Chapter 4 - Sensors and signal conditioning

4.1 Introduction: In virtually every engineering application there is a need for measuring some
physical quantities, such as forces, stresses, temperatures, pressures, flows, or displacements.
These measurements are performed by physical devices called sensors or transducers, which
are capable of converting a physical quantity to a more readily manipulated electrical quantity.
Most sensors, therefore, convert the change of a physical quantity (e.g., humidity, temperature)
to a corresponding (usually proportional) change in an electrical quantity (e.g., voltage or
current) for the purpose of measuring the variable. The conversion allows the variable to be
interpreted as a quantitative value.

Table 4.1 Physical variables in engineering

Others include thickness, proximity, distance, position, location, altitude, level, area, volume, angle, time,
frequency, weight, sound, viscosity, surface tension, vibration etc.
A sensor is an element in a mechatronic or measurement system that detects the magnitude of a
physical parameter and converts it into a signal that can be processed by the system. Often the
active element of a sensor is referred to as a transducer. Monitoring and control systems require
sensors to measure physical quantities such as position, distance, force, strain, temperature,
vibration, and acceleration. The following sections present devices and techniques for measuring
these and other physical quantities.
Signal transmission: There is a necessity in many measurement systems to transmit
measurement signals over quite large distances from the point of measurement to the place where
the signals are recorded and/or used in a process control system. This creates several problems
for which a solution must be found. Of the many difficulties associated with long distance signal
transmission, contamination of the measurement signal by noise is the most serious. Many
sources of noise exist in industrial environments, such as radiated electromagnetic fields from
electrical machinery and power cables, induced fields through wiring loops, and spikes (large
transient voltages) on the a.c. power supply. Signals can be transmitted electrically,
pneumatically, optically, or by radiotelemetry, in either analogue or digital format.
Signal Conditioning: A properly wired, grounded, and shielded sensor connection is a necessary
first stage of any well-designed measurement system. The next stage consists of any signal
conditioning that may be required to manipulate the sensor output into a form appropriate for
the intended use. Normally, the output from a sensor requires post processing of the signals
before they can be fed to the controller. The sensor output may have to be demodulated,
amplified, filtered, linearized, range quantized, and isolated so that the signal can be accepted by
a typical analog-to-digital converter of the controller. Some sensors are available with integrated
signal conditioners, such as the microsensors. All the electronics are integrated into one
microcircuit and can be directly interfaced with the controllers.

