1.

2 Physics for Engineers

1.2 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The stability of a metal's structure depends on allowing its valence electrons to mo
freely through its crystal lattice, resembling molecules in a gas. In metals, these elee.
trons form an electron gas" akin to a classical gas governed by
classical laws such
as those in the kinetic theory of gases. In the absence of an
electric field, electrons
move randomly within the lattice maintaining constant energy and periodically collid.
ing with atoms. Therefore the principles of classical gas theory
including
mean free path, collision timne and average velocity can be applied to this concepts like
electron gas
In 1900, Drude utilized the electron gas model to explain
in metals. Later, Lorentz modified Drude's theory resulting in
electrical conductivity
the Lorentz-Drude free
electron theory. According to Lorentz and Drude, at typical temperatures free electrons
in metals move randomly with an average speed around 105 m/s.
Despite these colli.
sions with themselves and the lattice'satoms or ions during their
random motion, they
make negligible contributions to electrical and thermal conductivity in the absence of
an external electric field.
When an external electric field is applied to metals, the electrons accelerate in the
opposite direction to the field with a velocity known as drift velocity, which leads to a
current.

A
Flow of current

Fig. 1.1

Let us consider a conductor of length l' and area of cross section

'A'.
then, the volume of the conductor = AL
If there are 'n' number of electrons per unit volume of the
metal then the total
number of electrons in the metal = Aln
If 'e' is the charge of the electron then the total charge 'a' due to
all electrons in
the conductor is given by q= Alne
Let t' be the time taken by the electron to move from one end to
other end, then
current,
Charge Alne
(1.1)
Time t t
 ElectricalConductivity 1.3

We know that -+ = Vd, drift velocity.

Substituting in (1.1), we get I= Anevd (1.2)

I
ne where J= current density= A
Or va =
Ane
In a metal the current density J' is given by the equation

J=nevd (1.3)

When an electric field 'E is applied toa conductor, then the electric force acting on a
free electron isgiven by F = eE. The randomly mnoving electrons move in a specific
direction under the influence of the field. Average velocity attained by these electrons
under the influence of electric field is called drift velocity (va).
From Newton's Second law

F=ma =eE
eE
Or a =
m
drift velocity vd
Also a
Relaxation time T

Relaxation time is the time of travel of an electron between two successive collisions.
eE
Ua = aT = T (1.4)
m

Substitute equation (1.4) in (1.3)

eE ne?
We get J= ne -T Er (1.5)
m

From Ohm's law J= oE (1.6)

Where o is the conductivity of the conductor.

On comparing (1.5) and (1.6)
ner
or resistivity, p == ne2r (1.7)

Here the measurable resistivity of a metal is represented in terms of density of elec

1.4 Physics forEngineers
of the electron and the relaxation time.
trons, charge of electron, mass
mobility () which is defined
Conductivity may also be expressed in terms of
drift velocity per unit electric field,
eT

m.

m²V-1's-1
o =neu, the unit of mobility is
semiconductors.
Mobility is very important while studying about

Relaxation time (t)

of exte.
We know that the electrons acquire directional velocity under the influence
nally applied electric field. If the field is switched off the velocity will exponentially
decreases to zero.
If vo is the velocity at t = 0 at which the field is switched off. Then the velocity at
any time is given by, v = Voe-t/.
The factor T is aconstant known as relaxation time as it gives a measure of the time
that the system takes to relax, when a constraint such as the electric field is removed.
When t =7, the drift velocity, v = the time taken for the drift velocity to decay to
e
1
of its initial value.

Drawbacks of classical theory

1. According to classical theory the value of specific heat capacity of metals is
4.5 R (R= universal gas constant), but the experimental value is only 3R (Du
long Petit law).
2. According to classical theory the mean free path (A) is about 2.85nm. But its
value obtained experimentally is about 10 times above this value.
3. Classical theory assumption is, all the free electrons ofa metal participate in
thermal conduction, but quantun theory with Fermi Dirac statistics reveals that
only the electrons near fermi level takes part in thermal and electrical conduction.
4. Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or insulator could not be explained.
5. According to clasical theory paramagnetic susceptibility of a metal is inversely
proportional to the temperature. But experimental results shows paramagnetism
 Electrical Conductivity 1.5

of metals is nearly independent of temperature.

6. According to classical free electron theory resistivity, pavT but experimentally
observed that conductivity o aT.

1.3 FERMI DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

In classical free electron theory it is assumed that electrons are identical and distin
guishable. But Classical theory failed to explain photoelectric effect, compton effect
and black-body radiation and variation of specific heat capacity of metals. Hence
a new model called quantum free electron theory is suggested. It is also known as
Drude Sommerfield model. In this model electrons are assumed as identical and in
distinguishable particles. Hence they obey Fermi Dirac statistics and hence electrons
can be considered as fermions. While inclassical free electron theory,electrons obey
MaxwellBoltzmann statistics. According to classical free electron theory any number
of particles can be accommodated in a given state. But as per quantum free electron
theory electrons in a solid are indistinguishable and they obey Pauli's exclusion prin
ciple. Hence only one particle can be accommodated in a given state. Fermi Dirac
statistics describes the distribution of fermions across various energy levels for a sys
tem in thermal equilibrium.

-
The probability of occupancy of a given state E, is given by,
1
f(E;)= 1+ eatBE;
-Ep 1
where a= and
KBT KgT
substituting these two values in the above equation
1
f(E) =
1+e KpT

This function is known as Fermi Dirac distribution function and it represents the prob
ability that a quantum state with energy E; is occupied by an electron. Here kz in
the denominator is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature. Er is a
constant which is known as Fermi Energy.
When temperature is extremely low which is nearly equal to absolute zero and ini
1.6 Physics for Engineers

tially E, will be less than Er. Then E,- Er will be negative and hence the
term will be 0 since the temperature is 0 Kandthe value of Fermi
be 1. When E, is equal to Er, at that point also Fermi function will functbeionequalexponent
f(E)
to on
When the value of energy E; is greater than Er, E; Er will be positive and
of exponential term will be infinity and hence the denominator will be equal the val
Finally the Fermi function at this energy value is equal to 0. Hence the to infinit
Fermi function with energy can be shown as given below. variation
f(E)|
At temp
T=0
At temp
T>0

E= E E

Fig. 1.2 Fermi Distribution Function

At E; = Er the function shows a discontinuous change. i.e, At E; =Ef,

absolute zero temperature the Fermi function changes fromn one to zero.

1.4 VARIATION OF FERMI FUNCTIONWITH

TEMPERATURE

f(E) T,K< T,K < T,K

1.0
T= 0K
T,K
0.5

T,K
0.0 TK
E

Fig. 1.3
 ElectricalConductivity 1.7
When T =0and E, <Er, then
1
f(E)= 1+e-o0
1
1+0 =1, f(E) =1
implies that all the levels below Ep are occupied by electrons.
When T=0and E, > Er, then f(E) = 1 1
=0, This shows that
1+e 1+ o
allenergy levels above Er are vacant.
Hence at absolute zero temperature all the energy levels up to fermi level will be
completely flled and energy levels above fermi level will be empty.
1 1 1
When T >0, E; = Ep, then f (E) = 1+ e0
1+1
As the temperature increases, for the energy levels just below Er the probability
of occupancy decreases from 1and for the energy levels just above Ep the probability
1
of occupancy increases from 0. At Er the probability of occupancy is When
2
temperature is increased from zero the electrons which are very close to fermi level or
at fermi level absorbs energy and got transferred to higher energy levels because all the
energy levels above Ep areempty.

1.5 FERMI ENERGY

Fermi Energy is the highest filled energy level at 0K. Itcan also be defined as the
1 1
energy level at which the probability of occupancy is f (E) =):at any non zero
temperature, (T # 0K).

1.6 ENERGY BANDS

According toBohr atom modelthe electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in
certain pemitted orbits. Each orbit has a definite amount of energy associated with
it. The electrons moving in a particular orbit possesses the energy of the orbit. The
larger the orbit greater is it's energy. In the case of an isolated single atom the electrons
In any orbit possesses definite energy. But an atom in a solid is surrounded by large
 1.8 Physics for Engineers
to the influence of neighboring atoms an electron
number of neighboring atoms. Due
have a range of energies rather than discrete energy. This
in anyorbitof an atom can
possessed by an electron is known as energy band.
range of energy band
possessed by an electron in a solid is known as energy
The range ofenergies each electron is having a discrete
a solid is considered,
When an isolated atom in But when the atom in a solid is
the orbit in which it exists.
energy corresponding to in
electron in any orbit can have a range of energies. For example electrons
considered, electrons in an orbit can have
different energies because no two
first orbit have slightly eletrons
charge environment. Since there are large number of first orbit
exactly same
the slightly different energy levels form a band called first energy band. The
in a solid,
range in this band. Similarly second
electrons in the first orbit can have any energy
electrons form 2n energy band and so on. Hence there will be large number of
orbit
energy bands in solids.
Energy Energy

3° Energy Level 3 Band

3
2"" Energy Level nd Band
1 Energy Level 1s Band

Nucleus

(i) (i) (iü)

Fig. 1.4

The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence

electrons.
In a normal atom the valence electrons are having highest energy . The range of en
ergies possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. This band may be
partially or completely filled. For example in the case of inert gases valence band will
be completely filled and for other materials it is partially illed.
In some materials like metals the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nu
cleus at ordinary temperature. Some of the valence electrons get detached to become
free electrons. These free electrons are responsible for current conduction in a conduc
tor and are called conduction electrons. The range of energies possessed by conduction
 Electrical Conductivity 19

electrons is known as conduction band. Al electrons in the conduction band are free
electrons. f a substance has empty conduction band, it means that current conduction
is not possible in that substance. Usually conductors have partially flled conduction
band and insulators have empty conduction band.
The separation between conduction band and valence band in the energy level dia
gram is known as forbidden energy gap. There is no allowed energy level in forbidden
energy gap. Hence electrons cannotstay in forbidden energy gap. The width of a for
bidden energy gap is a measure of how strong the valence electrons are bound to the
atom. The greater the energy gap, the more tightly the valence electrons are bound
to the nucleus and hence more external energy is required to push the electrons from
valence band to conduction band. i.e.,to make the electrons free.

Conduction Band: CB
Band
Energy

Forbidden
Energy Gap

Valence Band VB

Fig. 1.5

1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS INTO

CONDUCTOR, SEMICONDUCTOR AND
INSULATOR
Solids can be classified into conductors, semiconductors and insulators based on their
electrical conductivity. This can be explained in terms of energybands. The electrons
in the lower energy band are tightly bound to the nucleus and they do not take part in
conduction process. Valence electrons and conduction electrons determines electrical
conductivity of a substance.
1.10 Physics for Engineers
allow the passage of electric curras.
1. Conductors: The substances which casily
Eg. copper, aluminium, iron, gold, silve,
through them are called conductors.
electrons and hence they cond.
etc. Conductors have large number of free
band and condie
electricity. In terms of energy band, in conductors valence
difference across th.
tion band overlap each other and hence a small potential
band
conductor is sufficient to take electrons from valence band to conduction
Hence using band theory electrical behaviour of conductors can be satisfactorily
explained.
2. Insulators: The substances which do not allow the passage of electric current
through them are called insulators. eg. wood, plastic, glass etc. In the case of
insulators valence band is full and and the conduction band is empty. The enerey
gap between valence band and conduction band is very large ( 15eV). Hence
high electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the conduction
band. At room temperature these valence electrons cannot jump to conduction
band and hence electrical conductivity is extremely Small. When the temperature
increases, some of the valence electrons gains energy to jump to conduction band
and hence the resistance of the insulator decreases. That means an insulator has
negative temperature coeficient of resistance.
3. Semiconductors: The substances whose electrical conductivity is in between
that of conductors and insulators are called semiconductors. Eg. Germanium,
silicon etc. In terms of energy band the valence band is almost filled and conduc
tion band is almost empty. The forbidden energy gap between valence band and
conduction band is very small compared to that of insulators ( leV). Asmaller
electric field is required to push the electrons from valence band toconduction
band. At low temperatures the valence band is completely full and conduction

Conduction Band
Energy
Conductlon Band
Empty
Conduction Band
Enerey Enerey
E,=0
Forbidden E 1eV
15 eV band
Valence Band Valence Band
UFilled
Valence Band

Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

Fig. 1.6
 Electrical Conductivity 1.11

band is empty. Hence a semiconductor behaves like an insulator at low temper

ature. At room temperature some electrons gain sufficient energy and jump to
conduction band imparting little conductivity to the semiconductor. Asthe tem
perature increases further, more and more valence electrons jumpto conduction
band and conductivity increases. This shows that semiconductors have nega
tive temperature coefficient of resistance. This means that when temperature
increases, resistance decreases.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain classical free electron theory of electrical conductivity in metals.
2. Write a note on relaxation time and drift velocity.
3. What are the main draw backs of classical free electron theory?
4. Define Fermi energy.
5. Explain variation of Fermifunction with temperature.
6. Explain classification of materials based on band theory.
7. Write a short note on

(a) Valence band

(b) Conduction band
(c) Forbidden energy gap

NUMERICALS
1. What is the current density in a copper wire of diameter 0.1cm carries a steady
current of 5A. Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in copper. As
suming that only one electron of an atom takes part in conduction (density of
copper is 8.92 x 10°kgm, atomic weight 63.5.).
Ans:

I 5
Current density, J= = 6.37 x 10 Anm2
Tr²
m(0.05 x 10-2)*
N 8.92 x 10 x 6.02 x 10²
m=
63.5
1.12 Physicsfor Engineers

= 8.456 x 1028 electrons/m

J
Drift velocity, va = = 6.37 x 10°/8.456 × 10 x 1.6 × 10-19
ne

= 4.7x10-m/s
2. An aluminium wire of diameter 0.8 mm which carries a current 10A. Calcu.
late the drift velocity of electrons through this wire, assume that 4.5 x 1028
electrons/m are available for conduction.
Ans:

J
Drift velocity, va =
ne
10
Current density, J = = 1.99 x 10° Am?
(0.4x 10-3)²
Drift velocity, vË = 1.99 x 10°/4.5 x 10 x 1.6 x 10-19
=0.276 x 10*m/s
 CHAPTER SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
2

2.1 INTRODUCTION
observed
Super conducting phenomenon is one of the fascinating properties of solids
normally at very low temperatures. Recently, it became sensational with the discovery
of its existence in certain specially prepared oxide materials even at comparatively high
temperatures. This phenomenon is described as high temperature superconductivity.
Superconductivity has always generated lot of excitement because it is a phenomenon
in which electrical resistivity, a major source of wastage of energy, completely disap
0.030
pears or reaches a near zero value.
It all started with the experiments on elec 0.025
trical resistivities of metals at low temper
atures by the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh 0.020

Onnes in 1911. He observed that as puri R

fied mercury is cooled, its resistivity vanishes (2) 0.01s
abruptly at 4.2K (Fig 2.1) Above this temper 0.010
ature, the resistivity is small but finite while
the resistivity below this point is so small that 0.005
it is essentially zero. Onnes recognised this
as the occurrence of a new phenomenon and 0.000
4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
termed it as superconductivity. resistance T(K)
Subsequent experiments showed that su
perconductivity is not arare phenomenon. It Fig. 2.1 Plot of resistance in ohms of
is exhibited by an appreciable number of el- a specimen of mercury vs absolute
ements and many alloys. Most of the high temperature by Kamerlingh Onnes
 2.2 PhysicsforEngineers
superconductors are ceramics which ordinarily are insulators.
temperature(high T) below
substances,there existedla characteristic temperature which
For each of these is known as its critical
goes superconducting andthat fixed temperature
thesubstance T. The superconducting transition is reversible so that
or transition temperature,
a normal substance at its transition tempera-
superconductor, if heated, will change to
below and above transition was shown to be in entirely different
ture. The substance
physical states with widely different properties.

