Gollis University – Burao

Management Information Systems

Lecture: Five

Computer Hardware Devices

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Contents
Objectives....................................................................................................................................... 3
Computer Hardware Devices .......................................................................................................... 3
Input Devices .............................................................................................................................. 3
The Mouse .............................................................................................................................. 3
Other Pointing Devices ........................................................................................................... 4
Scanner Technologies ............................................................................................................. 4
Voice Recognition Technology .............................................................................................. 5
Video and Photographic input ................................................................................................ 5
Output Devices............................................................................................................................ 6
Monitors .................................................................................................................................. 6
Printers .................................................................................................................................... 6
Plotters .................................................................................................................................... 8
Audio output systems .............................................................................................................. 8
Computer Memory .................................................................................................................... 10
Random Access Memory (R.A.M) ....................................................................................... 10
Read Only Memory (R.O.M) ................................................................................................ 11
Computer Storage Devices ....................................................................................................... 11
Magnetic Storage Media ........................................................................................................... 12
Optical Storage Devices ............................................................................................................ 13
General Features and Trends in Computer Technology ............................................................... 15

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Objectives
 To explain different computer hardware devices
 To discuss input devices
 To identify different output devices
 To explain computer memory
 To discuss computer storage devices
 To identify general features and trends in computer technology

Computer Hardware Devices

The computer system is composed of:
 Devices to capture data/information into the computer
 Devices to store and process the captured data/information
 Devices to output the processed data/information

Input Devices
 These are the hardware components that are used to enter data/information and or
instructions/commands into the computer system.
 Together with the output devices, they are also referred to as peripheral devices since
they are usually detached from the main computer. They include:

Keyboard
 This is the primary device on a computer system that is used to communicate with
and to control the system.
 It looks and operates the same way as the typewriter and therefore the entry of the
data and commands is by typing in text and character.

The Mouse
 This is a hand held device usually connected to the computer terminal with a cable that
allows you to make entries without using the keyboard.
 It can also be detached from the computer and communicate with it wirelessly via
infrared.
 The conventional mouse has a ball under it, and to operate it, you move the mouse over a
flat surface thereby rolling the ball. The movement of the ball causes a corresponding
pointer on the screen of the system to move.
 It operates on a system with a G.U.I. whereby the pointer is used to select the items that
the user wants.
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  Variations include the wireless/remote/optical mice and pointing sticks which are used
with notebook computer systems.
 The mouse relies on a device driver, which is a software program that enables the
communication between the mouse and the computer system.
 The mouse also requires electric power, which is typically provided by the computer
system itself or a battery in the case of some wireless mice

Other Pointing Devices

a) Trackball - A variation of the mouse whereby it turns the standard mouse design down-
side up and is mainly used with portable computers where they are affixed on the
keyboard.
b) Joystick – A pointing device that consists of a vertical handle mounted on a base with
one or two buttons. They are used principally in video games and some C.A.D. systems
as well as in computerized robot systems.
c) Touch pad – They let the user control the cursor with the finger. They have a very weak
electrical field that senses the user’s touch and therefore the cursor moves with the
movement of the finger. They are mainly used in portable computers whereby they are
inbuilt in the keyboard.
d) Touch screen
Scanner Technologies
 These are input devices that are designed to improve the accuracy and validity of
the data entered whereby data is entered into the system by being read or scanned.
 They are used to reduce errors during data entry since data is entered with
minimal keystrokes as compared to keyboard data entry.
 This in turn transforms into reduced costs and faster data processing.
 They use laser beams that reflect a light to translate hardcopy images into text,
drawings, photos and other digital forms. They include:
a) Bar code readers – These are photoelectric scanners that translate the bar code symbols
into digital code. They are used in supermarket checkout counters, stock and inventory
applications, in factories on items in the production line. It is used to enter records of
sales into the organization’s computer and the data is used for accounting, restocking
store inventory and weeding out products that do not sell well (slow moving stock). Self-
scanning bar code readers are now available especially in supermarkets whereby items
are to an automated checkout counter.
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 b) Mark-recognition and Character reader devices – They include:
 Magnetic ink character readers (M.I.C.R.) which read special characters
written in magnetic ink e.g. scanners that translate the magnetically charged
numbers printed at the bottom of checks and magnetic slips and they are used to
sort checks in the banking industry.
 Optical character readers (O.C.R.) which read optical characters and converts
them into machine-readable form e.g. OCR characters printed on utility bills or on
price tags on merchandise in supermarkets whereby a wand reader is used as the
scanning device.
 Optical mark readers (O.M.R.) is capable of reading pencil marks and
converting them into computer usable form and is used in reading answer scripts
for examinations such as SAT, GRE.
c) General Purpose Scanners – Many general purpose scanners are available which when
accompanied by the appropriate driver software, will allow the user to scan text and
images and store them on a disk where they can be read, edited and manipulated. They
are known as imaging systems and they are used in document management, desktop
publishing and multimedia development.
Voice Recognition Technology
 Consists of a soundcard which when accompanied by the relevant drivers will convert the
analog waves of sound into digital data that can be stored on a disk.
 The system compares the electrical patterns produced by the speaker’s voice with a set of
pre-recorded patterns stored on the computer.
 A microphone or telephone is used to enter the voice input.
 This is usually used in cases where manual input is inconvenient or impossible. E.g.
inventory takers in warehouses, blind or paralyzed users, stock exchange traders,
Astronauts, Radiologists, Surgeons, Pathologists etc can all speed up their work by using
this technology.
Video and Photographic input
 The technology is used when the data input is in video or still picture form from a variety
of sources like TV, VCR or digital cameras.
 The conversion of the analog signals into digital form is done thro’ a video card which
captures and digitizes the signals.

