UNIVERSITY OF ILESA, ILESA, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MTH 101 (ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS) NOTES ON

TOPIC CONTENT

❖ Circular Measure,
❖ Trigonometric Functions of Angles of any Magnitude,
❖ Compound, Multiple and Factor Formulae.
❖ Applications of Trigonometry in Right-angled Triangles

TOPIC TAUGHT BY:

DR. M. O. ADEYEMI
 TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is a branch of Mathematics that deals with the study of the relationships
between the angles and sides of triangles. Trigonometry is based on the ratios of the
sides of right-angled triangles and involves three primary trigonometric functions: sine
(sin), cosine (cos) and tangent (tan) as well as their reciprocal functions: cosecant
(cosec), secant (sec) and cotangent (cot).
1. CIRCULAR MEASURE (MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES)
Angles are formed by an initial side and a terminal side. An initial side is said to be in
standard position when its vertex is located at the origin and the ray goes along the
positive x-axis.

An angle is measured by the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.
A positive angle is made by a rotation in the counterclockwise direction and a negative
angle is made by a rotation in the clockwise direction.
Units of Measuring Angles
Angles are generally measured in degrees or radians. The degrees are commonly used in
elementary Mathematics. However, many mathematical formulae and trigonometric
functions are more naturally expressed in radians, particularly in Calculus and Advanced
Mathematics. The radian measure is based on radius of a circle. A radian is the angle
subtended at the centre of circle by an arc whose length equals the radius of the circle.

1
In radian, one full circle (360º) is equivalent to 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠. This is because the
circumference of a circle is 2𝜋 times its radius. Hence 180º = 𝜋 radians (This is half of a
complete revolution.
Generally,
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = ( ) 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
180

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = ( )1800
𝜋

Examples
1. Express the following angles in radians
(i) 2350 (ii) 18036’
Solution
235
(i) 2350 = (180) 𝜋 = 1.3𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 4.1𝑟𝑎𝑑
(ii) 18036’ = 18.60
18.6
= ( 180 ) 𝜋 = 0.1𝜋 = 0.325 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2. Express the following angles in degrees and minutes correct to nearest minutes
𝜋
(i) -2.58 radians (ii) radians
12

Solution
−2.58×180
(i) -2.58 radians = degrees =-147.7630
𝜋
= -1470 46’ correct to nearest minutes
𝜋 𝜋 180 0
(ii) radians = (12 × ) = 150
12 𝜋

Exercises
1. Express the following angles in radians (i) 370 (ii) -1430 10’ (iii) 1290
11 𝜋
2. Express in degrees (i) 5 radians (ii) 3.2 radians (iii) 5 radians

2. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES AND THEIR DEFINITIONS

Trigonometric Ratios of Acute Angles

The ratios of sides of right-angled triangle are called trigonometric ratios.
Consider a triangle ABC right-angled at B. These ratios are always defined with respect
to  A or  C. If one of the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle is known, the remaining
trigonometric ratios of an angle can be easily determined.
For an acute angle 𝜃, the trigonometric ratios are defined as:

2
 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
1. Sine (sin 𝜃) = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 : SOH
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
2. Cosine (cos 𝜃) = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 : CAH
sin 𝜃 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
3. Tangent (tan 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 : TOA

𝑦 𝑟

𝜃
B C
𝑥

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
cosec 𝜃 = 𝑦 sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
𝑥 𝑦

We have the following relationships between the six ratios:

1 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 tan 𝜃
𝑦 𝑟
𝑦 sin 𝜃 𝑥 𝑦 cos 𝜃
Also tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 = 𝑟⁄𝑥 = cos 𝜃 and cot 𝜃 = 𝑦 = ⁄𝑟 = sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑥

By Pythagoras Theorem
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟2
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑟2
+ 𝑟2 = 1

𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝑖. 𝑒. ( ) +( ) =1
𝑟 𝑟

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1
This may be rewritten as 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
In addition, we have:
𝑦2 𝑥 2+𝑦 2 𝑟2
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 + 𝑥 2 = = 𝑥2
𝑥2

∴ 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝑥2 𝑦 2+𝑥 2 𝑟2
And 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 1 + 𝑦 2 = = 𝑦2
𝑦2

∴ 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

3
The above relationships which are true generally for any acute angle enable us to
calculate all the trigonometric ratios if one is known and of value in rewriting trigonometric
expression in alternative and simplest forms
Examples
1
1. If sin 𝜃 = and 00 < 𝜃 < 900, find the values of other trigonometric ratios.
3

Solution
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
1 2 8
= 1 - (3) = 9

2√2
cos 𝜃 = 3
1
𝑦 sin 𝜃 1 √2
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 = = 3
2√2
= 2√2 =
cos 𝜃 4
3

1
cosec 𝜃 = =3
sin 𝜃

1 3 3√2
sec 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
2√2 4

1
cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = 2√2
sin 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃 2
2. Show that + = sin 𝜃
1+cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

Solution
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃+(1+cos 𝜃)(1+cos 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃+1+cos 𝜃+cos 𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃)
=
sin 𝜃(1+cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃(1+cos 𝜃)

2+2 cos 𝜃 2(1+cos 𝜃)

= =
sin 𝜃(1+cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃(1+cos 𝜃)

2
=
sin 𝜃

1+sin 𝜃 1+sec 𝜃
3. Show that (1+cos 𝜃 ) (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 ) = tan 𝜃

Solution
1 cos 𝜃+1
1+sin 𝜃 1+ 1+sin 𝜃
L.H.S. = (1+cos 𝜃 ) ( 𝑐0𝑠 𝜃
1
cos 𝜃
) = (1+cos 𝜃 ) ( sin 𝜃+1 )
1+
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃

1+sin 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

= (1+cos 𝜃 ) ( ) (1+sin 𝜃 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

sin 𝜃
= cos 𝜃

= tan 𝜃

4
 sin 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃
4. Show that =
1−cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Solution
𝐿.𝐻.𝑆
This can either be shown by L.H.S – R.H.S = 0 Or =1
𝑅.𝐻.𝑆

Sin 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃−(1−𝐶𝑂𝑆 2 𝜃) 1−1

− = = sin 𝜃(1−cos 𝜃) = 0
1−cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃(1−cos 𝜃)

sin 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃
Hence L.H.S. = R.H.S 𝑖. 𝑒. 1−cos 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

OR
𝐿.𝐻.𝑆 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃
= (1−cos 𝜃 )(1+cos 𝜃 ) = =1
𝑅.𝐻.𝑆 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃

sin 𝜃 1 + cos 𝜃
∴ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑖. 𝑒. =
1 − cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐄𝐱𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐬
12
1. If cos 𝑥 = 13 and 00 < 𝜃 < 900, evaluate sin 𝑥, tan 𝑥, cot 𝑥, sec 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
3
2. If tan 𝑥 = 2 and 00 < 𝜃 < 900, evaluate sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥
3. If 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃, simplify 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
1
4. If 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 5 show that 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 2
5. Show that 4 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 1
6. Show that (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 1
7. Show that tan 𝑥 + cot 𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
5 cos 𝑥−2 sin 𝑥
8. Given that sin 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0° < 𝜃 < 90°. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
13 2 tan 𝑥
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃−1
9. Show that (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃+1) = 1
1+sin 𝜃
10. Show that (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃)2 = 1−sin 𝜃

Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles

Trigonometric ratios of some special angles are defined as the ratio of the sides of a right-
angle triangle with respect to a special acute angle. The special angles to be considered
include 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
Trigonometric Ratios of 30° and 60°
Consider an equilateral triangle ABC of sides 2 units. We know that in an equilateral
triangle all the angles should be equal to 60°. Therefore, ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°.
Now, to obtain the trigonometric ratios of 30° and 60°, draw the perpendicular line AD
from vertex A to the side BC, which bisects ∠BAC so that ∠BAD = ∠CAD = 30°, as shown
below.