2.2 CRITICAL FIELD Hc

Critical field is the minimum magnetic field required to destroy the super-conducting
nature of a material at a temperature below To That is the superconductivity of a mate.
rial disappears at a field greater than Hc below transition temperature. The temperature
dependence of critical field is given by Tuyn's law, and is given by

Hc(T) is the critical field at TK

H(0) is the critical field at 0K.
i.e., at T= 0K, Ho = H andT=To, Hc =0.

Hc
Normal
H Sc

TG T

Fig. 2.2

The figure shows the variation of magnetic field with temperature.

 Superconductivity 2.3

2.3 MEISSNER EFFECT

Change in magnetic behaviour is a characteristic property of superconducting tran
sition. In 1933, two German physicists, Meissner and Ochsenfeld observed that a
superconductor expels magnetic flux completely, aproperty of superconductors which
has come to be known as Meissner effect. In their experiments, when the specimen
kept in a magnetic field was slowly cooled, the flux was suddenly and completely ex
pelled from the specimen as it became superconducting at its critical temperature (Fig
2.3)They further showed that the effect is reversible. If the superconducting specimen
kept at a lower temperature than T, was slowly heated, the flux suddenly penetrates the
specimen as it reaches T, and the specimen became anormal substance. The magnetic
field inside the substance is given by

B= o(H+ M) = o(1+ x)H (2.1)

where H is the external intensity of the magnetic field, M the magnetisation (that is

Normal
Sphere Super conducting sphere

T<T

Fig. 2.3 The Meissner effect

the magnetic moment per unit volume) and y its magnetic susceptibility.
In the superconducting state, B =0

So, uo(H + M)=0 or H=-M (2.2)

o(1 + x)=0 or X=-1 (2.3)

This means, the superconductor is getting magnetised in a direction opposite to the

applied field and its susceptibility is -1. Thus, the substance in the superconducting
state is a perfect diamagnet (Fig. 2.4).
2.4 Physics for Engineers

M=-H

Fig. 2.4 Magnetisation vs. Applied magnetic field for a superconductor

2.4 TYPEI AND TYPE IISUPERCONDUCTORS

The above behaviour of the superconductor will be present only upto a certain strength
for the applied magnetic field. With the superconductor kept at a temperature T <
T, if the applied magnetic feld is slowly increased, there is a certain critical field
at which the specimen becomes normal. Such superconductors are termed as Type I
superconductors. Eg: Lead (Pb), Tin (Sn), Mercury (Hg), Aluminium (Al), Gallium
(Ga), Zinc (Zn), Indium (In) etc. A different kind of superconductor in the case
of which the transition to normal state was only gradual as shown in Fig.(2.5b) was
termed as Type II superconductor. Eg: Niobium (Nb), Niobium -Aluminium (NbsAI)
Vanadium (V), Technetium (Tc), Boron (B), Silicon (Si), Niobium - Germanium
(Nb,Gc), Niobium- Titanium (Nb,Ti), Niobium -Tin (Nby Sn), Carbon - Calcium
(CCa), Carbon Lithium -Calcium (CLi,Caz), Barium -Silicon (Bag Sisc)

Type I Type ll

Vortex
Super State
conducting
/state Normal
State
H He H, Ha
Applied magnetic field Applied magnetic field
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.5 Magentisation vs. applied magnetic field for (a) Type I superconductor
(b) Type II superconductor
 Superconductivity 2.5

Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBCO), Bismuth Strontium Calcium Copper Ox

ide (BSCCO) etc. The critical field was found to depend on the temperature. It de
creases as the temperature rises from T = 0K to T = Tc (fig.2.5) Thus, the critical
field has its maximum value at 0K and it vanishes at T = T.
The critical field need not be external. Acurrent flowing in a superconducting ring
creates its own magnetic field and if its current density is large enough for its own field
to exceed the critical value H, the superconductivity is also destroyed. Thus, there is
a critical value for the current density, J, permissible fora superconductor. This is, in
fact, the primary limitation in the manufacture of high field superconducting magnets.

900

H,(T)
in
gauss Pb
600

300

000 Sn Hg
TI

2 4 6 8
T(K)

Fig. 2.6 Threshold curves of the criticalfield Hc(T) vs. temperature for several
superconductors

2.5 BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

A microscopic theory of the electronic structure of superconductor was given in 1957
by J. Bardeen, L.N. Cooper and J.R. Schrieffer and is known as BCS theory. It is based
on the formation of cooper pair of electrons.
During the flow of current in a superconductor, when an electron approaches a
positive ion of the metal lattice, there is a coulomb attraction between the electron
and the lattice ion. This produces a distortion in the lattice. ie., the positive ion gets
displaced from its mean position. Smaller the mass of the positive ion core, the greater
willbe the distortion. This interaction called the electron-phonon interaction leads to
2.6 Physics for Engineers
Nowa second electron which
scattering of the electron and causes electrical resistivity.
attractive force, This
approaches the distorted positive ion also experiences coulomb Because
the lattice.
process can be looked upon as interaction of two electrons via
and
of this interaction an apparent force of attraction develops between the electrons
they tend to move in pairs. At normal temperatures the attractive force is too smal
and pairing of electrons does not take place. Below the transition temperature, the
apparent force of attraction reaches a maximum value for any two electrons of equal
and opposite spin. This force of attraction exceeds the coulomb force of repulsion
between two electrons and the electrons move as pairs. These pairs of electrons formed
by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta in aphonon
field are called cooper pairs.
Phonons are quanta of lattice vibrations. The pair has a total spin of zero. As a
result, the electron pairs in a superconductor are bosons. The dense cloud of cooper
pairs forn acollective state and they drift co-operatively through the material. Thus
the super conducting state is an ordered state of conduction electrons. The motion of
all cooper pairs is the same. Either they are at rest; or if the superconductor carries
acurrent, they drift with identical velocity. Since the density of cooper pairs is quite
high, even large currents require a small velocity. The small velocity of cooper pairs
combined with their precise ordering minimizes collision process. The extremely rare
collisions of cooper pairs with the lattice leads to vanishing resistivity. At this stage,
the cooper pairs of electrons smoothly sail over the lattice point without any exchange
of energy. As a consequence, the substance possesses infinite electrical conductivity.
The BCS theory provides two important results, namely the existence of energy
gap and the fux quantization.

2.6 APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTOR

Superconductivity has wide ranging appication from large scale devices which employ
very fine superconducting windings made of type II materials to small scale electronic
devices used in measuring instruments and computers.
Large-scale superconducting devices consists of magnets, motors, generators and
cables. Very large scale superconducting magnets are used in magnetohydrodynamic
(MD) power plants, controlled fusion and energy storage. Large scale magnets have
applications for sea and land transportation. The most spectacular application of super
 Superconductivity 2.7

conducting magnet is in its use in levitated trains for a rapid transit system. 'Maglev'
is the name given to such trains. Other important applications of a superconductors are
as follows.

1. Low loss transmission lines and transformers can be made with superconductors.
2. Superconductors are used to perform logic and store function in computers.
3. Small size electric generators are developed with superconducting coils.
4. High capacity and high speed computer chips can be developed with supercon
ductors.

5. Cryotron, afast electrical switching system utilises superconductivity for its op

eration.

6. SQUID, a superconducing device has many applications in scientific, industrial,

medical and communication fields.

QUESTIONS
PART A

1. What is superconductivity?
2. Define "critical temperature" and "critical magnetic field".
3. What is Meissner effect?

4. Distinguish between Type Iand Type II superconductors.Give examples.

5. Define critical field. How it is related to temperature.

PART B
1. Describe the phenomenon of superconductivity. Mention some of its important
applications.
2. Describe 'Meissner effect' in superconductors. Distinguish between Type I and
Type II superconductors. What are the major applications of superconductors?
2.8 Physics for Engineers

NUMERICALS
,
1. Asuper conductor has critical fields as 1.41 x 10° and 4.2 x 105 Amat
13k respectively. Determine the transition temperature and critical field at 4k
 CHAPTER SEMICONDUCTOR
3 PHYSICS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Based on the electrical conductivity, materials can be classified as conductors, insu
lators and semiconductors. Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductiv
ity in betvween that of conductors and insulators. Because of their special qualities,
which have made it possible to create a wide range of electronic devices-from straight
forward diodes to sophisticated microprocessors that drive our digital world-they have
completely changed the technological landscape.
In a solid, the atoms are very closely packed. The energy levels of electrons interact
with one another and the energy of an electron in any orbit of an atom can have a
range of energy rather than a fixed energy value. The range of energy possessed by an
electron is known as the energy band. An energy band is a sort of continuum where the
sharp energy levels of individual atoms get unidentified. The important energy bands in
solids are, (1)valence band which is the range of energy possessed by valence electrons
and (2) Conduction band which is the range of energy possessed by free electrons in a
solid.
The separation between valence band and conduction band is known as Forbidden
energy gap, because no electron can stay there as there is no allowed energy levels
in this gap. The width of the forbidden energy gap determines the conductivity of the
material. For insulators thisenergy gap is large, about 15 eV. At room temperature, the
valence electrons cannot have sufficient energy to reach the conduction band. However,
when the temperature is increased, some valence electrons may get sufficient energy to
reach the conduction band and participate in current conduction. That is why insulators
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. In a conductor, both the valence
 3.2 Physics for Engineers

and conduction bands overlap and a very small potential difference can cause the free
clectrons to conduct current through it. In a semiconductor, the valence band is ale
filled and the conduction band is almoSt emply and tne rorbidden energy gap is smt
about 1 eV, Even at room temperature some valence electrons cross the enar
and reach the conduction band, imparting a little conductivity to it. As temperature
increases, as in the case of insulators, more valence electrons reach the cond
band and thus the conductivity increases. Hece they also have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Energy Energy
Energy
Conduction Band

Bandgap Conduction Band

Bandgap eCondugtlon BandOol

vaignco Band valonce Bang OValence Band

Fig. 3.1 Energy bands in Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors

3.2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure form of semiconductor material without any sig
nificant impurities or dopants. It possesses electrical conductivity that lies between
that of conductors and insulators. Examples: silicon and germanium.
Even at room temperature, some covalent bonds in the material may break and
as aresult some electron-hole pairs are produced. Hence when an electric field is
applied across the intrinsic semiconductor curent conduction takes place. This curen!
conduction is due tothese free electrons and holes.
When theelectric field is applied, the free electrons present in the semiconducto
are accelerated towards the positive terminal. They flow through the external crcu
and combine with the holes which have already migrated towards the negative termina
Thus the current through the semiconductor is due to these free electrons and hole
though the current in the external circuit is purely electronic ie; by the flow of elecuou
 Semiconductor Physics 3.3

Free Electrons

A B

Holes

Fig. 3.2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

Properties of Intrinsic Semiconductor:

1. Low conductivity:
Intrinsic semiconductors have relatively low electrical conductivity because of
the limited number of charge carriers (free electronsand holes)
2. Equal electron and hole concentration:
The number of electrons in the conduction band is egqual to the number of holes in
the valence band. This is denoted by n =p, where n is the electron concentration
and p is the hole concentration.
3. Temperature dependence:
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors increases significantly with tem
perature as more electron-hole pairs are generated due to thermal agitation.
4. Crystalline structure of the material:
Intrinsic semiconductors have a well-defined crystalline structure. Example: the
diamond lattice for silicon and germanium.
5. Band Gap energy:
Intrinsic semiconductors have a characteristic energy gap (Eg) between the va
lence and conduction bands. This energy gap determines the semiconductor's
optical properties, such as its absorption and emission spectra.
6. Sensitivity to impurities:
The clectrical properties of intrinsic semiconductors significantly alter with the
addition of even a small amount of impurity.
3.4 Physics forEngineers

3.3 DERIVATION OF DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN

CONDUCTION BAND AND DENSITY OF
HOLES IN VALENCE BAND
Electrons are the charge carriers in the Conduction band and holes are the charge car.
rier in the Valence band.

3.3.1 Density of Electrons in Conduction Band

The density of electrons in the conduction band, n, is given by the integral of the
product of the density of states in the conduction band, Z(E) and the probability of
occupation, F(E),over all energies in the conduction band.
In intrinsic material, Number of electrons in the conduction band = Number of
holes in the valence band.

Conduction Band
Energy
Ec

Ey
Valence Band

Fig. 3.3

Let dn be the number of electrons in the conduction band in an energy range E ano
E+ dE
(3.1)
Therefore; dn =Z (E)dE· F(E)
Where, Z(E) is the density of energy states ie; energy states per unit volume,
the Fermi distribution function which gives the probability of occupancy of elecue
among certain energy levels.
 Semiconductor Physics 3.5

But from Statistical Mechanics,

Z(E) dE (2m)
h3
EldE (3.2)

Here m is the effective mass of electron, m;

E is E - Ec, where Ec is the energy at the bottom of the conduction band.