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  Photos can also be created digitally thereby avoiding the need for a scanner, and transfer
directly from a digital camera, which captures images in electronic form instead of the
traditional chemical form. The images are captured on a memory card inserted in the
camera whereby when the card is inserted into an adapter on the computer, the contents
can then be copied onto the computer’s hard disk for storage, processing or output. Some
cameras allow for direct connection to the computer via USB ports for content transfer.
Output Devices
The devices that are used to output data/information and or commands or instructions from the
computer system back to the user or to another system for further processing, use or storage.
Monitors
 It is also referred to as the Visual Display Unit (VDU) and comes in the form of the
screen of the system. It represents the visual link between the user and the system, which
therefore makes it one of the most important components of the computer system. They
resemble and indeed operate in a similar manner as television screen.
 Early monitors were mainly monochrome which means that they displayed only 2 colours
and they displayed only text. Modern monitors are coloured and they display graphics,
pictures and video.
The evaluation of computer monitors considers:
- Resolution of the screen image, which refers to the amount of detail of the image.
- Size of the monitor measured in inches - describes the diagonal measure of the
monitor’s tube.
- Glare from the screen of the system
- Power that the monitor consumes.
There are two basic monitor technologies:
 Cathode Ray Tube (C.R.T.) – has been popular for long. Has protruding
tube behind the screen. Flat screens available (Trinitron design - these are
expensive).
 Liquid Crystal Display (L.C.D.) – Pioneered by Laptop and Palm top
manufacturers. Lighter, flat screen and better quality than CRT. Low
power needs. But have poorer resolution and are more expensive.
Printers
 The capability to produce a printed version of your work or document also referred to as
the hard copy is a primary function of any computer system. This has therefore made
them a required accessory of any such system. However, this does not mean that every
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 comp requires its own printer especially with the growth in the use of the local area
network (L.A.N) in the business world whereby PCs are able to share printer among
multiple users.
 There are three basic printer technologies used with PCs, which are then characterized as
impact or non-impact printers.
 The impact printers bring the paper or other medium into contact with the printer element
while non-impact printers place the print on the medium in other ways.
a) Dot matrix printers - are impact printers. They use an array of round-headed pins that
press inked ribbon against on to a page. The pins are arranged in a matrix and different
combinations of pins form various characters and images. They are often used to produce
rough drafts of documents and informal internal documents such as memos due to the
poor quality of their output and slow speed of printing (approximately 200 characters per
second).
b) Ink-jet printers - are non-impact printers that have tiny nozzles on the printers’ cartridges
that spray ionized ink onto a page. Magnetized plates are used to direct the ink onto the
page in the proper pattern to form letters and images on the page. As a result, special
types of ink-jet printers can print on surfaces that are not entirely flat such as packages.
c) Laser printer - non-impact printer that produces the best quality outputs and is very fast
(from 8 to 100 pages per minute). These print a whole page at once (a.k.a. page printers).
They function by crating an electrostatic image of an entire page on a photosensitive
drum with the aid of a laser beam. When a coloured powder known as a toner is applied
to the drum, it adheres to the sensitized area corresponding to the letters and images on
the page. The drum spins and is pressed against the sheet of paper thereby transferring the
image. This is the same basic technology that is used in photocopiers. They are often
used in printing drawings, photographs and graphic images whereby high quality, colour
and high number of printouts are a priority.
Like other system peripherals, printers operate with the aid of printer drivers, which provide the
software interface between the printer, the application and the operating system. It informs the
PC about the capabilities of the printer e.g. the type of paper required, fonts number of copies
among others. When printing a document, the print options you select are usually provided by
the printer driver, although it may appear to be part of the application. Also, printers have a
memory that is used as a buffer to hold print job data while it is being fed to the print engine. It
works as the printer’s workspace that holds data during the processing of images, fonts and
commands as well permanent storage for outline fonts and other data. Laser and ink-jet printers
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assemble the image of an entire page before printing it; therefore the amount of memory is very
important especially where graphics and pictures are concerned.
Many vendors now offer printers that are bundled with other technologies. It is now possible to
purchase a printer that can also act as a fax, photocopier and/or scanner (Multi-Function Printers
or MFPs)
Plotters
 Special types of printers that are used to print maps, charts and graphs including colour.
 They are used for creating large hard copy items such as architectural drawings and 3-D
illustrations, which are usually too large to be printed on regular printers.
Audio output systems
 They are usually in the form of voice or sound output.
 Voice output devices convert digital data into speech-like sounds. They are used in
telephone systems, vending machines, ATMs, Computer games and in vehicle navigation
systems. These systems can either be:
- Speech coding - they are actually human voices
- Speech synthesis - electronically creates words such that the computer converts
stored texts into voices.
 Sound output on the other hand produces digitized sounds that range from beeps and
chirps to music. However, the sounds are usually non-verbal. The system requires a
sound card and the appropriate driver software. Such systems can also be used to make
computerized music.
Computer Processor
This is also referred to as the Central Processing Unit (C.P.U) and can be viewed as the brain or
engine of the computer system since it’s the primary circuit that carries out the program
instructions of whatever software that is being run. The circuitry is contained in a single tiny
square of silicone chip onto which millions of transistors are etched known as the
microprocessor, which is placed on to the computer’s motherboard. Modern chip technology
allows manufacturers to place all the circuitry of an entire computer system, a phone and even
digital camera on a single chip. This miniaturization has led to advances in areas like portable
computer systems as well as in the integration of computers with other technologies such as
networking technologies.
The computer’s C.P.U contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (A.L.U) and the Control Unit. The
control unit obtains instructions from the computer’s memory, interprets them, and notifies the
other relevant components of the computer system to carry them out. The A.L.U processes data
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obtained from memory under the direction of the control unit. The A.L.U is only capable of
performing mathematical data processing and logical data processing such as comparing,
summarizing, sorting etc. Despite the apparent limited functionality of the A.L.U, the computer
is capable of performing a large number of varied and complex data processing tasks like
complex mathematical relationships, control space vehicles, draw detailed pictures on the screen,
create musical compositions or even produce pay slips at the end of the month.
Processors are evaluated on by two main parameters:
a) Speed – It is concerned with how fast the computer’s processor can execute a certain
number of instructions in a given time period. It is usually measured in Megahertz (MHz)
i.e. millions of cycles per second. Under this measurement, a cycle is considered to be the
smallest element of time whereby every action requires at least one cycle e.g. the act of
transferring data to and from the memory in a Pentium2 processor takes a minimum of
three cycles. The speed of the processor varies depending on the processor whereby the
earlier 286 and 386 processors used to take an average of 4 cycles to execute an
instruction while a modern Pentium 4 processor can execute more than 20 instructions in
a cycle. The processor speed evaluation can be tricky because different internal
architecture of the processor may mean that it can do different things differently and thus
be relatively faster at certain tasks and slower at others. New PCs come with processor
speeds of up to 3.0 GigaHertz (GHz) and higher.
b) Width – This refers to the size of the processor’s data bus i.e. the number of data bits that
can be moved into or out of the processor in cycle. This is usually represented by a series
of connections that carry common signals and they usually come in the form of wires or
pins that are used to transmit or receive the data. The more the number of signals that can
be transmitted in a given interval and therefore the wider the processor’s data bus. This is
usually measured in terms of data bits i.e. 8-bit data bus has 8 wires/pins, which means
that the processor can only transmit or receive one 8-bit data character at a time. The
same applies to a 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit etc. data buses.
The current trend as far as processor technology is concerned is the use of co-processors
(dual processors) whereby the computer system uses a combination of two processor chips in
order to improve on the speed and width characteristics of the C.P.U. In such instances,
different processing tasks are shared among the processors e.g. mathematical calculations,
control of secondary storage devices, control of input or output of data (I/O channels) among
others.