5
 √𝟑

1 1

By Pythagoras theorem, AD = √3 units.

Hence, the value of the trigonometric ratios of 60° and 30° are:
Sin 60° = √3/2 and sin 30° = ½; Cosec 60° = 2/√3 and cosec 30° = 2
Cos 60° = 1/2 and cos 30° = √3/2; Sec 60° = 2 and see 30° = 2/√3
Tan 60° =√3 and tan 30° = 1/√3; Cot 60° = 1/√3 and cot 30° = √3
Trigonometric Ratios of 45°
Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC with AB = BC = 1 unit.
Then ∠B=90° and ∠A = ∠C = 45° as shown in the figure below.

√𝟐 𝟏

𝟏
By Pythagoras theorem, AC = √2 units.
Hence, the value of the trigonometric ratios of 45° are:
Sin 45° = 1√2; Cos 45° = 1/√2; Tan 45° = 1
Cosec 45° = √2; Sec 45°=√2; Cot 45° = 1.
Trigonometric Ratios of 0° and 90°
Consider the same triangle ABC which is right-angled at B. Let us see what happens
when the trigonometricratioofangleAismadesmallerandsmallertillitbecomeszero.

It is observed that ∠A is very close to 0°, the side BC also get close to 0 unit.
Then Sin A=BC/AC is close to 0. Hence, Sin 0° = 0.
Similarly, if ∠A is very close to 0°, AC is the same as AB, so that CosA = AB/AC = 1.
6
Hence, Cos 0° = 1.
With these two observations, we can derive the other ratios of 0° as:
tan0° = sin0°/cos0° = 0/1 = 0; cot0° = 1/tan0° = 1/0 = Not defined (∞);
cosec0° = 1/sin0° = Not defined (∞); sec0° = 1/cos0° = 1/1 = 1.
Similarly, consider the triangle ABC which is right-angled at B. What happens when the
trigonometric ratio of ∠A is made larger and larger till it becomes 90°?

It is observed that if ∠C is very close to 0°, ∠A is very close to 90°, and AC = BC, so
that sin A is very close to 1. i.e. sin 90° = 1.
Similarly, when ∠A is very close to 90°, then ∠C is very close to 0°, and AB =0, so that
cos A is very close to 0. Hence, cos 90° = 0.
Therefore, tan90° = sin90°/cos90° = 1/0 = ∞; and cot90° = 1/tan90° = 1/∞ = 0;
cosec90° = 1/sin90° = 1/1 = 1; and sec90° = 1/cos90° = 1/0 = ∞.
In summary, the trigonometric ratios of these special angles and that of multiples of
90° are presented in the Table 1 below.

Example:
Evaluate the expression sin60°cos30° + sin30°cos60°.
Solution: Given Expression: sin60°cos30° + sin30°cos60°
sin30°=1/2; cos30°=√3/2; sin60°=√3/2; and cos60°=1/2.

7
Substitute the values of sin30°, cos30°, sin60° and cos60° into the given expression,
sin60°cos30° + sin30°cos60° = (√3/2)(√3/2) + (½)(½)
= (¾) + (¼)
= (3+1)/4
= 4/4 = 1.
Therefore, sin60°cos30° + sin30°cos60° = 1.
Exercise
1. Evaluate the expression 2tan2 45° + cos2 30° – sin260°.
2. Is sinθ = cosθ for all values of θ ? Justify your answer.