47
.:. Z(E) dE -(2m;)(E
h3
=
- Ec)'dE (3.3)
1
F(E) = (3.4)
1+e(B-EF)
kT
(E Ep)>> kT for allT
(E- Er) >>1

Neglecting 1 in the denominator of equation (3.4)

-1
1 (E-Er)
F(E) = E-Ep)
e kT

F (E) = e(Br-E) kT
(3.5)

Substituting equation (3.3) and (3.5) in equation (3.1)

47 (2m)?(E Ec)'dE -e (Ep-E)
dn = kT
h3
4T
n=dn-am)(E- Ec)BdE.
Ec

4m (Ep-E)
(2m) (E Ec)îe dE
Ec

4T
n=
h3
(2m)ie# (E- Ec)²e #dE
Ec

Let E - Ec = I
3.6 Physics for Engineers

E=s + Ec
dE = da

Consider the lower limit E:When E = Ec; T=0

When E= 0 ;
4T da

rie-a da a (standard Result)

2a

n=
47 (2m)?"aieidr

aiei da = KTVTkT (KT)²n:

2 2

4T )ErEc (kT)-n
n=
h3 -(2m:)e 2
27T (2m;)" (KT)}
n=
h3

n= 2
(2nm;kT,h2
kT (3.6)

Equation (3.6) represents the density of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.

3.3.2 Density of Holes in Valence Band

The density of holes in the valence band, p, is given by the integral of the product o
the density of states in the valence band, Z(E)dE, and the
holes in the valence band, 1 - F(E)l, over all energies in probability
of occupancy
the valence band.
Let dp be the number of holes available between the energy interval E and E+o
in thevalence band.
(3.7)
Therefore, dp =Z(E) dE- (1- F(E)]
 Semiconductor Physics 3.7

Since F(E) is the probability of occupancy of electrons 1- F(E) represents the prob
ability of occupancy of holes.
.The number of holes in the valence band,
E, E.,

p= dp = [1- F(E))·Z(E) dE (3.8)

-O0 -0

1
1- F(E) =1 e() (3.9)
E-Er
e kT+1

Density of states in the valence band,

47
2(E) dE = (2m;)i(Er - E)'dE (3.10)

Where m; is the effective mass of the hole.

Substituting (3.9) and (3.10) in (3.8)

E,
47
p= 2m;)(Ey - E)aE
-00

E,
4T
p= (Ey - E)ieiT dE
-0

E,, - E
Let
kT
be equal to z
E
Then,
kT
dE = -kT dr
(
When E’ E. then 0

And when E ’ -0 then I ’ o0

0
47
p= h3 (2n;)e (kTa)e--) (-KT dr)
3.8 Physics for Engineers

47T
p= h(2mjkT) e (r)edr
47
p= 2
h3
(2nm;kT) (3.11)
p=2( h2
intrinei
represents the density of holes in the valence band of the
Equation (3.11)
semiconductor.
INTRINSIC CARRIERCONCENTRATION
3.4
electrons (n) in the conduction band, which is equal to the number of
The number of semiconductor material at a given
the valence band, in a perfectly pure
holes (p) in concentration (ni).
temperature is called the intrinsic carrier

ni = n =p
2Tm;kT 2mmjkT
ni = np =2|h2 h2

But Ec - Ey = Eg, the band gap energy

2mkT) (3.11a)
ni =
-2( h2
(m;mi;)ie

3.5 VARIATION OF INTRINSIC CARRIER

CONCENTRATION WITHTEMPERATURE
The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration is given by:
2kT
ni = 2|
h2
(mmi)ie
k is Boltz
Where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, E, is the energy bandgap,
mann's constant, T is absolute temperature.
 Semiconductor Physics 3.9

From the equation it is clear that as temperature increases, the intrinsic carrier
concentration increases exponentially as more electrons jump from the valence band
to the conduction band, creating more electron-hole pairs. At a given temperature,
materials with larger band gaps have lower intrinsic carrier concentrations due to the
requirement of more energy to excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band.
Also the increased carrier concentration leads to high leakage current in semicon
ductor devices.Hence performance of suchdevices may be degraded at high tempera
tures

3.6 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

(QUALITATIVE)
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be significantly altered by the ad
dition of impurities. This process is called doping and the impurities added are called
dopants. A semiconductor which has undergone doping is called extrinsic semicon
ductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:

3.6.1 n-type semiconductor

Positively charge Free electrons

impurity atom

n-type

Fig. 3.4 n-type semiconductor

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is varied considerably by changing

the temperature and by adding the impurities. When an intrinsic semiconductor is
doped with pentavalent impurities like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, free electrons
3.10 Physics for Engineers

Conduction
Band
Band
Energy

Valence
Band

Fig. 3.5 Energy band description of n-type semiconductor

are generated,thereby making the electrons, the majority carriers. Holes become the
minority carriers and the Fermi level shifts towards the conduction band.
Example: Silicon doped with Phosphorus, Germanium doped with Arsenic etc

3.6.2 p-type semiconductor

p-type

Fig. 3.6 p-type semiconductor

When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurities like boron, alu
minum, gallium, holes are generated,thereby making the holes the majority carriers.
Electrons become the minority carriers and the Fermi level shifts towards the valenco
band.

Example: Silicon doped with Boron, Germanium doped with Aluminum ete
 Semiconductor Physics 3.11

Conduction
Band
Energy Band

Valence
Band

Fig. 3.7 Energy band description of p-type semiconductor

Properties of Extrinsic Semiconductors

" Conductivity: The conductivity is high compared to intrinsic semiconductors
due to the increased number of charge carriers.
Charge carriers: Depending on the type of dopants, the majority charge carriers
may be electrons or holes.
Position of the Fermi level: For n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level shifts
towards the conduction band for p-type, it shifts towards the valence band.

3.7 Formation of a p-n Junction

The sequential processes involved in the formation of a p-n junction can be listed as:
1. Bringing p and n together
2. Diffusion of carriers
3. Depletion region formation
4. Developing a Potential barrier
Ap-n junction is formed by suitably joining a p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
This interface between the two materials is called p-n junction, which is in effect, the
control element of semiconductor devices.
The p-n junction is fabricated by special techniques. One such commonly used
technique is called Alloying. Here, a small mass of a trivalent impurity like Indium is
 3.12 Physics for Engineers

semiconductor,like n-type Germanium.Then it is heated to ak.

placed on an n-type
crystal melts together to form puddle.Then
500°C. This impurity and the n-type
temperature is lowered allowing it to solidify. The atoms of Indium are adiustel
the
semiconductor to form a single crystal. This region of the crystal where tha
in the junction is fabricated
region.Thus a p-n
concentration of indium is high, creates a p-
Electric Field

Vo n
p
Vo +

Depletion Region
Depletion Region

Vo
+

Fig. 3.8 p-n junction

junction is formed, some of the free electrons in the n-region crosses

Assoon as the
Thus the n-region near tne
the junction and combines with the holes in the p- region.
junction becomes neg
junction becomespositively charged and the p region near the electrons across tne
crossing of
atively charged. This negative charge prevents further Region,
Depletion
junction. Thisregion which is devoid of moving charges is called
and negative
because the region is depleted or emptied of charge carriers. The positive fiow
a barrier to the
charges in the depletion region set up an electric field which is
a
of electrons from the n-region to the p - region. Thus the depletion region acts as
insulator.It is very thin and its width depends on doping concentration. There develop"
apotential difference across this depletion region and is known as the Barrier po
type ofthe
tial or Junction Potential. The junction potential depends on factors like, potential
semiconductor material,extent of doping and temperature. For S;, the barrier
is 0.7V and for Ge it is 0.3V.
 Semiconductor Physics 3.13

3.8 FERMI LEVEL IN SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC

Fermi Dirac Statistics is applicable to electrons obeying Pauli's Exclusion Principle.

According to F- DStatistics, the probability of occupancy of an electron P(E), in a
level of energy E is given by, P (E)= N(E) /M (E) = 1/eE-BF) +1; where, N(E)
is the density of electrons per unit energy and M(E) is the density of its quantum
states per unit energy and Er is the energy of the Fermi level. The highest energy
level an electron can occupy at absolute zero temperature is known as the Fermi level.
It can also be defined as an energy level in which the probability of occupation by an
electron is 0.5. The energy of the electron in the Fermi level is called the Fermi Energy.
1
P (E) = P (Er) = The Fermi level can be used as a reference level to understand
2
the electrical properties of semiconducting materials.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, at a given temperature the number of electrons in the
conduction band equals the number of holes in the valence band ie; n =p

2
2Tm kT e
Ep-Ec
= 2 2rm;kT\ e
h2 h2

( =e
Ey kT
+Ec Xe-2Er
kT

2EE
ekT
Ey+Eg
T

Taking log on both sides to solve for Er, the fermi energy;
2Er 3 (Ey + Ec)
2
log kT
kT
3kT Ey+ Ec
Ep = 4
log +
2

This is the equation of Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor.

At T = 0
Ep =
(Ey +Ec) - (Ec- Bv) + Ey=2+Ey
2 2
3.14 Physics for Engineers

If E, is taken as the zero level then,

Ep = 2

Conduction Band
Energy

Fermi Energy
Level EE

Valence Band

Fig, 3.9 FermiLevel of Intrinsic Semiconductor

In an intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level lies.exactly at the middle of the energy
band gap ie; equidistant from both conduction and valence bands as it has equal number
of electrons and holes in the conduction band and valence band respectively. That also
implies that the probability of finding an electron in either band is equal. The Fermi
level can shift slightly with temperature since it is at the exact middle of the band gap
at absolute zero.
In an extrinsic semiconductor, the position of the Fermi level is significantly infiu
enced by the type and concentration of impurities present.
In an n-type semiconductor, the pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons to th
semiconductor atoms (therefore they are called donor impurities). These electrons are
accommodated in an energy level called donor energy level. This level will be near
banu
conduction band slightly below it. The Fermi level shifts towards the conductionproba-
and is in between conduction band and donor energy level as there is a higher
bility of finding electrons near the conduction band due to the added donor impuny
 Semiconductor Physics 3.15

At T = 0,Er; is at the middle of Ec and En i.e: fermi level shifts from Eri to
EFn:
Ec + Ep
2
At low temperature the electrons in the conduction band are from the donor atoms.
As temperature increases, intrinsic carriers dominate. Hence the fermi level shifts
downwards. At a particular temperature called the depletion temperature, the fermi
level coincides with the donor energy level.

At T =Td, Ern=Ep

If the temperature is further increased the fermi level will shift downwards in a lin
ear fashion and at a particular temperature called intrinsic temperature the fermi level
coincides with the intrinsic fermi level.

At T>T; EFn = Er;

In p-type semiconductor, since trivalent impurity accepts electrons from semiconductor

atoms, holes are created in the valence band. Therefore the acceptor energy level is
near to the valence band. Thus Fermi level in p-type shifts towards the valence band as
there is a higher probability of finding holes near the valence band due to the acceptor
impurities. AtT = 0, Er; shifts downwards and is at the middle of Ey and E i.e;
fermi level shifts from Er, toErp:
E + Ey
Erp 2

Atlow temperature the holes in the valence band are only due to the acceptor atoms.
As temperature increases, the intrinsic holes dominate the acceptor holes. Hence the
Fermi levelshifts upwards. At a particular temperature called saturation temperature
Ts, fermi level coincides with the acceptor energy level.
At T =Ts , Er, = E
As temperature is further increased the fermi level coincides with the intrinsic fermi
level at a temperature called intrinsie temperature.

At T> T;, Er, = Er;

3.16 Physics for Engineers

Conduction Band Conduction Band

Ec
EFn Ec
-E
EFi
EF
-EA
EFp
Ey Ey
Valence Band Valence Band

Fermi Level in p-type semiconductor Fermi Level in n-type semiconductor

Fig. 3.10 Fermi Level of Extrinsic Semiconductor

3.9 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF p-n

JUNCTION
An energy band diagram is agraphical representation of the energy levels of electrons
in amaterial. For a p-n junction, it provides valuable insight into the behavior of the
junction.

p-type n-type

Electron Drift

Ec SElectron Diffusion
Neutral p-region ! Ec
EF
Ey Hole Diffusion
Neutral n-region
Ey

Hole Drift

Depletion Region
Fig.3.11 Energy band Diagram of p-n junction
 Semiconductor Physics 3.17

When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity, an n-type

semiconductor is formed and when it is doped witha trivalent impurity, a p-type semi
conductor is formed. The force exerted bythe trivalent impurity on the electrons in the
outer shell is less than that exerted by the pentavalent impurity. Therefore the electron
orbit is slightly larger in p type material and hence has greater energy than electron
orbits in the n type material.
When a p-n junction is formed the valence and conduction bands in the n -region
have lower energy than those in the p-region even though there is some overlapping.
As soon as the junction is formed some of the free electrons in the n-region begin to
diffuse through the junction to the p - region and they form part of the electrons in
the conduction band of p-region. Then these electrons lose energy and fall into the
valence band and combine with the holes in the p- region.Consequently, a depletion
region is formed at the junction. Due to the passage of high energy electrons from the
ntop region, the energy of the n-region conduction band decreases. The crossing of
electrons continues, until the top of the conduction band of the n-region aligns with
the bottom of the conduction band in the p-region. At this point, the formation of the
depletion region is complete and the p-n junction is at equilibrium. There is an energy
gradiént across the depletion region and so further crossing of electrons is not possible
across the junction from n to pregion.
Before the formation of the p-n junction, the Fermi levels of the two materials
are different. The fermi level of n-type is shifted towards the conduction band due to
the presence of free electrons and the Fermi level of p-region is shifted towards the
valence band due to the presence of holes. When the junction is formed, the energy
bands bend at the junction due to the formation of depletion regions and the Fermi
levels of both the regions align.

3.10 QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF CHARGE

FLOW ACROSS Ap-nJUNCTION - FORWARD
AND REVERSE BIASED p-n JUNCTION
Equilibrium Condition
Ap-n junction is said to be in equilibrium when there is no external voltage applied
across the junction. As soon as the junction is formed, a depletion region is created due
3.18 Physics for Engineers

to the diffusion of majority carriers (holes from p-region and electrons from
across the junction. Due to the potential barrier across the junction, further n-region
of charge carriers is prevented. Thereforeunder equilibrium conditions there is nodif usio,
current flow across the p-n junction.