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Computer Memory
This refers to the location on the computer system where all the instructions and data, which
the processor is using at a given time, is held. It is referred to as the computer system’s
workspace since when you want to process your data then all the data to be processed
together with the program instructions for processing that data must first be loaded into the
computer’ memory. It is made up of:
Random Access Memory (R.A.M)
This is the component of the memory, which can be quickly and randomly accessed. It
consists of storage locations in which data can be stored or retrieved directly i.e. the
computer is able to lace data at any storage location without having to start at the beginning
of the R.A.M and work sequentially through all the locations. It’s made up of the memory
chips or modules that make up the primary active program and data storage used by the
processor.
The process of launching a program or opening a file brings the contents of the program or
file into the R.A.M and for as long as the program is running those contents will reside there.
The C.P.U executes instructions and processes data from the R.A.M and the results are stored
there. It is a temporary or volatile storage media because the data and programs will only
reside there as long as the computer system has electrical power or is not reset. Therefore
before shutting down or resetting your computer, you need to save any changes to your work
on a more permanent storage media.
Next to the processor, the R.A.M is probably the most expensive component on the computer
system whereby the cost is based on the amount of data it can store. However, this has been
rapidly declining over the years from $40/MB a few years ago to a couple of US cents per
MB. Also the R.A.M is usually faster than other types of data storage whereby the speed is
expressed in nanoseconds (billionth of a second). However, they are still slower than
processors since they have an average speed of about 20ms, which translates, to about 16.7
MHz. Also, the data capacity is usually quite limited although it has been steadily improving
whereby new PCs come with a memory of more than 500 MB. New technological
advancements have seen the introduction of the Dynamic R.A.M (D.R.A.M), which is very
dense and therefore allows for the packing of lots of data bits onto a small chip, which has
greatly increased their data storage capacity.