Fundamental Identities of Trigonometric Functions

Reciprocal Identities
sin 𝜃 = 1/(csc 𝜃); csc 𝜃 = 1/(sin 𝜃);
cos 𝜃 = 1/(sec 𝜃); sec 𝜃 = 1/(cos 𝜃);
tan 𝜃 = 1/(cot 𝜃); cot 𝜃 = 1/(tan 𝜃).
Quotient Identities
tan 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃)/(cos 𝜃)
cot 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃)/(sin 𝜃)
Pythagorean Identities
sin²𝜃 + cos²𝜃 = 1
1+ tan²𝜃 = sec²𝜃
1+ cot²𝜃 = csc²𝜃

Negative Angle Identities

sin(−𝜃) = −sin𝜃; cos(−𝜃) = cos𝜃; tan(−𝜃) = −tan𝜃;
csc(−𝜃) = −csc𝜃; sec(−𝜃) = sec𝜃; cot(−𝜃) = −cot𝜃.
Complementary Angle Theorem
If two acute angles add up to be 90°, they are considered complementary.
The following are considered cofunctions:
sine and cosine; tangent and cotangent; secant and cosecant.

8
The complementary angle theorem says that cofunctions of complimentary angles are
equal.
Cofunction Identities
cos(90°−𝜃) = sin𝜃 sec(90°−𝜃) = csc𝜃 sin(90°−𝜃) = cos𝜃
csc(90°−𝜃) = sec𝜃 tan(90°−𝜃) = cot𝜃 cot(90°−𝜃) = tan𝜃

For example, 1. sin54° = cos36°.

2. To find cos30°, cos30° = sin(90°−30°)
= sin60° = /2.
√3

The use of these identities to find values of trigonometric functions are illustrated below.
Examples
1. Find the exact value of the expression sin²30° +cos²30°
Solution: Since sin²𝜃 + cos²𝜃 = 1, therefore sin²30° + cos²30° = 1

2. Find the exact value of the expression tan45°−sin45°/cos45°

Solution: Since (sin45°/cos45°) = tan45°,
therefore tan45°−sin45°/cos45° = tan45°−tan45° = 0
3. Evaluate tan35°⋅cos35°⋅csc35°
Solution: tan35°⋅cos35°⋅csc35° = (sin35°/cos35°) ⋅ (cos35°/1) ⋅ (1/sin35°)

= 1.
4. Evaluate tan22°−cot68°
Solution: tan22° = cot68° , since tangent and cotangent are cofunctions.
Therefore, cot68°−cot68° = 0
5. Given that cot𝜃 = −2/3 , find csc𝜃, where 𝜃 is in quadrant II
Solution: Pick an identity that relates cotangent to cosecant, like the Pythagorean
identity, 1 + cot² 𝜃 = csc² 𝜃.
 1 + (−2/3 )2 = csc² θ

 1 + 4/9 = csc² 𝜃
 13/9 = csc² 𝜃

 /3 = csc𝜃.
√13

The positive square root is chosen because csc is positive in quadrant II

9
3. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE/THEOREMS
i. Sum and Difference Formulae
In this section we will use formulas that involve the sum or difference of two angles,
call the sum and difference formulas.
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin𝛼cos𝛽 + cos𝛼sin𝛽 sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin𝛼cos𝛽 −cos𝛼sin𝛽
cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos𝛼cos𝛽 − sin𝛼sin𝛽 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos𝛼cos𝛽 + sin𝛼sin𝛽
tanα+tanβ tanα−tanβ
tan(α + β) = tan(α − β) =
1−tanαtanβ 1+tanαtanβ

Examples
1. Find the exact value of cos105°
Solution: We can break 105° into 60° and 45° since those values are relatively easy to
find. Therefore cos105° = cos(60°+45°)= cos60°cos45°−sin60°sin45°

2. Find the exact value of sin15°

Solution: sin15° = sin(45°−30°) = sin45°cos30°−cos45°sin30°

3. Find the exact value of tan75°

Solution: tan75° = tan(45°+30°)

4. Find tan(7𝜋/12)
Solution:

10
ii. Multiple and Sub-multiple Angle Formulae
These formulae allow the use of the relationship between the six trigonometric functions
for a particular angle and find the trigonometric values of an angle that is multiple (e.g.
double) or sub-multiple (e.g. half) of the original angle.