Forward Bias

When the junction is forward biased ie; when a positive voltage is applied to the ,
region and a negative voltage to the n-region, the width of the depletion region d
creases. The majority carriers (holes from p-region and electrons from n-region) gi
enough energy to overcome the reduced potential barrier. Due to the recombinati
of electrons and holes a significant current flows through the junction. When the fe
electrons from the n-region cross the junction, they become valence electrons. Whe
they move through the p-region, the holes in the p-region move towards the right, Th
atoms in the n-region become positive ions. The electrons from the negative termina
of the battery enter the n-region to compensate for this loss. Thus the current condue
tion isdue to the flow of free electrons in the n-region and due to the flow of holes
the p-region. However the current through the external connecting wire is due to t:
flow of free electrons.
n

A B

Fig. 3.12 Current flow across a forward biased p-n junction

Reverse Bias
tot
When the junction is reverse biased, ie; when a negative voltage is applied
p-region and a positive voltage to the n-region, the width of the depletion regiou
 Semiconductor Physics 3.19

creases. Therefore the height of the potential barrier increases. Hence it is difficult for
the majority carriers to cross the junction. However a small reverse saturation current
flows due to the minority carriers through the junction. When the reverse voltage 1s in
creased continuously, there is a sudden rise in the reverse current causing the junction
to break down.

Thus the current flow through the junction in both forward and reverse biased con
ditions depends on the applied voltage and the properties of the semi conducting mate
rial. It can be seen that the p-n junction allows current flow primarily in one direction
during forward biased conditions and thus it acts as a diode.

3.11 DIODE EQUATION(DERIVATION)

Diode equation gives the relation between the current flowing through a diode and the
external voltage applied across it.
Total current I of diode,
I=I,t I,:where I, is the hole current and I, is the electron current
Now; The hole current, I, a AP, (Change in hole density in the n-region)
The electron current, I, a AN, (Change in electron density in the p-region), when
no biasing is done. (Open circuit p-n junction diode)

By Boltzmann relation ; Hole density in p - region P, = PaeVi (3.12)

Where VB is the Barrier potential across the depletion layer and Vy is the Voltage
equivalent of temperature
kT T
V= e 11600
At room temperature; T = 27°C = (27+ 273) K = 300 K
V= 26 mV
When there is no biasing; VB = V
Equation (3.12) becomes, P= PeVi (3.13)

When forward biased, Vo is decreased

VB = Vo- V; where V is the applied Voltage
3.20 Physics for Engineers
n-region increases from P, to P.
When forward biased, the hole density in the
since some of the holes from the p-region enter the n-region when forward bi.
AP;
ased.

Hole density,
AP,)ef
P, = (P, +
P,=(P+ AP,)e re
Pae = (P+ AP,)eVre
P,= (P,+ AP,)e Vi
P,er = P, +AP,
AP, = P,ef - P,
(3.14)
AP, = P. ef-1
But, P,= Pye
P, = Ppe
(3.15
AP, = P,e

The hole current, I, aA P

constant
I,= 1,eT -1; where I,p isthe Proportionality
Similarly; Electron current

Total current,

I=I,+ In
I= I,let -1 +Lm e-1
I= (Ug t in) ef -1
 Semiconductor Physics 3.21

where I, is the reverse saturation current

Io = (Isp t n) which is fully temperature dependent. It is anunwanted component.
I= loet -1: where I is the diode current, Vis the external supply voltage (+ve
for forward bias, -ve for reverse bias ), I, is the reverse saturation current.
This is the diode current equation.
Incorporating the material constant, the Diode equation can be written as,
I= 6et5 -1
n is material constant
n=lfor Ge
F=2for Si

3.12 V-ICHARACTERISTICS OF A
p-n JUNCTION
The voltage applied across the p-n junction and current through it can be represented
graphically. This is termed as the V-I characteristics of a p- n junction.
Typically the voltage (V is plotted on the X - axis and current (I) on the Y -
axis. The plot has three distinct regions. They are the forward bias region,reverse bias
region and no bias region.The circuit diagramn for studying the V-I characteristics is
given below.
K
mA)

ww
Fig. 3.13 Circuit diagram for the study of V-Icharacteristics of p-n junction
 3.22 Physics for Engineers
200 B

150 Barrier
Voltage
100
50
15 10 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
100

200
Breakdown
Voltage 300
400

Fig.3.14 V-I characteristics of p-n junction

Zero Bias or No Bias Region

This happens at zero external voltage, when the key K is open. Due to the potentialis
is zero. This
barrier at the junction, no current flows across it. So the circuit current
indicated by the point O in the graph.

Forward Bias Region

condition: ie; p-region is con
Here thep-njunction is connected in the forward biased
terminal. When forwa
nected to the positive terminal and n- region to the negative
current increases ver)
biased, the barrier potential at the junction begins to reduce. The
used for overcoming s
slowlywith the applied voltage, since the external voltage is
in the graph.It is clear rou
potential barrier at the junction. This is represented by OA between current and volt-
the Diode equation that there is an exponential relationship forward voltage called
age; hence obviously the graph will be non-linear. After some to increase rapidly
knee voltage (0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si), the current begins
ordinaryconductor
an
with increase in external voltage. Here, the diode behaves as region is used forthe
forward bias
The plot is nearly linear and it is shown as AB. This other electronic
circuits.
and
practical applications like rectification, amplification,
p-region
Reverse Bias Region i.e., biased,th
biased condition:
Here the p-n junction is connected in the reverse When
reverse
the negative terminal and n-region to the positive terminal.
 Semiconductor Physics 3.23

barrier potential at the junction increases and so also the junction resistance. Practi
cally, no current flows across the junction. But due to the presence of minority carriers,
ie: the undesirable free electrons in p-region and holes in the n-region, a small reverse
current called reverse saturation current I, flows in the reverse direction, as this reverse
bias appears as forward bias for minority carriers. This is shown as OC in the graph.
This current remains almost constant for a wide range of reverse voltage. If the reverse
voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority.carrier electrons
increases and they knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. Consequently,
there will be an abrupt rise in the reverse current and fall of the junction resistance.
The p-n junction may be damaged permanently due to this. The reverse bias region of
the p-n junction is used in Voltage regulators (Zener diode) and switching circuits.

QUESTIONS
1. What is a semiconductor? Discuss its important properties.
2. Discuss the energy bands in semiconductors.
3. What are Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors, give examples.
4. What is a p-n juntion? Explain the formation of depletion region in a p-n junc
tion.
5. Explain the current flow across a p-n junction while forward bias, and reverse
bias.
6. Explain the V-I characteristics of a p-n junction with necessary circuit arrange
ment and draw the characteristic curve.
7. Write short notes on: Knee voltage and Break down voltage.

NUMERICALS
1. Find the temperature at which the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon be
comes equal to 101*cm. Given B for silicon = 7.3 x 10cm-3K-3/2 Eg for
silicon =1.12 eV.
2. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) in silicon at 400 K and 500 K.
Given B for silicon = 7.3 >x 10'"cm K2, Eg for silicon = 1.12 eV.
3.24 Physics for Engineers
reve
silicon diode is forward biased with a voltage of 0.5 Vat 298 K. The
3. A current.
current is found to be 10nA. Find the diode
saturation
operating at 27°C, the forward current is 6.63, Afor aforwart
4. In a rectifier circuit reverse saturation current.
Calculate the
voltage of 0.22 V.
 CHAPTER OUANTUM
5 MECHANICS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
By the end of nineteenth century, many physicists felt that all the principles of Physics
had been discovered. By that time, Newton's mechanics had been brought to a high
degree of perfection by the work of Lagrange and Hamilton. The relation between heat
and mechanical work had been demonstrated by Joule, and Carnot had formulated the
second law of thermodynamics. This was followed by the complete development of
thermodynamics by Gibbs. The kinetic theory of gases and statistical mechanics were
formulated by Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs. Young and Fresnel made advances in
the field of optics by their development of wave theory of light which pushed aside
Newton's corpuscular theory. The first half of the nineteenth century saw the develop
ment of the laws of electricity and magnetism by the work of Michael Faraday, Gauss,
Ampere, Laplace and others. The most significant event of the nineteenth century was
Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. He unified the laws of electricity,
magnetism and optics. The body of these accomplishments is now called "Classical
Physics".
Classical Physics could not properly explain many physical phenomena observed
in the atomicand subatomic domain. Max Planck in 1900 put forward the quantum
theory to explain the black body radiation. In 1905, Einstein introduced the idea of
light quantum or photon in explaining photoelectric effect. The particle nature of ra
diation was stressed in these theories. But wave nature of radiation was essential for
the explanation of interference, diffraction and polarization. In 1912, Neils Bohr pro
posed the theory of hydrogen spectrum. He incorporated both classical and quantum
concepts into his theory.
5.2 Physics for Engineers

In 1924, Louis de Broglie of France proposed that just like radiaion, particles al
have a dual nature. They behave like particles and waves. The wave aspect can be
explained as follows.
Consider a photon of light of frequency v. It has a momentum p = hy
C
C= VÀ where c is the velocity of light in free space and Àis the wavelength. since
h is the
Planck's constant.
Thercfore, the photon wavelength A= h

h
de Broglie suggested that the equation A= (5.1)
is a completely general one that applies to material particles like
electrons,protons,
atoms, molecules etc. as well as to photons. The momentum of a particle of mass m
and velocity v is p = mu and its de Broglie wavelength is given by

(5.2)
The wavelength of a ball of mass 100 g moving with a speed of 10 ms- is
h 6.625 x 10-%4
0.1 x 10
= 6.625 x 10-3m

This wavelength is extremely small so that we are unable to

measure it or detect it.
Hence we may not find any wave behaviour in such a moving ball. But let us
an electron (Tn = 9.1 x 10-3 kg) moving at a speed of consider
10" ms-, Its momentum
is
p= mw=9.1 x 10-3 x 10" 10-2ka.ms-1
and the wavelength associated with it is
h 6.625 x 10-34
10-23

It is of the order of magnitude of 10- m. The

dimensions of atoms are comparable
to thís. Hence the wave aspects of electrons, atoms and subatomic
particles cannot be
ignored.
Although the dual nature of matter is applicable to all material objects, it is signif
 Quantun Mechanics 5.3

jcant for microscopic bodies only.

Anew mechanics which incorporates both particle and wave aspects was essential
for the explanation of observed phenomena. This led to the development of matrix
mechanics by Heisenberg in 1925. It was further developed by Max Born and Jordan.
Schrodinger in 1926, independently developed the wave mechanics on the basis of
de Broglie's hypothesis of wave-particle duality. Schrodinger himself showed that his
wave mechanics and Heisenberg's matrix mechanicsgave the same results even though
they had different forms.
The above two formulations were unified by P.A.M.Dirac (1930) to set up a general
formalisnm known as Quantum Mechanics.

5.2 CONCEPT OF UNCERTAINTY AND

CONJUGATE OBSERVABLES (Qualitative)
The uncertainty principle is one of the most significant of physical laws, and was for
mulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. It states that it is impossible to know both the
exact position and exact momentum of an object at the same time. Quantitatively the
uncertainty principle is stated as follows.

(5.3)

This equation states that the product of the uncertainty Az in the r-component of posi
tion of an object and the uncertainty Ap, in the corresponding momentum component
at the same instant is equal to or greater than
2
If Ar is small, Ap, is large and vice versa. These uncertainties are not due to
inadequate measuring techniques or defects of the experimenter. It is in the nature of
the quantities involved.
The pairs of observables related by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle are known
as canonically conjugate observables.
Similar relations can be written for other pairs of canonical variables like angular
displacement and corresponding angular mnomentum J,.
The relation is (5.4)
5.4 Physics for Engineers

Also, we can write an uncertainty relation connecting the variables time t and energy
E in the form

AtA EZ7 (5.5)

In all the above relations, the order of magnitude of the uncertainty product alone is
taken into account. In many practical calculations, the above relations are sometimes
used in the following forms also.
AzAp h or
and AtAE i and so on.

5.2.1 Applications of the Uncertainty Principle - Absence of

Electrons Inside a Nucleus
The uncertainty principle can be used to explain many atomic phenomena. Some typi
cal phenomena are explained below.
Typical nuclei have radii of the order of 10-14 m. For an electron to be confined
within such a nucleus, the uncertainty in its position may not exceed 10-14 m, i..
Ar = 10-14 m. The corresponding uncertainty in its momentum is AP.
1.054 x 10-34
i.e., Ap, J.s
10-14m
1.1 x 10kg.m/s
If this is the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron, the momentum itself is of
the order of this magnitude. Hence,

Pa 1.1l x 10-20 kg.m/s

Its kinetic energy T must be much greater than its rest energy moc. Hence we use the
relativistic expression for kinetic energy, neglecting the rest energy. Hence,
T=Pa C
= 1.1x 10-20 kg.m/s x 3 × 10 m/s
=3.3 x 10-12 J
 Quantum Mechanics 5.5

Since leV = 1.6 x 10-19J, the kinetic energy of the electron must be more than
20MeV if it is to be a nuclear constituent. Experiments indicate that the electrons
associated even with unstable atomns never have more than a fraction of this energy,
and we coonclude that electrons cannot be present within nuclei.

5.2.2 Natural Line Broadening

Consider the radiation of light from an "excited" atom. Such an atom remains in
an excited state for about 10-s. That is, the uncertainty in time of de-excitation is
At= 10-8s.
The corresponding uncertainty in energy is
AE
At
1.054 x 10-34 J.s
10-8 s
1.1x 10-26 J

We have E = hu where v is the frequency of light.

AE= hAv

Hence, the uncertainty in the frequency of emitted light is

AE 1.1 x 10-26 J
Ay=
h 6.625 x 10-34 J.s
= 1.6 x 10" Hz = 16 MHz

This is the irreducible limit to the accuracy with which we can determine the frequency
of radiation emitted by an atom. That mneans the emitted spectral line is not sharp but
has some width. This broadening of spectral line which cannot be reduced further is
known as natural line broadening.