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Read Only Memory (R.O.M)
This is the component of the computer’s memory that can permanently or semi-permanently
hold data and programs. This means that unlike the R.A.M, which is volatile, the contents are
not lost when the computer system is turned off. It is referred to as the read only storage
media because it’s difficult or impossible to write to it. Due to these characteristics, the
R.O.M is used to store programs that are used to start and operate the computer otherwise it
would not be possible to start the system since the processor would have no instructions to
execute in order to boot up the system.
It should be noted that R.A.M and R.O.M are not opposites but R.O.M is technically a sub-
set of the R.A.M i.e. a portion of a system’s R.A.M address space is mapped into one or more
R.O.M chips. The R.O.M chips are very slow in nature with access times of 150 nanoseconds
compared to the R.A.M chips whose access times are less than 50 nanoseconds.
The R.O.M has seen the following developments over time:
a) Programmable ROM (PROM) – A type of R.O.M that is blank when new and must be
programmed with whatever data that you need. The programming is done with the aid of
a special machine. Once programmed, they can never be erased or tampered with.
b) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) – It works like the PROM with the only
difference being that it allows for the erasing of the data by exposing the chip die to an
intense ultra-violet light.
c) Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) – They are also referred to as flash ROMs.
They are characterized by their capability to be erased and re-programmed directly in the
circuit board with no special equipment required. Most modern PC motherboards use
these types to ROMs whereby they are applied to objects that use embedded computer
systems to control them e.g. motor vehicles.
Computer Storage Devices
This refers to the media that stores data and programs permanently as opposed to the RAM
that is volatile. Also, unlike the RAM, the storage devices have a much larger storage
capacity, which allows the user to store all his/her data and programs for present and future
use. There are two main types of storage devices, the magnetic storage media, typically the
hard disk, floppy disk and flash memory; and the optical storage media that includes CD-
ROM and DVD-ROM.