Double Angle Formulae

cos2𝜃 = cos²𝜃 − sin²𝜃 =2cos²𝜃 −1 = 1−2sin²𝜃
sin2𝜃 = 2sin𝜃cos𝜃
2tanθ
tan2𝜃 = 1+t1−tan²θ

Half Angle Formulae

Examples
1. Given that tan𝜃 = 5/12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 3𝜋/2, 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 cos2𝜃.
Solution: First we need to find what cos𝜃 is.

We know that tan𝜃 is opposite side over adjacent side, so we need to find the hypotenuse
side since cos𝜃 is adjacent over hypotenuse. We can use 𝑟 = √(12²+5²) = 13 units.
Thus, cos𝜃 = 12/13.
Now use the double angle formula to find cos2𝜃.

The positive answer is taken since 𝜃 is in the third quadrant, making the ratio a negative
over a negative.
2. Without using table or calculator, evaluate cos15°.

11
Solution:

Note: The positive root is taken.

iii. Factor Formulae
These involve relations expressing sum and difference of trigonometric functions as
product of same and vice versa.
Product to Sum Formulae

Sum to Product Formulae

Examples:
1. Use the product-to-sum formula to change sin75°sin15° to a sum.
Solution:

2. Use the sum-to-product formula to change sin70°−sin30° into a product.

12
Solution:

4. APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY IN RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES

ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION
When an observer looks upward above him, the angle the eye level (horizontal) makes
with the line of sight is called the angle of elevation. So, we can define the angle of
elevation as the angle that lies between the observer’s eye level (horizontal plane) and
the line of sight when the observer tries to see something above him.
Similarly, the angle of depression is the angle between the observer's eye level and the
ground when the observer is above the ground.

13
From the above figures it can be easily seen that angle of elevation and angle of
depression are alternate angles (the two horizontal lines are alternate). These two angles
are frequently used in the application of trigonometric functions to triangles.
Examples:
The angle of elevation of the top of a vertical pole from a height 1.54m above a horizontal
ground is 400. The foot of the pole is on the same horizontal ground and the point of
observation is 20m from the pole. Calculate correct to 3 significant figures:
(i) the height of the pole ;
(ii) the angle of depression of the foot of the pole from the point of observation.
Solution:
E

D C

1.54m

A
20m
(i) BE = Height of the pole = BC + CE;
BC = AD = 1.54m, AB = CD = 20m (opposite & parallel sides).
To obtain CE, using triangle CDE;
tan 40° = CE/CD = CE/20  CE = 20 x tan 40° = 20 x 0.8391 = 16.782m.
Therefore, Height of the pole (BE) = 1.54 + 16.782 = 18.322m = 18.3m (3 sig. fig).
(ii) Angle of depression (θ) of the foot of the pole from point D:
Using ∆ BDC, tan θ = 1.54/20  θ = tan-1(0.077) = 4.41°.
Exercise:
1. A boy observes that the angle of elevation of the top of a tower is 32°. He then walks 8m
towards the tower and then discovers that the angle of elevation is 43°. Find the height of the
tower to the nearest metre.

2. A plane is flying at an altitude of 14,500 ft. The angle of depression from the plane to a control
tower is 15°. What is the horizontal distance from the plane to the tower? Round to the nearest
foot.

3. A woman is standing 12 ft from a sculpture. The angle of elevation from her eye to the top of
the sculpture is 30°, and the angle of depression to its base is 22°. How tall is the sculpture to
the nearest foot?

4. The feet of two vertical pole of height 3m and 7m are in line with a point P on the ground, the
smaller pole being between the taller pole and P and at a distance of 20m from P. The angle of
elevation of the top (T) of the taller pole from the top (R) of the smaller pole is 30°. Calculate:
(a) Distance RT; (b) Distance of the foot of the taller pole from P, correct to 3 significant figures;
(c) Angle of elevation of T from P, correct to one decimal place
14