Figure 4.1 Measurement system

A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, or electro-mechanical, that converts one
type of energy into another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer.
In a broader sense, a transducer is sometimes defined as any device that converts a signal
from one form into another. Sensor and transducer design always involves the application of
some law or principle of physics or chemistry that relates the quantity of interest to some
measurable event. Sensors or transducers are used in mechatronics for the following purposes:
1. To provide position, velocity, and acceleration information of the measuring element in a
system, this is called feedback information.
2. To act as protective mechanism for a system
3. To help eliminate mechanically complex and expensive feeding and sorting devices
4. To provide identification and indication of the presence of different components
5. To provide real time information concerning the nature of the task being performed
Types: Sensors of various types are available to collect data for feedback control in
manufacturing automation. They are often classified according to type of stimulus; thus, there
are mechanical, electrical, thermal, radiation, magnetic, and chemical variables. For example,
within the mechanical category, the physical variables include position, velocity, force, and
torque. Electrical variables include voltage, current, and resistance, and so on for the other major
categories.
In addition to type of stimulus, sensors are also classified as analog or discrete. An analog
sensor measures a continuous analog variable and converts it into a continuous signal such as
electrical voltage. Thermocouples, strain gages, and ammeters are examples of analog sensors. A
discrete sensor produces a signal that can have only a limited number of values. Within this
category, there are binary sensors and digital sensors. A binary sensor can take on only two
possible values, such as off and on, or 0 and 1. Limit switches operate this way. A digital sensor
produces a digital output signal, either in the form of parallel status bits, such as a photoelectric
sensor array or a series of pulses that can be counted, such as an optical encoder. Digital sensors
have an advantage in that they can be readily interfaced to a digital computer, whereas the
signals from analog sensors must be converted to digital to be read by the computer.
Before a measuring device can be used, it must be calibrated, which means determining how the
value of the stimulus is related to the value of the output signal. Ease of calibration is one
criterion by which a measuring device can be selected. Other criteria include accuracy, precision,
operating range, speed of response, reliability, and cost.
4.2 Characteristics: This section gives the definitions of the static performance characteristic
parameters.
Accuracy is defined as the proximity of the measured value to the true value. It is expressed as a
percentage of the full range output or full-scale deflection.
Precision or repeatability is used to describe the ability of the instrument to give the same output
for repeated application(s) of the same input value. Accurate sensors are always precise, but vice
versa may not be true.
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the incremental change in output to the incremental change
in input. More sensitive the instrument, better the readability.
Threshold is the minimum input signal required by the instrument to start functioning from its
initial position.
Resolution is the smallest increment that can be measured in any range of the sensor.
Range or span: The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values
of a quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.
Hysteresis A sensor can give different outputs for the same value of quantity being measured
depending on whether that value is reached by a continuously increasing or decreasing change.
This effect is called hysteresis.
Hysteresis error is the maximum difference in the input or output for the increasing and
decreasing input value.
Dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of the input value for which there is no
output.
Drift is the change in output that occurs over a time. It may be expressed as a percentage of the
full range output. The term ‘zero drift’ is used for the changes that occur in the output when there
is zero input.
Error is the difference between the actual results of the measurement and the time value of the
quantity being measured. The error may be a systemic error or random error.
4.2 Internal Sensors: Feedback sensors provided in mechatronic systems are called internal
sensors. Internal sensor devices are specifically chosen to suit the need for a particular task.
Internal sensors are needed for the feedback of position, velocity or acceleration of various
elements in the mechantronic systems. Internal sensors may be classified as potentiometers,
tachometers, resolvers, optical encoders, Hall effect sensors, and Moire’s fringes.
Linear and Rotational Sensors: Linear and rotational position sensors are two of the most
fundamental of all measurements used in a typical mechatronics system. The most common type
position sensors are listed in Table below. In general, the position sensors produce an electrical
output that is proportional to the displacement they experience. There are contact type sensors
such as strain gage, LVDT, RVDT, tachometer, etc. The noncontact type includes encoders, Hall
Effect, capacitance, inductance, and interferometer type.
We often need to know where various parts of a system are in order to control the system.
Because most applications involve measuring and controlling shaft rotation (e.g., in robot joints,
numerically controlled lathe and mill axes, motors, and generators), rotary position sensors are
more common than linear sensors. Also, linear motion can often be easily converted to rotary
motion (e.g., with a belt, gear, or wheel mechanism), allowing the use of rotary position sensors
in linear motion applications. Speed measurements can be obtained by taking consecutive
position measurements at known time intervals and computing the time rate of change of the
position values. A tachometer is an example of a speed sensor that does this for a rotating shaft.
Proximity Sensors: Proximity sensors are the devices that are used to locate objects in close
proximity. The closeness of the object, for which the sensor can sense its presence, depends on
the device used for the purpose. The distance can be anywhere between several millimeters to
several meters. A variety of technologies are available for designing proximity and range
sensors. These technologies include optical devices, acoustics, electrical field techniques, and
pneumatic pressure drop methods.
S. No. Sensed Variable Sensors Features
Analog position sensor consisting of
resistor and contact slider. Position of
Resistive Potentiometer slider on resistor determines measured
resistance. Available for both linear and
rotational (angular) measurements.
Widely used analog sensor to measure
force, torque, or pressure. It is based on
Strain gauges
change in electrical resistance resulting
from strain of a conducting material.
Analog position sensor consisting of
primary coil opposite two secondary
Motion and Differential Transformers coils separated by a magnetic core.
1. Dimensional (LVDTs) When primary coil is energized, induced
Variables voltage in secondary coil is function of
core position.
Variable reluctance
sensors