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Magnetic Storage Media
This media stores bits and blocks of data on the media surfaces in the form of magnetic spots.
They include:
a) Hard disks
The hard disk is the primary archival storage media for the computer system since it is used
to store non-volatile data and programs and therefore is expected to retain the data until when
the user deliberately erases it. Therefore m hard disk failure can have very serious
consequences for the organization.
It is made up of spinning platters of aluminum that are coated with a magnetic media. The
drive also consists of read/write heads that moves over the platters as they spin at very high
speeds thereby storing or reading data into tracks and sectors of the disk. A hard disk drive
usually contains multiple disks stacked on top of each other that spin in unison. Each disk has
two sides on which data is written or read by the read/write head.
The disks are divided into tracks and sectors for purpose of efficient data storage
management. These invisible tracks and sectors represent magnetic storage patterns on the
disk surface. Therefore, before using the hard disk, it must be formatted: a process that
created identify areas on the disk that are used for numbering and identifying the beginning
and the end of each sector. The process of formatting a blank disk is similar to adding lines to
a blank piece of paper before writing data on it. It writes the information that the operating
system needs to maintain a directory and file table of contents. This therefore means that
formatting an already formatted disk will lose any data already on the disk.
Hard disks and floppy disks are identified by the following parameters:
 Storage capacity: The capacity has been increasing rapidly over the years. Now most
PCs in the mass consumer market have a hard disk capacity over 100 GB and some
new hard disks (the had disk launched by Apple computers) are in excess of 1
terabyte (1 TB = 1000 GB). Floppies have a standard capacity of about 1.4 MB
though a few have higher capacities. Flash memory (jump drive or memory stick)
have overtaken floppies as the portable memory of choice. In fact some computer
manufacturers have eliminated the floppy disk drive altogether from the computers
they make. These flash disks are small and compact, and hardier than floppy disks.
They also have a higher capacity, some with 80GB or more.
 Speed: This can be viewed in terms of the average seek time which relates to the time
it takes to move the heads between the cylinders which is given in milliseconds. This

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 can also be in the form of the data transfer rate i.e. the time it takes for the drive to
send data to the system, which is given by the rotational speed of the disk (R.P.M).
 Reliability: This is given by a statistic known as the M.T.B.F (Mean Time between
Failures). This refers to the total running time before the drive suffers a fault that will
require it to be returned to the manufacturer for repair and it is measured by the
thousands of hours of running time.
b) Floppy disks
The floppy operates in much the same way as the hard disk with the only difference being
that it is removable and therefore consists of one small disk platter as compared to the hard
disk, which has several larger disk platters. Before the advent of the more advanced
removable storage media like the CD-ROM and the DVD-ROM, the floppy was the media of
choice for software distribution and system backup. It is not as popular now and has instead
been relegated for use by system builders and technicians. Earlier floppies came in the 5.25-
inch sizes but modern PCs use the 3.5-inch floppies.
c) Flash Memory
Related to the above two types of storage is the flash memory media which is made up of
memory chips that unlike RAM, do no require power to retain data. This device comes in the
form of removable memory chip or card that can be used to substitute for a small hard disk.
Data and programs are read and written in the same way it is done on a hard disk but this is
done at a faster rate that that of the hard disk since it writes and reads to the card at or close
to RAM speeds (nanoseconds vs. milliseconds). Initially, the flash memory media was only
used to provide memory cards for small cards for small computer systems and ROM chips
for all computer systems. Their use has grown over the years whereby they are now
completely used as removable storage devices.
Optical Storage Devices
These storage media uses laser technology to write onto and read data from the discs. They
commonly come in the form of a round 5-inch disk (some are smaller or larger) similar to the
audio compact disk whereby data is written on one side of the disk. Writing data onto the
disk uses a laser beam whereby the beam is used to align and etch a permanent data pattern
onto the disk. To read the data from the disk, the laser beam is used to sense the data on the
disk surface, which is then reflected to a microprocessor in the drive that translates and sends
the data to the system. These devices are primarily read only (though some allow erasing and
re-writing) which means that the drives can only read information and data from the disks but
cannot alter or re-write the data. They include:
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 a) CD-ROM drives
It is similar to the audio CD (Compact Disc) and can in fact play in the audio CD player
although the result will be noise unless some audio accompanies the data on the CD-ROM. It
has an increased storage capacity as compared to other removable storage media whereby a
typical CD-ROM has a capacity of 640-800 MB (equivalent to over 350,000 pages of text).
The earliest versions were strictly read only and were later replaced by the WORM (Write
Once Read Many) versions of the CD-ROMS whereby they allowed the user to purchase a
blank disc and write whatever data they wanted to it which then could not be tampered with
but could be read as many times as one wished. They were deemed to be less ideal for
backup purposes or any other situation where one may require re-using the same media over
and over again. Now, we have Re-Writable CD-ROMS, which permit data to be written to
the disk many times and are ideal for any type of data storage task.
The CD-ROM drive can also be external especially if the system lacks sufficient space for an
internal one. This can also be used if the system’s power supply is not sufficient to support
the extra load. Just like the hard disk, the CD-ROM can be evaluated according to the
following parameters:
 Capacity: The standard CD-ROM holds 640-800 MB. Manufacturers also makes
specialty CD-ROMS that are smaller or larger than the standard ones. These are
mostly used to hold software (applications and drivers).
 Speed: This is given by the data transfer rate measured in MB/sec and refers to
how much data can be read from the disk and transferred to the host in a second.
Speed is also given by the access time, which is the duration between when the
drive receives the command to read, and when it actually performs its first reading
and it is measured in milliseconds.
b) DVD-ROM drive
They are referred to as Digital Versatile/Video Disk (DVD)-ROM. They resemble and operate
the same way as the CD-ROM, with the only difference being an enhanced data storage capacity.
Their storage capacity starts from 4.67 GB of data (which is 7 times the capacity of CD-ROM)
and this keeps on increasing. Modern technology has seen the introduction of the Dual Layer
DVD that doubles the size of the disk to over 8GB by packing 2 layers of 4.67 GB each. DVD-
ROMs were introduced to supplement the capacity of the CD-ROMs whose capacity was not
sufficient fro many applications especially where the use f video is concerned. The drives are
fully backward compatible with the CD-ROM drives i.e. they can play CD-ROM and even audio
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CDs as well. Therefore, it is advisable that if you have a CD-ROM drive on your system and you
are considering upgrading the system, then you should install a DVD-ROM drive instead since
many manufacturers are considering phasing out the CD-ROM products in favour of the CVD-
ROM.
c) Blu-Ray and the next generation