5.3 THE WAVE FUNCTION

According to Louis de Broglie, a wave is associated with any moving particle and its
h
wavelength is given by A= where h is the Planck's constant and p its momentum.
5.6 Physics for Engineers

The wave associated with particles are called matter waves or de Broglie waves. If a
wave is to be associated with a particle in a consistent way, it is reasonable to
that the wave-like phenomena are localised in the neighbourhood of the particle expeC
moving particle (like a moving electron) can be considered as a wave group or a pack
of waves.

In a wave, there is something that varies periodically. In water waves, the

that varies periodically is the height of the water surface. In a sound wave thequantity
varvin
quantity is the pressure. In light waves, electric and magnetic fields vary. The quantü
whose variations make up matter waves is called the wave function and it is denote
by the Greek letter V.
V is a mathematical function which describes the state of a particle or a system. It
is a function of position co-ordinates and time. It is, in general, a complex function.

5.3.1 Physical Interpretation

yV or |y'represents the probability density or the probability of findingthe particle
in unit volume. If aparticle exists in a given region of space, the total probability of
finding the particle in that region is one. This idea can be put in a mathematical form
as

y"Vdr=1 (5.6)
where dr is the volume element. Equation 5.6 is called the normalisation condition.
V, as such, is not an observable. But * is an observable. This is the statistical
interpretation (Copenhagen interpretation) of ..
Consider a particle moving forward along the X-direction with a linear momentum
p. The wave function for the particle may be written as

r = asin(wt- ka) (5.7)

or acos (wt ka) (5.8)
Or U= e-i(wt-kz) (5.9)
2r 2T
where W= and k=
T

a is the amplitude of the wave; T, the period and A, the wavelength.

 Quantum Mechanics 5.7

If vis the frequency of the wave,

27T 2
= 2TV= -hv = 27 -E= E
T hhh
h
where E is the energy of the particle and h=
2

i.e., E= hw (5.10)
2r 2rp
Also, k=

or p= hk (5.11)

Hence, the wave function for a particle of energy E and momentump may be written
as
V= ae(Et-pr) (5.12)

5.4 FORMULATION OF TIME DEPENDENT AND

TIME INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER
EQUATIONS

The Schrodinger wave equation is the most fundamental equation of Quantum Me

chanics.There are different ways by which we can arrive at this equation. But the way
which is logically and aesthetically most satisfactory will be to assume the equation.
Here, we arrive at the equation following the lines of thought used by Schrodinger
himself in 1926.
The differential equation for a wave associated with a particle and propagating
along the X-direction may be written as
18
(5.13)
Asolution to this equation is
V= ae-(Et-pr) (5.14)
5.8 Physics for Engineers

Differentiating (5.14) w.r.t. "t.

at -(
EV = ih
(5.15)
Differentiating (S.14) w.r.t. x twice,

(5.16)
The total energy E of the particle is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.

i.e., E= + V
2m

Multiplying by V,
+ Vy (5.17)
2m
Substituting for EV and py from (5.15)and (5.16) in (5.17) we get,

ih t + Vå (5.18)
2m ar2

This is the one-dimensional time-dependent Schrodinger equation. In three dimen

sions, it takes the form
ih t (5.19)
2m
In a number of cases, potential energy V of a particle does not depend on time; i
varies with the position of the particle only and the field is said to be stationary.In
such stationary problems, Schrodinger equation can be simplified by separating ou
time-dependent and position-dependent parts. Accordingly, we can write the wave
function as a product of a function of position , (¢) and a function of time t; d(t)
Thus ( , t) = y(z) (t) (5.20)
 Quantum Mechanics 5.9

Differentiating (5.20) w.r.t. atwice,

=
(5.21)

Differentiating (5.20) w.r.t. t,

(5.22)

Suhstituting (5.21) and (5.22) in (5.18),

a¢ (t)
ihab Ot 2m
+ VWe)o)

Dividing throughout by (æ) o (t),

ih -2 1 a +V (5.23)

The LHS of eqn.(5.23)is a function of t alone while the RHS is a function of z alone.
For the equation to be consistent, each side must be equal to same constant, K (say)
Equating the LHS of (5.23) with K, we get

1 ô¢
ih = K
(t) t
-i
i.e., KA

Integrating ot) = eKt (5.24)

Eq. (5.20), then becomes,

V(,t) = y(z)e-iKt (5.25)
Differentiating (5.25) w.r.t. t,
-iK
-(e)eKt
i.e., KV
t
or ih t =Kù
(5.26)
5.10 Physics for Engineers

Comparing (5.26) with (5.15), we find that Kis identical with E, the total
Equating the RHS of eqn. (5.23) to E, we get energy.
+ V=E
2m x2

Multiplying by v(z),

+ Ve = Ey
2m ar2
2m
(5.27a)
or
-(E V) = 0 (5.27b)
This is Schrodinger'stime- independent equation in one dimension.
In three dimensions it takes the form,

2m
(E - V=0 (5.28)
It is also called the steady state form of Schrodinger's equation.
For studying the nature of moving particles, we have to find the potential energy V
of the particle. This is to be substituted in the Schrodinger equation and the equation
should be solved to find V or y. It will give valuable information regarding the prop
erties of the particles. The wave functions obtained as solutions to the Schrodinger
equation must be well-behaved. i.e., y should be
1. Finite, and should tend to zero whenz tends to too.
2. b(æ) should be single -valued at a point and
3. a(æ), etc., should be continuous.

5.5 PARTICLE IN AONE DIMENSIONAL BOX

We know that in atoms,electrons are restricted to move around nucleus in fixed orbits.
They are bound to the parent nucleus. The behaviour of such bound electrons can be
described by particles in a potential well. For simplicity we consider motion in an onc
dimensional potential well.
 Quantum Mechanics 5.11

Consider a particle of mass 'm' confined in a one dimensional potential well, we

as X-direction.
refer simply both, of infinite depth and finite width L, moving in the
order to ensure that the particle remains in the box , we shall assume that V = 0
In
every where within the box and V = 0 outside the box. Such an one dimensional box
of width Lis illustrated in the Fig. 5.1.
The Schrodinger equation for this single particle is
2mE
+ -=0 (5.28a)

i.e., + k'y = 0 (5.28b)

2mE
where (5.28c)

The general solution to this equation can be written as

Fig, 5.1 Particle inabox

= Aeihz + Be-ikz (5.29)

Where Aand B are constants to be determined using appropriate boundary conditions.

The probability of fînding the particle outside the box is zero.
*y= 0 outside the box.
5.12 Physics for Engineers
If the wave function is to be continuous, ý*ý must be zero at the walls of
outside. This means y itself must be zero at the walls. the box and
Left side boundary condition is

=0 when I=0
(5.30,
Apply this to cqu. (5.29)
Thus 0=A + B
B=-A

Equation (5.29) then becomes

y= Aeikz -e-ika
i.e., = 2iA sin kT
or y=Csin kz (5.31)
where C= 2iA

Equation (5.31)obeys both the Schrodinger equation and the first boundary condition.
Right side boundary condition is
=0 when

Apply this to equ. (5.31).

0=Csin kL
Since C#0,sin kL =0
kL= T
where n= 1,2, 3, ...
or k= (S.32)
L

Substituting eq. (5.32) in eq. (5.31)

=Csin (5.33)
 Quantum Mechanics 5.13

Equation (5.33) is a satisfactory solution obeying the boundary conditions. We shall

nowevaluate Cby applying the normalisation condition.

ulda = 1

i.e., sin" dr = 1

i.e., cos
2TT da = 1

C2
i.e., 7L=1
1/2
or
c-(4) (5.34)

Substituting for C in equation (5.33)

1/2

where n=0,1, 2,3,....

-(4)
=
sin (5.35)

If n= 0, = 0 & |b| = 0, every where inside the box, which is not possible.
Hence zero should be discarded from the possible values of n. The new possible values
of n are 0, 1, 2, 3;4, ....
As n changes, there is an infinite number of satisfactory discrete functions, each
involving a different integral value ofn. (n is called a quantum number).

Allowed Energy Levels

From equation (5.32),
k= "L
k = n'n?
5.14 Physics for Engineers

Also, from (5.28c)

2mE

2nE

Possible energy of electrons in the nh level is

En = 2m[2 (5.36)

where n =1,2,3..Equation (5.36) expresses the stationary energy states possible to

the particle in the box. The state of the particle characterised by any particular value
of the allowed energy levels is called a quantum state. n = 1corresponds to the first
quantumn state. The first quantum state is also called the ground state. The energy of a
particle in a box in the ground state is obtained fromequation (5.36) by putting n=1.

. . E = 2mL2

Similarly, E, = for n = 2 and so on.

2m L2

Thus, a particle confined to abox cannot have any arbitrary or continuous value of en
ergy. Its confinement (bounding) leads to restrictions on its wave functions, permitting
it to have only those energies specified by equation (5.36).
Inother words, according to the theory of quantum mechanics,the very act of bound
ing an electron leads to the quantization or descretization of energy levels. Another
significant fact is that the particle cannot have zero energy, because, then should be
zero everywhere within the box; i.e., the particle cannot be found anywhere within the
box. The exclusion of E = 0 as a possible value of energy is a quantum mechanical
result that has no counterpart in classical mechanics where all energies including zero
are presumed possible.
The energy levels corresponding to quantum numbers n = 1, 2,3 and 4 are shown
in Fig. 5.2. It is seen from Fig. 5.2 that the energy levels are not equally spaced.
The magnitude of the energy levels (and the magnitude of the separation between
energy levels) is inversely proportional to mL?. Thus, for large masses and wide boxes,
the allowed energy levels are very close and they appear to be continuous. ie., they
 Quantum Mechanics 5.15

behave "classically". But when mand Lare small, the energy difference becornes
detectable and the system is "quantum mcchanical".
The following examples illustrates the difference between 'classical' and 'quantum
mechanical' systems.
Consider a 10 g marble in a Im box.
n'r52 n²n(1.054 x 10-4 J.s)
Then E, = 2m[2 2x (10x 10-kg) x (1m)
i.e., E, = 5.5 x 10-6 Joule
Ej = 5.5 x 10-66 Joule
E, = 5.5 x 4 × 10-b6 Joule
Ez = 5.5 x 9x 10-t6 Joule. .. etc.,

A
marble with this kinetic energy has a speed of 3.3 x 10-32ms-l which is experi
mentally indistinguishable from a stationary marble. The permitted energy levels are
so close that they cannot be distinguished.
Consider an electron in a box of 1 Å

n'r? n²n²(1.054 x 10-4 J.s)'

Then E, = 2mL2
2x (9.1 x 10-3 kg) x (10-10m)
i.e., E, =6 x 10-n Joule =38n eV
E; = 38 eV

16x²h?
n=4 E, =
2mL

9rh
n=3 E, = 2mL?

4nh'
n=2 E, = 2mL?

n=1: E, = 2m[?

Fig. 5.2 Quantum numbers and energy levels of a particle in a box

5.16 Physics for Engineers

E, = 152 eV
E, = 342 eV ...etc.,

These energy levels are sufficiently far apart to make the quantisation conspicuous.

Probability distributions
In order to determine where the particle must be localised within the one dimensionl
box, we have to write down * y or l|", the probability density, as a function of z.
For any value of n, from equation (5.35),
1/2

v-(2)" sin
L

X=0

X=0 X=0

Fig. 5.3 Wave functions and probability densities for a single particle in a one
dimensional box.
 Quantum Mechanics 5.17

2
Hence vl² =
L
wheren=1,2.3.
The probability density is a function of both z and n.
The wave functions and probability densities for asingle particle in a one dimen
sional box are represented in figure( 5.3).
Figure (5.3) shows that in the ground state, the maximum probability of observing
the particle is at the midpoint of the 'box'. But in the next higher state. the maximum
orobabilities are at one fourth and three fourth distance from one end of the bOx and
soon. Thus, in every quantum state, there are certain preferedpositions of maximum
probability. (classically, there is equal probability of finding the particle anywhere in
the box).

5.6 QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELLING

According to classical mechanics, when a particle of kinetic energy E approaches a
potential barrier V, (E <) it bounces off without entering the otherside. But in
quantum mechanics the wave function representing the particle wave does not vanish
on the other side of the barrie. This shows, a finite probability of the particle pene
trating the barrier. The phenomenon of penetration of particles through barriers higher
than their own incident energy is known as tunnelling.
Consider a beam of identical particles of kinetic energy E. Let the beam be incident
from the left on a potential barier of height V and width L. On either side of the
barrier, V =0, which means that no forces act on the particles there. The potential can
be represented as V = 0 for z< 0 (region I), V =V for 0<z<L(region II) and
V= 0 for z> L (region II). Let ý, Vy and us be the wave functions in regions I. I
and III respectively.
The Schrodinger equation for the particles in these regions are
2rn -EuË = 0
+ (5.37)
2m
à2 t+ (E-V),=0
(E (S.38)

#usmEUS =0
+
2m
(5.39)
5.18 Physics for Engineers

Fig. 5.4 A particle of kinetic energy E < V penetrates the potential barrier

According to classical mechanics, when a particle of kinetic energy E <V approaches

a potential barrier, the particle must be reflected. In quantum mechanics, the de Brogie
waves that correspond to the particle are partly reflected and partly transmitted. This
means that the particle has a finite chance to penetrate the barrier.
The solutions to equations (5.37) and (5.39) are
i = Aeki + Be-ik1z (5.40)
3 = Feik1 4 Ge-ik1z (5.41)

2mE
where kË = is the wave number of the de Broglie waves that represent the
particles outside the barrier.

The term Aelk1* in equation (5.40) represents a wave of amplitude Aincident from
the left on the barrier. This wave strikes the barrier at z = 0 and is partly transmitted
and partly refected. The term Be-ikiz in equation (5.40) represents the reflected wave.
On the far side of the barrier (z > L) there can only be a wave represented by Feiki=,
the transmitted wave travelling in the +z direction since region III contains nothing
that could reflect the wave. Hence G=0 and
3 = Feik1z (5.42)
 Quantumn Mechanics 5.19

Equation(5.38) can be written as

27n
h2(V-E)u, = 0 (5.43)
solution to equation (5.43) is
= Cekz + Dek2z (5.44)
2rm(V E) is the wave number of the de Broglie
where k2 =/ waves that represent
the particles inside the barrier.
As the exponents in equation (5.44) are real, z does not oscillate and therefore
dnes not represent a moving particle. However the probability density 2 is
not
Tero. Hence there is a finite probability of finding the particle within the barrier. Such
aparticle may emerge into region III.
Transmission probability (T) for a particle to pass through the barrier is defined
as the ratio of the flux of particles (number of particles per
unit area per second) that
emerges from the barrier to the flux of particles that arrives at it. In other words,
transmission probability is the fraction of incident particles that succeed in tunnelling
through the barrier.

