
happy, even if he has to serve prison term for it, then he would not see anything wrong with
stealing the drug. On the other hand, Heinz would not steal the medicine, as languishing in
prison may seem a far more harrowing experience than mourning over his wife’s dead body.

B. Conventional:

The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescent and adults. Persons who
reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing these actions to societal
views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral
development.
In stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven): the self enters society by filling
social roles. Individuals are receptive of approval or disapproval from other people as it reflects
society's accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a good boy or good girl to live up to
these expectations, having learned that there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning
may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person's
relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude and the ’golden rule’.
Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further support these stereotypical social
roles.
In stage four (authority and social order obedience driven): it is important to obey laws,
dictums and social convention because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage
three; society must learn to transcend individual needs. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe
what is right and wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law,
perhaps everyone would - thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When
someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability (accountability) is thus a significant
factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones.
C. Post-Conventional
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, consists of stages five and six of
moral development. Realization that individuals are separate entities from society now becomes
salient. One's own perspective should be viewed before the society's. It is due to this 'nature of
self before others' that the post-conventional level, especially stage six, is sometimes mistaken
for pre-conventional behaviors.
In stage five (social contract driven Right to Life and Compensation): individuals are
viewed as holding different opinions and values. Along a similar vein, laws are regarded as
social contracts rather than rigid dictums. Those that do not promote the general welfare should
be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is
attained through majority decision, and inevitably compromise. In this way democratic
government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
Under this stage, Heinz’s action may be justified saying that every human being has a right to
live, and the value of life is way above law, and it should be saved if possible. On the other hand,
the right to remuneration for labor, justifies the druggist’s dismay, by stating that the discoverer
has a right to fair compensation, and by stealing the medicine, Heinz has violated this right.
In stage six (universal ethical principles driven): moral reasoning is based on abstract
reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice and that a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
Action is never a means but always an end in itself; one acts because it is right, and not because
it is instrumental, expected, legal or previously agreed upon.
This stage argues the validity of a human life above the rights to property. On the other hand, it
also argues the fact that others may also be in desperate need of the same property and may be in
a position to pay for it. Therefore, by stealing it, Heinz may have denied both the discoverer of
his fair compensation, and another party of the benefits of that drug.
Educational implications of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
 It enables teachers to understand the different levels of moral understanding of learners.
 It enables teachers to give proper guidance to students about their moral behavior.
 It allows teachers to help learners respect others and develop feelings of cooperation for
others.
 It provides a framework for understanding moral development and has practical applications
in shaping moral education programs, promoting moral decision making and promoting
moral reasoning skills.