Current developments are on the successor to the DVD technology. Blu Ray (BD) is an optical
disc storage medium. Its main uses are high-definition video and data storage. The disc has the
same physical dimensions as standard DVDs and CDs.

During the format war over high-definition optical discs, Blu-ray Disc (developed by the Blu-
ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware,
and motion pictures) competed with the HD DVD format. On February 19, 2008, Toshiba—the
main company supporting HD DVD—announced that it would no longer develop, manufacture,
or market HD DVD players and recorders, leading almost all other HD DVD companies to
follow suit, effectively ending the format war

General Features and Trends in Computer Technology

a) Graphic User Interface (GUI) – This has become popular in software whereby they
come with dialogue boxes, drop-down menus, pop-up menus, icons, scroll bars, pointers
and other devices as a substitute to typing in the commands. It relies on the mouse as the
main input device.
b) Windowing – This is a feature in operating systems that allows one to run several
programs at the same time, view multiple data files at the same time and split the display
screens into parts (windows).
c) Portability – This is a much sought after characteristic in software whereby it comes in
different versions for many operating systems. It also allows the software to be switched
between 2 or more operating systems or can be converted easily from one operating
system to another. This therefore allows the manager to use the same application program
regardless of his/her computer system. This saves on training and other costs and also
personnel to move from one job assignment and location to another.
d) Multi-platform capability – This is a trend similar to portability. More and more
software developers are designing products that are capable of running on more than one
hardware platform. Developers produce different versions of the same software for
different platforms.
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e) Shareware and freeware – Shareware is a new inexpensive trend in software
distribution whereby the software is distributed on an honour system from where it can be
downloaded for free and when the user decides to use the software they pay a small fee to
the developers. There’s a free trial period before payment is due. Freeware works like
the shareware but the software is distributed at no charge. Some freeware allow the user
to improve on it and share with others at no charge e.g. versions of the Linux operating
system.
f) Networking capabilities – Due to the increase inn the use of computers interconnected
to each other on a network by organizations, it has become necessary that new software
that is developed must have the ability to run on a network of connected computers and in
fact be able to take advantage of the network e.g. using distributed processing capabilities
to utilize slack processing capacities of network computers.
g) Wizards – These are facilities in the software that assist the user to complete complex
tasks. Wizards are a series of menus presented to the users to lead them through a
difficult or lengthy activity e.g. install software, identify problems if software is not
working properly, design and format a slide presentation etc.

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