FF* |F?
Transmission probability T"= AA* |A|2
T iscalculated approximately as e-2k2l
Tunnel effect occurs in the case of a-particles emitted by certain
It is found that an a-particle whose kinetic energy is only a
radioactive nuclei.
few MeV is able to escape
from a nucleus whose potential wall is of height 25MeV. This
effect is made use of
In the operation of tunnel diodes and electron emission
through thin insulating films.
Tunnel effect also explains the Zener breakdown in semiconductor.

QUESTIONS
PART A
I. Explain the concept of matter waves.
5.20 Physics for Engineers

2. Explain the concept of wave functions.

3. Give the probability interpretation of wave functión.
4. Explain the normalisation condition in wave mechanics.
5. Arrive at the time dependent Schrodinger equation.
6. What are energy and momentum operators? Explain.
7. Why do we say that Schrodinger equation is an eigen value equation?
8. What is Hamiltonian operator?
9. State and explain Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
10. Explain the absence of electrons in the nucleus.
11. Estimate the uncertainty in the frequency of light emnitted by an atom.
12. Represent the probability istribution of a particle in a square well potential.
13. What is tunnel effect?
14. Define "transmission probability' for quantumn mechanical tunnelling.

PART B
1. What are matter waves?

Derive the expression for de Broglie wavelength.

Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron whose kinetic energy is 10
keV.
2. Write.down the Schrodinger equation for a particle in a one dimensional square
well potential and obtain the energy eigen values. Explain the probability distri
bution of the particle in the potential well.
3. Derive Schrodinger's time independent wave equation.
Explain probability distribution of particle in a square well potential.
 CHAPTER
DIELECTRICS
6

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Dielectrics play a fundamental role in modern technology by virtue of their unique
electrical properties. Unlike conductors, which readily allow the flow of electric cur
rent, dielectric materials are insulators in which all the electrons are tightly bound to the
nuclei of the atoms and there are no free electrons available for conduction of current.
Materials such as glass, mica, paper, polymers etc are example of dielectrics. Hence
they exhibit high electrical resistivity and are characterized by their ability to store
electrical energy in the form of an electric field. Dielectrics are indispensable materials
because of its essential functions in electronics, telecommunications, energy storage.
and medical applications. Ongoing research and development continue to expand the
capabilities and applications of dielectric materials, promising innovations that will
drive future technological advancements across various industries. Understanding and
harnessing the properties of dielectrics will be crucial in meeting the evolving demands
of arapidly advancing technological landscape. This chapter explores the properties
of dielectrics andtheir applications in various fields today.
In engineering practice the term dielectric material and insulating materials are
teated as equivalent. But by standard definitions, the dielectric is determined as a
substance whose basic electrical property is the ability to be polarized and in which
an electrostatic field can exist, and the dielectric material as an electrical engineering
Imaterialpossessing the properties of adielectric, while the electrical insulating mate
hal is defined as a dielectric material used to prevent the leakage of electric charges
n electric engineering devices. Thus strictly speaking the terms dielectric material is
broader than the term insulating material.
6.2 Physics for Engineer
Dielectrics aretypically defined by severalfundamental characteristics:

exhibit exceptionally high

1. Electrical Insulation: Dielectrics electrical
isolation resisoy.
that prevent the flow of
ity, making them
efective insulators
electric
safecutyITent.
crucial in applications where electrical and
This property is
critical.
ate
electric field, dielectrics
Polarization:
2. tion, When exposed to an
undergo polariza.
aligning their atomic dipolesin the direction of the field. This ability a-
energy, a phenomenon utilized in
lows dielectrics
capacitors.
to store electrical
devices like
3. Dielectric Strength: Dielectrics possess the ability to endure high electric fields
without exxperiencing breakdown, referred to as dielectric strength. This charac.
teristic is essential in high-voltage applications such as power distribution sys-
tems.
dielectrics can vary with
4. Frequency Response: The properties of
frequency,
which is particularly significant in applications involving alternating current (AC
telecommunications and RF circujts
or high-frequency signals, including
owing to their distincti
Dielectrics are extensively utilized across various industries
properties:
1. Capacitors: One of the primary applications of dielectrics is in capacitors,
allowing capacitors
where they facilitate the storage of electrical charge. By their
enhance capacitance.
tostore more charge at a given voltage, dielectrics
insulators in cables, transformers, and
2. Insulation: Dielectrics act as electrical
safe operation.
electrical equipment, preventing current leakage and ensuring
integrated circuits (ICs) to
3. Electronics: In electronics, dielectrics are used in
boards (PCBs) as sub
insulate and separate conductive layers, in printed circuit isolation.
strate materials, and in semiconductor devices toprovide electrical
and wave
4. Telecommunications: Dielectrics play acritical role in optical fibers
minimal loss.
guides, guiding and transmitting electromagnetic waves with
equip
5. Medical Applications: Dielectrics are employed in medical devices and
ment such as MRI machines for imaging and in therapeutic applications like
diathermy, where they enable controlled generation and transmission of electro
magnetic fields.
 Energy Storage: Beyond Dielectrics 6.3
6. advancedenergy storage capaciliketors, dielectrics
devices are
being explored for use in
rialsin next-generation
battery technologies. dielectricelastomer
actuators and as
ahead advancements in
mate-
Looking dielectric materials are focusing on
High-Energy Density several key areas:
Capacitors: Innovations aim to develop
pableof storing more energy,
pacitors. enabling the design of dielectrics ca-
compact and efficient ca-
Dielectric Elastomers:
2.
applicationss in
Research is exploring flexible dielectric materials suit-
ablefor
ing new po
robotics, soft
possibilities for versatile and electronics, and biomedical devices, offer-
Dielectric adaptive technologies.
Nanocomposites: There's apush towards integrating nanoscale fillers
into dielectric materials to enhance their
electric strength and minimizing losses, properties. This includes improving di-
ious electronic andIphotonic
thereby optimizing performance in var-
applications.
4, Tunable Dielectrics: Engineers are working on
constants. This innovation allows for materials with tunable dielectric
photonic devices, promising greater
adaptive and reconfigurable electronic and
5. Biocompatible
functionality and efficiency.
Dielectrics:
The development of dielectric
Ale with biological systems is critical for biomedical implantsmaterials
and
compat-
electronics. These materials ensure safe interaction with the human wearable
maintaining electrical performance. body while

linderstanding these advancements requires a study of the physical

ienced by dielectrics in electromagnetic fields and the phenomena expe
dectricalproperties. This knowledge will underpin the parameters that govern their
ulored to specific development of new materials
applications through careful consideration of their chemical com
position and structure.

6.2 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Ihe capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is increased if the space between its plates
Shlled with adielectric material. That is the charge on the capacitor filled with dielec
nCis larger than the capacitor filled with air. If Co be the capacitance of the capacitor
6.4 Physics for Engineers
the capacitance when
with air or vacuumin between the plates and C
dielectric material , then the dielectric constant of the materialthe space
with a
C
Er =
Co
ratio of the
capacitance
Thus the dielectric constant of a material is the of agven
capacitor completely illed with that material tothe capacitance of same
vacuum. capacitor a

C. fo4
We know that, capacitance of acondenser without dielectric, d
Capacitance of a condenser with dielectric, C¬A
d

Where eo is the permittivity of free space or air, ¬is the permittivity of

medium. Ais the area of the capacitor plate and dis the distance between the dielectric
plates. capactor
Therefore.
¬, =
Eo
That is. the dielectricconstant of a material is defined as the ratio of permittivity of t%
medium (E) to the permitivity of free space (Eo).
Dielectric constant is a dimensionless quantity. The measure of dielectric constam!
or relative permittivity of a material gives the properties of a dielectric material. The
diclectric constant of air is one.

6.3 POLARIZATION

Two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance is known as an electricdipole.

Electncdipole moment is the product of magnitude of chargeand the distance between
the charges.

Fig. 6.1
 Dielectrics 6.5
Considertwocharges +Qand -Q separated by a distance r, the electric dipole
momentp Qxr
Whenanexternalelectric field is applied to a dielectric material it become polar-
material|
whichmeans
thatthe acquires a dipole moment. This property is known
polarizability,The basic reason
behind this is that, the
ized,
molecules,
dielectric material consist of
as numberof
atoms / which are composed of positive charges (nuclei)
negativecharges
(electrons). By the effect of external electric
large
charges
areedisplaced along the field, while the negative charges are fieid theopposite
displaced positive
and

Hencethat
atom/ molecule get polarized.
oit.
Polarizability of an atom/ molecule is a = where is the induced dipole mo
ment.Polarization Pis defined as the amount of induced dipole moments per volume of
polarized,dielectric
material.
a
So Polarization, P = Nå = NaE

Where uis the dipole moment of a single atom/ molecule and Nis the number of
polarized.atoms/ molecules per unit volume.
Where a= le t a; + and g are the electronic, ionic and orientation
polarizability.

64 TYPES OF POLARISATION
The application of electric field to a dielectric material forms electric dipole resulting
in polarisation. Here are four different types of polarisation as follows.
1. Electronicpolarisation
2. lonic polarisation
3. Orientation Polarisation
4. Space charge polarisation

l. Electronic polarisation: It is the polarisation of a single atom in a dielectric

Material. An atom is having a positive nucleus at its centre while the electrons are
Tevolving around it. When an electric field is applied to this atom, the electrons
ire displaced with respect to the heavy ixed nuclei to a distance less than the
6.6 Physics for Engineers
polarisation.
dimension of the atom. This is called clectronic This is
to the field strength E. proportional
The electronic polarisation, P= Na, E
the electronic
where N number of atoms per unit volume and a,

electric field of
polarizability.
the atom of a dielectric material is placed in an
When
E, the positive nucleus will move towards the external electric field and elec.
tron cloud will move in the opposite direction. Then the Lorentz force between
intensity
nucleus and the electron is given by

FL = charge x electric field

number.
= 2e * E, :is the atomic

nucleus and th.

After separation,an attractive coulomb force arises between the
electron cloud which has a tendency to maintain the equilibrium position.
1 4p4e
Coulomb force, F=

nucleus.
Where r is the distance between electron cloud and

g. =Total negative charges enclosed by the sphere of radiusz

4
R3 3
Where R is the radius of the atom.
1 ze x
Hence, F, =
4T Eo
Atequilibrium, Fz = F.
-z2ex
ze x E=
4 Eo R3
47EoR'E
Ze
 Dielectrics 6.7

The
induced dipole moment,
Le = magnitude of charge x
displacement
=2e X
Ze
= 4TEoR'E

but we
know that le = a,E
47EoR3
So, ae =
The electronic polarization, P = No,E =4nNE, RE

No Field, (E = 0) Applied Field, (E 0)

Fig. 6.2

(a) It increases with increase of volume of atom

(b) It is independent of temperature
(c) It is mostly exhibited by monoatomic gases such as Helium,
neon. Argon
etc

2. lonic polarisation: When an electric field is applied to an ionic

crystal such as
NaCl, KCI, KBr etc. the positive and negative ions are displaced in the
opposite
directions in the presence of an external electric field. This is known as atomic
or ionic polarisation.
ne 1onic polarisation produced for a crystal have N number of dipoles per unit
volume is given by
P, =
Na;E, where a, is the ionic polarizability.
When an electric fieldIE is applied to an ionic dielectric. positive ions move in the
direction of applied electric field, where as negative ions move in the opposite
6.8 Physics forEngineers
moved by positive ions
the distance
a; and t; are and
direction. Let
ions respectively.
ions = T +
negative
Netdistance moved bythe
Whenthe ions are displacedfrom its equilibrium, a restoring force Comes intg
mean position. The
play which bring the ions back
displacement.
to their restoring
force
proportional to the
restoring force,
For the positive ion,

F, = ky1

restoring force,
and for negative ion,
F, a T2
F, = ky?

which is proportional to mass and angular

proportionality constant
kË and kz are
frequency of respective ions.
M,uhz
So F, = M,h, and F, =
If the force is represented
by electric force eE
Then eE = M,wh = Mnwb?
eE eE
and T2 =
Mwo

The dipole moment.

charges
4, = charge x separation between
=e(I1 t I2)
=c*cE

E
+
 SOionic polarizisability,
Dielectrics 6.9

; =
+
1
and
M

(
No applied field
m

With applied field

Fig. 6.3

" It does not depend on

" In addition to ionic
temperature.
polarisation, the ionic molecule also possess electronic
polarisation due to the shifting of electron cloud
"The magnitude of ionic
polarisation is larger than electronic polarisation.
3. Orientation
Polarisation: Orientation Polarisation is exhibited by
polar
molecules such as H,0, HCI, Phenol etc. Polar
dipole moments even in the absence of an molecules have permanent
electric field. In the absence of an
electric field, the permanent dipoles are oriented randomly that, so the
moment is zero. VWhen an electric field is applied to a polar net dipole
experiences atorque and align parallel to the applied field. molecules, the dipole
This is known as ori-
entation polarisation, which depends on
temperature.
Orientation polarisation, P, = Na,E
where N
number of atoms per unit volume and a, the orientation polarizability.
Orientation polthearization depends
rial on temperatu re. When temperature of amate-
increases, energy tends to disturb the alignment.
thermal
6.10 Physics for Engincers

Orientation polarization is given by.

P, = 3&T

Orientation polarizability can be written as

3kT

where k is the Bolzmann's constant.

(E =0) E>0 with field

No applied field

Fig. 6.4

4. Space charge polarisation: Space charge polarisation is due to the presence of

a dielectric medium placed in between two electrodes. Here in the absence of
electric field positive and negative charges are not separated. When an electic
field is applied, the positive charges are accumulated near the negative electrode

Electrodes
Dielectric medium

E
Without field With field

Fig. 6.5
 Dielectrics 6.11
andnegative charges near positive electrode. The space charge polarisation can
be defined as the redistribution of charges due to the applied electric fhekd and
the charges accumulate on the surface of electrode.