Piezoelectric sensors

Capacitive sensors

Electro optical sensors

Seismic sensors

Strain gauges
Force, Torque and
2 Piezoelectric sensors
Pressure
Capacitive sensors
Flow Sensors: Flow sensing is relatively a difficult task. The fluid medium can be liquid, gas, or
a mixture of the two. Furthermore, the flow could be laminar or turbulent and can be a time-
varying phenomenon. The venture meter and orifice plate restrict the flow and use the pressure
difference to determine the flow rate. The pitot tube pressure probe is another popular method of
measuring flow rate. When positioned against the flow, they measure the total and static
pressures. The flow velocity and in turn the flow rate can then be determined. The rotameter and
the turbine meters when placed in the flow path, rotate at a speed proportional to the flow rate.
The electromagnetic flow meters use noncontact method. Magnetic field is applied in the
transverse direction of the flow and the fluid acts as the conductor to induce voltage proportional
to the flow rate.
Temperature Sensors: A variety of devices are available to measure temperature, the most
common of which are thermocouples, thermisters, resistance temperature detectors (RTD), and
infrared types. Thermocouples are the most versatile, inexpensive, and have a wide range (up to
1200°C typical). A thermocouple simply consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at the ends
to create the sensing junction. When used in conjunction with a reference junction, the
temperature difference between the reference junction and the actual temperature shows up as a
voltage potential. Thermisters are semiconductor devices whose resistance changes as the
temperature changes. They are good for very high sensitivity measurements in a limited range of
up to 100°C. The relationship between the temperature and the resistance is nonlinear. The RTDs
use the phenomenon that the resistance of a metal changes with temperature. They are, however,
linear over a wide range and most stable.
4.3 Strain gauges: Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance when they
are stretched or strained. They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range
0–50 μm. Strain gauges are manufactured to various nominal values of resistance, of which 120
Ω, 350 Ω and 1000 Ω are very common. The traditional type of strain gauge consists of a length
of metal resistance wire formed into a zigzag pattern and mounted onto a flexible backing sheet,
as shown in Figure 4.2. The wire is nominally of circular cross-section. As strain is applied to the
gauge, the shape of the cross-section of the resistance wire distorts, changing the cross-sectional
area.

Figure 4.2 : Strain gauges:

(a) wire type; (b) foil type.

In use, strain gauges are bonded to the object whose displacement is to be measured. The process
of bonding presents a certain amount of difficulty, particularly for semiconductor types. The
resistance of the gauge is usually measured by a d.c. bridge circuit and the displacement is
inferred from the bridge output measured. The maximum current that can be allowed to flow in a
strain gauge is in the region of 5 to 50 mA depending on the type.
4.4 Potentiometer: Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed potentiometers or
“pots.” A pot is an electromechanical device containing an electrically conductive wiper that
slides against a fixed resistive element according to the position or angle of an external shaft.

Figure 4.3 :
Potentiometers
(a) Linear and
(b) Rotary

A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends A and B of the resistance element and an output
voltage V0 is measured between the point of contact C of the sliding element and the end of the
resistance element A. The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding
element of the potentiometer, so that translational motion of the body causes a motion of equal
magnitude of the slider along the resistance element and a corresponding change in the output
voltage V0.
4.5 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT): The linear variable differential
transformer, which is commonly known by the abbreviation LVDT, consists of a transformer
with a single primary winding and two secondary windings connected in the series opposing
manner shown in Figure 4.4. The object whose translational displacement is to be measured is
physically attached to the central iron core of the transformer, so that all motions of the body are
transferred to the core.

Figure 4.4
With the core in the central position, V0 = 0. Suppose now that the core is displaced rightwards
(i.e. towards winding S2) by a distance x, the output voltage changes. The change in the voltage
gives the displacement. The information about the direction of movement of the core is
contained in the phase of the output voltage. As the core is only moving in the air gap between
the windings, there is no friction or wear during operation. For this reason, the instrument is a
very popular one for measuring linear displacements.
4.6 Thermocouple: This is a relatively inexpensive device with proven reliability and a wide
range of applications. Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that, when any
two different metals are connected together, an e.m.f., which is a function of the temperature, is
generated at the junction between the metals.

Figure 4.5
Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations of the base metals copper and iron,
chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni) etc. The joint where the temperature is to be measured is
called hot junction and it is exposed to the temperature to be measured. The other end is called
cold junction, where a voltmeter measures the voltage. If the temperature at both the joint is
same, then V=0 the The e.m.f. generated is the measure of the temperature.