Total ppolarisation: The total polarisation is the sum of electronic, ionic and
orientation polarisation. In the calculation of total
polarisationis not taken, as it occurs at polarisation, space charge
interfaces and it is very small and hence
negligible. Therefore total polarisation, P =P+P+ Po.

6.5 RELATION BETWEEN POLARIZATION AND

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

D P

Fig. 6.6

For a parallel plate capacitor without dielectric, let the charges on the two plates
are +q and -g and electric field intensity between the plates is E,.

According toGauss's law, Eo ds =

Eo "or E || ds =,
i.e., Eo A =
Eo
where Ais the area of the capacitor plate.

Therefore, E = (6.1)
EoA
Let a dielectric slab is placed between two plates. Due to polarizaion some equal and
 6.12 Physics for Engineers
faces of the slab. Then
opposite charges q' are induced on the two 'slaw,
Then using Gauss the total
Cnclosed by the Gaussian surface is q - . charge
/E-ds= 9-g
Eo
or E·A=
Eo Eo

Or EoE = A
(62)
displacement), D = 9
We know that free surface charge density (Electric A

polarisation), P =
Induced surface charge density (Dielectric A

Substituting these two values in equation (6.2)

Then, EoE =D-Por D = EoE + P (6.3)

Infree space there is no dielectric. P = 0

D = EoE

But in dielectric media, D =E E

Substitute in (6.3) E E= EoE+ Por Eo¬,E = EoE + P

(6.4)
Or P= EEo (E, - 1)
P (6.5)
(E, - 1)= EoE =X

Where x is the electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium. It doesn't have an)
units. In vector form equation (6.4)can be written as
 Dielectrics 6.13

INTERNAL FIELDS OR LOCAL FIELD IN

6.6
LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

electric field which is seen by an atom or the total electric field at the atom site
The
calledthe intermal field
or local field. In gases, the atoms are separated at a large
distancesandthe interaction between the atoms can be neglected.
is

When an extemall electric field Eis applied, the intensity of electric field experi-
enced by an atom in gaseous state is equal to the applied electric feld E. In solids
atoms are arranged very closely which leads to stronginteraction between
andliquids,
them. Sotheinternal field E, of an atomis not equal to externally appliedelectric field
equaltothe sum of applied field and the field due to other dipoles present in the
Ebut
material.
Internal|field E, = E+ theefield dueto allother dipoles.

20

-x-d
X+

Fig. 6.7

To calculate the internal field seen by an atom, let us assume an electric dipole of
length 2d and charge 4, the field along the axis of the dipole at point O is the sum of
the electric field due to +q and -4.

The electric field due to + q at point Ois E, =

The electric field due to - qat point Ois E, =

4mEolu + dy?
Electric field of dipole at Ois Eo = E, - E,

47Eo(r - d)? 4TEolr + d)²

 6.14 Physics for Engineers
2q 2dr
ArEo\(- d)²(z +d)?
Since r >> d, (r- d)? (r+ d? =
2q 2dr
Eo =
4mEo
4dqr

2u Since 2dq =

Consider an array of eequispaced atomic dipoles separated by a distance 'a' as

shown
R P X A B
a(1)
a

2a 2a

3a 3a

Fig. 6.8

in figure 6.8. The all the atoms are similar, cqually spaced and have induced electric
dipole moment , in an applied electric field E. The electric field experienced at the
atom X is the sum of electric fields of other dipoles and applied electric field E.
The electric field at X due to the induced dipole P and Awhich are at a distance
a 1s
Ep = E =
4nEoa
The electric fheld at Xdue to the induced dipole Qand Bwhich are at a distance "20'
is,

24
Eq = Eg =
47Eo(2a)
 Dielectrics 6.15
the field due to all other dipoles,
Therefore
=E.+ EA +EÍ + Eg + Ep + Ec
2u 2
4mEoa3
+ 2u
4rEoa?
4neo(2a)' 4mEo(2a)
+ +
4rE(3a) 4rEo(3a)
4u +
4u 4u
+
47Eoa3 +
4rEo(2a) 4rEo(3a)
4u 1
+
4TEoa 33

1 1 1 1
Where (1+ttp*t....-12
Hence field due to alll other dipoles = 1.2u

E; = E+the field due to all other dipoles = E+ 1.2_u

TEoa'
The local field in athree dimensional case would be very complicated and would
depend upon crystal structure. In athree dimensional case may be replaced by
1.2
N(number of atoms/unit volume) and by a constant known as internal field
constant, which depends upon the type of the structure.
1
For acubic crystal y= 3

Nå P
So, E, = E+ = E+ (6.6)
3¬0 3¬0
Since N =P.
This was done by Lorentz (Dutch Physicist), so this field is known as Lorentz field.

6.7 CLAUSIUS MOSSOTTI RELATION

Clausius Mossotti relation relates dielectric constant of an insulator to the polarizability
of atoms
comprising it.
We know that dipole moment of a single atom is proportionalto the local field or
6.16 Physics for Engineers

internal field. dipolemoment= aE;

i.e., (6)
Where ais the polarizabilityoftheatom.
polarisation, P= NaE
The bulk (68)
local feld or internal field
unit volume and E; is the
where Nis the number atoms per
P
a= NE,
From equation(6.8),
P

N(E+ 3¬0
P (6.9)
(E, - 1)
But from (6.4) P = EEo (6.10)
P
E= Eo (E,-1) (6.1)
P

Substitute eqn (6.10) in (6.9), a=

Na 1
Or
Eo
(t)
Na 1
Or (Er+2)
Eo (Er-1)
(E, - 1) Na (6.12)
(E, + 2) Eo

Mossotti Relation
This cquation is known as Clausius

6.8 DIELECTRIC LOSS

electric field, some amount of
When a dielectric material is placed in an alternating
of energy is wasted. This IS
electrical energy is absorbed by the medium, that is a part
and negative heu
due to the reversing of polarisation due to the presence of positive
of the diele
Dielectric power loss, P =jV'wC tan ,where Cis the capacitance factor ofthe
tric and Vis the voltage applied to it at afrequency f, tan , is the power dielectric,
the
dielectric. That is, the power loss depends on the power factor tan Õof
 Dielectrics 6.17
and Care kept constant.
since V,w

6.9 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

Whena voltage is applied to a dielectric material it
beyond can withstand upto a
field intensity, which damage occurs, that results in maximum
nomenonin which the dielectric breakdown.
material fails to resist large applied This phe-
dielectric breakdown and the
corresponding voltage known
is
of ddielectric break voltage is known as breakdown voltage.
The different types down are given below.
1. Intrinsic breakdown
2. Thermal breakdown
3. Discharge breakdown
4. Electrochemical breakdown
5. Defect break down

1 Intrinsic
breakdown: In a pure dielectric, valence band is separated from con
duction band with a very large band gap., so the electrons
gap to reach the conduction band. If it is cannot cross the band
feld. the valence electrons acquire subjected to a large amount of electric
suficient amount of energy so that they can
cross the energy gap. This produce large
current, which causes the dielectric
material to undergo a breakdown.
2. Thermal breakdown: Thermal breakdown is the
breakdown due to the
generated in the dielectric material when an electric field is applied. In heat
cases the amount of heat generated is very high compared to the certain
and this excess of heat may heat dissipated
produce dielectric breakdown. This type of break
down is called thermal breakdown.
3. Electro chemical breakdown: Electrochemical breakdown is closely related
with thermal breakdown. Due to the effect of
temperature, mobility of ions in
creases, hence electrochemical reaction willtakes place, which results in leakage
current. This decreases the insulation resistance and this willresult in dielectric
breakdown.
*. Discharge breakdown: It is due to the presence of gas or liquid illed
cavi
(ies or voids within the dielectric material. If these materials are subjected to
6.18 Physics for Engineers
high voltage it get ionised andthey produce ionisation curent This large ion-
.

is
produce dielectric breakdown and known discharge
as
isation current may
S. breakdown.
Defect breakdown: It is due to the surface defects like cracks. pores etc. Impu.-
rities are filled up at these places whichresults in breakdown. Thisis known as

defect breakdown.

QUESTIONS
examples.
1. What are dielectric materials? Give
exhibited by dielectric material?
2. What are the different polarisation
polarization and dielectric constant.
3. Derive the relation between
exhibited by dielectric material.
4. Explain different types of polarization
5. Write a note on

(a) Dielectic constant

(b) Dielectric losses
(c) Dielectric breakdown

(E, - 1) Na
6. Obtain the relation
(E,+ 2) Eo
7. Derive Clausius Mossotti Relation.
P_
8. Show that internal field E, = E+ 3¬0
Name and find the relation
9. What are the three electric vectors in dielectrics?
between them?

NUMERICALS
1. Athick dielectric material of thickness 5mm and dielectric constant 2.5 is placed
in between two parallel plates of acapacitor having equal and opposite charges
If the electric fheld strength inside is 3 x 10°V/m, determine polarization vecio
 pnddisplacementvector.
Dielectrics 6.19

Ans: D= EoE t P
Also D: = Eo¬,E =8.85 x
10-1 x2.5 x3x 10°
= 66.375 x 10"C/m?
P=D- EoE = 66.375 x 10-8.85 x x
= 39.83 x 10C/m? 10-12 3 x105

isotropic dielectric medium is placed normal to a

2. An
field with electric
an
displacement vector of magnitude uniform external electric
4 x10-4C/m². Find
value of dielectric constant and total dipole moment of the
the slab when the volume
ofthe slab is 0.2m3 and magnitude of polarisation is 3 x104C/m²
Ans: E= D -P 4x 10-4-3 x10-4
8.85 x 10-12
=1.13 x 10'V/m
Polarisation, P = Total dipole moment
volume
Total dipole moment, p= PV =3x 10-4 x 0.2 =6 x
10-Cm
3, Find the dielectric
susceptibility of a gas whose dielectric constant is 1.00038.
Ans : E, =1+X
X=¬,-l=1.00038 1 =3.8 x10
4. A 3cm thick slab of dielectric
constant 3 is placed between two paralel plates
which have equal and opposite charges. If the electric field inside is
Calculate the polarisation and displacement vector 10°V/m.
(26.55 x 10-*C/m², 17.7 x 10-°C/m).
J. The polarizability of Ne gas is 0.35 * 10-°Fm². If the
gas contains 2.5 *
1026,atoms/m² at 0°C,
calculate its relative dielectric constant.
Ans: The electronic
Polarisability,
a, =0.35 *10-40Fm?
6.20 Physics for Engineers

N= 2.5 * 10atoms/m
(E, - 1) Na
(E,+ 2) Eo
1+ 2Nae
3¬0
¬,= 1 - Nac
3Eo
2.5*1026*0.35 * 10-40
Na,
30 3 *8.85 * 10-12
=3.427* 10-4
¬, = 1.001

6. Asolid contains 2.7 * 1025 identicalatoms/m each with a polarizability of 7,

10-40Fm². Calculate the ratio of internal field to the applied field.
Ans: N = 2.7* 1025 atoms/m'

a = 7* 10-40Fm?
P
E, = E +
3¬o
P= NaE, = 2.7 *10 *7* 10* E; = 18.9 *10-15 E,
18.9 * 10-15E,
E, = E +
3Eo
E, =1.001
E

to an electric field
7. Calculate the relative permittivity of KCI, when it is subjected
of 1000V/m and the resulting polarisation is 4 *10-C/m².
Ans: E = 1000V/m

P=4*10-C/m?
Eo¬,E = EoE + P
P
E, = 1
EoE
4*10-8
= 1+
8.85 *10-12 * 1000
=1+4.5 = 5.5
 Dielectrics 6.21

Calculatethe electronic polarizability of He atoms if the gas contains 2.69 *1025

atoms/m Dielectric constant of He gas at NTP is 1.0000684.

Ans:

P= NaE =Eo(E, - 1)E

Eo(E, - 1) 8.85 * 10-2(1.0000684 1)
N 2.69 * 1025 = 2.25 10-4 Fm?

9. Calculatethe electric polarizability of a dielectric material with dielectric con-

stant 10. Given that N =
8* 1028 atoms/m.
10-40Fm2
Ans: 9.956 *
10. Ifthe electric field strength inside two parallel plates of a capacitor is 10³V/m
due to a dielectric constant of 5, find the polarization vector.
Ans: 35.4 * 10-C/m)
.. Athick sheet of polythene of dimension 0.5mm possessing a relative dielectric
constant of 2.25, is subjected to 100V. Calculate the polarization.
Ans: 2.765 * 10-Cm)
12. In a parallel plate capacitor of area 0.Im² each and the plates are separated by
adistance lcm apart. The capacitor is connected to a power supply of 3kV. A
thin insulating plastic sheet of thickness lem is inserted between the capacitor
plates. The potential difference between the plates drops to 2kV. But no change
in charge on each capacitor plate. Calculate
(a) The original capacitance
(b) Charge on each plate
(c) Capacitance after the dielectric material is inserted
(d) The dielectric constant of the material
(e) The permittivity of the dielectric
(f) The original field between the plates
(8) The electric field after the dielectric is inserned
Ans:
(a) The original EoA 8.85 * 10-12 *0.1
capacitance, Co = d 0.01
= 8.85pF
 6.22

(g) () (e) () (c)Charge(b) Physics

10-12 The Th13.275C
e /Nm² The 10/2
The Capacitance
for
electric dielectric
=originalpermittivity
* eachonEngineers
3.38 10
*field field constant 13.275 plate,=after
10-V/m after of
between the
the the
* Q=
ofdielectric
dielectric the dielectric, the 10-12F
material, CV=
plates,
is E=
material 8.85
inserted, Eo= E,
¬r¬0 is *
Vo/d=3* ==l5 inserted,10-12*3
E= = C
Eo/¬, 1.5 *
C= 103
10°V/m * ,
= 8.85 Q/y26.55 =
3*10/& *
10-l2 2655.
=*10
o
 CHAPTER
LASER
7

7.1 OPTICAL PROCESSES

According to quantum ideas atoms, ions and molecules possess certain discrete energy
lueg These energy values are known as energy levels. Atoms of each chemical
alament have its own characteristic energy levels which are expressed in electron volt
(e). The spacing between energy levels of atoms vary from 1to 5 eV. The structure of
sRery levels of molecules reflect the three types of motions taking place in amolecule;
heorbital motion of electrons, the vibrational motion of atoms in the molecules and
he rotational motion of molecule itself. Therefore the energy level of a molecule is
complicated than that of an atom. In gas lasers, we come across such complicated
energy levels.
When radiant energy is given to a system of atoms, or molecules, two kinds of
transition are possible. Atoms in the ground level may absorb radiant energy and
undergo transition to higher energy levels. Such transitions are known as excitation
transitions. Atoms in the excited level may undergo transitions to lower energy levels,
on finding a radiation. Such transitions are known as de-excitation transitions.

12 ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
make the discussion simple, consider an atomic system with two allowed energy
levels. Let E, be the lower energy level, known as ground level and E, be the upper
gY level known as excited level. Let N, and N, be the number of atoms in the
grOund level and l excited level respectively. At normal temperatures N, > Ng. when
7.2 Physics for Engineers

sucn asystem of atoms is exp0sed to radiation of energy hu, s0 that

hv= E, - E1

from asuitable source, there is a definite probability for the absorption of

the atoms in the ground level and to make excitation transition. The same
cause the excited atoms to make downward transition, a process known as
rraadidaiatitoionn canby
transition. stimulated
E, N,

E, N,

Fig. 7.1absorption of radiation and excitation transition in a normal state atomic

system where N, > N,

The rate of absorption of radiation which is equal to the rate of excitation transition
is proportional to the number of atoms present in the ground level.
dN,
ie., x N,
dt abs

( abs
= W2Ni (7.2)

Where Wi2 is aconstant known as absorption probability for transition from level Ito
2.
But Wi2 = BË2p (7.3)

where B2is a constant, known as Einstein's coefficient, characteristic of the absorp

tion and pis the number of photons crossing unit area per unit time known as incident
 Laser 7.3
diation
density
dN,
dt = BNyp
abs (7.4)
SinceBi (and Ba1)have the dimension of area, it is also known as absorption cross

section
Theatoms will be unstable in the excited level. They remain in the excited level
foraveryshorttime of the order of 10-s, after which they will fall back to the ground
level.The average time At for which an atom remains in an excited level is known
lifetime of that level. With the de-excitation transition, the
mean
energy
as
difference
will be given out in the form of radiation consistent with Eqn.(7.1) or in thein
formofvibrational energy of atoms(as heat). There are two distinct ways by which an
excitedlatom can make radiative transitions namely spontaneous emission process and
stimulated
lenmission process.

7.3 SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

N,

Fig. 7.2 Spontaneous emission process of ordinary light source where N; > N,

The emission of photons by the natural de-excitation transition of atoms, molecules,

1ons etc. is known as spontaneous emission process. This is an uncontrolled and nat
ral phenomenon in which each excited atom emit photons independently in random
drecton, phase and polarization. Thus the photons emitted will be distributed in a
umber of photon states (py - states) and each state containing quite a large number
of photons representing plane polarized monochromatic radiation. Abeam of light
7.4 Physics for
Engineers
made up of billions of such photons will be highly disordered in terms of
emission, phase, wavelength and polarization. That is the beam will be
The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to the number
of
iincohreerceinotn.
excited level atoms in the
dN
ie., a Ng
dt spon

(dN2 = A N,
dt spon

where A is constant known as Einstein's coefficient of spontaneous

emission process,
7.4 STIMULATED EMISSION
The process of de-excitation transition with the emission of radiation on
identical radiation as stimuli to trigger the emission process is known as finding an
emission. The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to the number ofstiatom
mulated
the excited level (N2)
dN,
i.e., aN
dt /sti
dN,
= WnN (7.6)
dt st:

where Wa1 is the stimulated emission probability.

But W21= B1 Xp (7.)

where B1 is a constant characteristic of stimulated emission process and is known as

Einstein's coefficient of stimulated emission. p is the density of the incident radiation
field.
dN, (78)
dt = B1Np
sti

The equations (7.2) and (7.6) show that the rate of absorpion and rate of stimulaed
emission depend on the number of atoms in the ground level (Ni) and in the excite
level (N2).
characteristic
The radiations by stimulated emission have certain very important
 Laser 7.5

E N,

Stimulating
Radiation
Radiations by
Stimulated emission

E. N,

Fig.73rradiations by stimulated emission and optical coherence in an inverted

activemedium

features. All the stimulated radiations will have the same direction of propagation,
frequency, polarizationandI phase asthat of the stimulating pulse. That is, radiations by
stimulated.emission become highly ordered and coherent. This property of coherence
anduniformity inthe direction of propagation and polarization with the triggering
pulse makes stimulated lemission (and hence laser) distinct from ordinarylight (see fig
7.3).
The triggering pulse need not necessarily come from outside. Any one sponta
neouslyemittedIradiation can act as a stimulant and trigger theemission process. The
eSsential condition for stimulated emission to prevail over absorption is population
inversion, about which we will discuss later.

7.5 PROPERTIES OF LASER

The most outstanding properties of laser beam are its high degree of
1. directionality
2. monochromaticity
3. coherence and
4. brightness.

I. Directionality: Alaser beam hardly diverges at all. Such a beam sent from
earth to a mirror left on the moon by Apollo space mission, remained narrow
7.6 Physics for Engineers

be detected after refection and traversing atotal

distance of about
enoughto
three quarter of a million kilometre. This
property is simply the
conseque
the optical resonant cavity action. Only and amplified.which propagate
the
sustained
the axis of the resonant cavity are
e.m. waves
nc e
alo of
ng
2. Monochromaticity: Without entering into too many details, we can say that thËs
circumstances.
property is due to the following two
can be amplified.
(a) Only an e.m. wave given by eq. (7.1)
(b) Since the two mirror arrangement forms aresonant cavity, amplifying os-
cavity.
cillation can occur only at resonant frequencies of this
3. Coberence: An e.m. wave, has two independent coherence namely spatial and
temporal coherence.
vectors he
(a) Spatial coherence refers to coherence between electric field
is
tween two points in the same wavefront. Electrinc held vector at a point
a function of time, E(t). consider two points p1 and p2 which at time to
lie in the same wavefront of an e.m. wave. Let Ei(t) and E>(t) be the
corresponding electric field at these points. The phase difference between
the two fields at time to is defined as zero. Now, if this difference remain
the
zero at any time t, we can say that there is perfect coherence between
two points. If this occurs for any two points of the e.m.wave front, we will
say that the wave has perfect spatial coherence. In practice, for any point
we are to
P1, the point p2 must be within some finite area S around p, if
have good phase correlation. In this case, we will say that the wave has
a partial spatial coherence and for any point, we can introduce a suitably
defined coherence area S(P).
(b) Temporal Coberence refers to coherence relation with respect to time.
Consider electric field of an e.m. wave at a given point P, at time t and
t+rIf, for a given time delay T, the phase difference between the two
fields remains the same for any time t, we can say that there is temporal
coherence over a time . If this occurs for any value of T, the e.m. wave
is said to have perfect temporal (time) coherence. If this occurs for a time
delay 0<T<To, the wave is said to have partial temporal coherence witn
coherence time equal to To
 Laser 1.]
Nowitis time to define another
ence length (o) of an e.m. wave,important
by the characteristic, known as coher-
To
velocity of light. obtain stable relation lo = cTo where cis the
between interfering waves muust beinterference pattern, the path
case of conventional light
less than the
coherence difference
length.
coherence
source, the coherence time is less than In the
and length is about lcm or even less. 10-10,
length are many orders of higher For lasers, the
time and coherence
have coherence time of magnitude.
about 10-s and length about Solid state lasers
have still better
coherence, time of about 10-s and 100m. Gas lasers
about 100Okm. coherence length of
Brightness: We define brightness of a given source of
itted through unit surface area per unit solid e.m. wave as the power
power (a few milliwatts) has a brightness which is
angle. A laser of moderate
iban the brightness of the strongest orders of magnitude higher
conventional source. This is due to the high
directional and coherence property of laser beam.
These unique features make laser distinct from
other radiation sources and paved
the way for its various applications. The
study of laser
of the phenomena leading to its emission. To have a involves an understanding
it is worth knowing about the nature of
better understanding of laser,
in its emission.
ordinary light and the process involved

7.6 PRINCIPLES OF LASER

Laser works on the principle of stimulated emission of radiation. The
process of stimu
lated emission involves interaction of radiation with matter and is a
quantum mechan
Ical phenomenon. Understanding of this phenomenon requires
igorous
quantum mechanical formulations. Such a discussion is not expected inquantitative
our study.
however a qualitative idea is developed using both classical and quantum concepts
of radiation and matter.
Further, the procesS of stimulated emission requires a num-
ber of
favourable,
onant cavity
conditions andprocesses like, population inversion, pumping. res-
etc.Above all there should be a medium for laser action known as lasing
medium. All these various processes form the basic principle of laser.
7.8 Physics for Engineers

7.7 CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED LASING

7.7.1 Population Inversion
The number of atoms in energy level is known as population of that energy
statistical distribution of atoms in an energy level is afunction of
level. The
temperature.
and N are the number of atoms in the ground level of energy E and in the
If N,
level of energy E, the number of atoms in the excited level is given by excited
N, = Ny-(Ea-E)/KT
(1.9)
where k is the Boltzmann's constant and T is the temperature in absolute scale. The
above equation shows that at normal temperature T, N1 >> N2. This means that the
ground level is densely populated than the excited level. But for stimulated emission
toprevail over absorption,excited level must be populated more than the ground level.
That is we have to invert the population of atorms.
The state in which the number of atoms in the excited level is more than that in
the ground level is known as population inversion. Note that this is an essential condi
tion for simulated emission to over ride absorption. The population inversion can be
achieved by what we call pumping process, about which we will discuss later.
An atom with just two energy levels cannot produce population inversion for, the
same pumping source meant for excitation transition can cause de-excitation transition
with cqual probability. At the most we can populate both levels equally. Hence to
achieve population inversion the system should have at least three energy levels. In the
analysis of laser functioning. it is shown analytically that population inversion can be
obtained only at levels having relatively long mean life. Thus out of the minimum of
three levels required for laser action one must be such a level having long mean life
time known as metastable level.
The mean life time At of atoms in a level is related tothe width of the energy level
AE consistent with the uncertainty relation.
AE x At h (7.10)

where h is the Planck's constant. Outer clectronic orbits of atoms which corresponds
tothe excited levels overlap in any medium. This overlapping of orbits make excited
levels to split and widen. This explains the increased width of the excited level and its
 Laser 7.9

I AE

widening of. excited levels due to overlapping of outer electronic orbits of

74
Fig solid
gtomsina
10-8g)
time (=
verylowlife

172 Pumping and Pumping Methods

of transferring atoms from lower energy level to higher en-
method or technique
The
from an external source is known as pumping. Atomsin
supplying energy from
levelbys
engy absorb energy from suitable radiation source or by resonant colli-
level
theground excited
o wvith other excited atoms and undergo excitation transition to level E3, The
nme make fast non radiative transitions, mostly to the metastable level E,. The dif
form of
ference in energy during the non radiative transitions will be given out in the
vibrational energy of atoms of the laser medium (as heat). The pumping efficiency in
creases with the increased width of the excited level. This correspondingly reduces the
nean life time of atoms in the levels. Thus the availability of metastable level and the
fst non radiative transitions from the excited level help the lasing medium to achieve
population inversion in the metastable level.
Different pumping techniques like optical pumping, electrical pumping, heat punp
ng, chemical pumping, electron beam pumping etc are used for different laser systems.

1.Optical Pumping: The method of achieving population inversion using light

energy is known as optical pumping. This method is used is solid state lasers
ike Ruby Laser, Glass Laser and Liquid Laser.
Electrical Pumping: This method is particularly used in gas lasers in which
POWerfulelectric discharge converts gas into plasma. The atoms or molecules of
active centres
centres making inelastic collision with plasma undergo excitation transi-
tion. In another process atoms or molecules of active materials in ground state
7.10 Physics for Engineers
excited
collide with atoms or molecules of host materials in state.
collision, energy of host materials will be transferred to the atoms of Durlasering such
materials, transferring the same to the excited levels. This process is active
resonant collision energy transfer technique. known as
3. Chemical Pumping: This is particularly used in chemical lasers where suitable
exothermic reactions with active material, raise the same to the excited level.
4. Heat dynamic lasers where the
Pumping: This is used in gas rapidly cooled to get
active material
is heated to a high
inversion.
temperature and necessary population
5. Electron beam pumping: This is used in semiconductor lasers. Here abeam of
fast moving electrons are made to pass through asemiconductor chip. The elec-
trons in the valence band of the chip get raised to the conduction band
population inversion. producing

Fig. 7.5 Stimulated emission in the absence of optical resonator

We have seen that an inverted active medium is capable of giving out radiations
by stimulated emission. The triggering pulse need not necessarily come from
outside. Instead, any one spontaneously emitted photon from within can act as
astimulant and trigger the emission process, giving out an avalanche of photons
in the same state as that of the triggering pulse. Hence laser is also known as
'quantum optical oscillator. Since each triggering pulse is in random direction.
groups of photons emitted along with them also travel in different directions.
The resultant radiation of such an emission process will not be coherent enougn.
tobuild
So, we have to devise a mechanism to suppress unwanted radiations and
forthis
and
the desired one. Optical resonator is the mechanisn for this purpose
reason laser is also known as 'quantum optical oscillator.
 Laser 7.11
Metastable Level
Z73
Theintermediateenergy level between the excited level and ground level and having a
width will have
band
DarTOW
metastable
comparatively
large mean lifetime. Such an
level. Atoms willreside in this level for intermediate
is known as
level
the order of 10-s and this helps the level to achieve sufficiently long
time, off
Lasing transition by stimulated emission takes place between the population
metastable inversion.
level and
alowerlevel. Hence metastable level is also known as upper lasing level.

7.8 BASIC COMPONENTS OF LASER

the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Laser is
Radiation.
The name unfortunately gives the impression of laser as alight
amplifying device.
The name happened to be so, for 'maser' was developed first (in 1954 by
Townes)
meaning Microwave amplificationnby stimulated emission of radiation. Maser
amplify
signalsinthe microwave region of the electro magnetic (e.m.) spectrum by the
tum mechanical principle of stimulated emission (that is
quan-
tor) Maser amplifiers are characterized by their very low interaction radiation with
of
noise to signal ratio over
Rnnventional microwave amplifiers. This is due to the high degree of coherence of
cimulated radiations( radiations by stimulated emission). After the successful oper
ation ofmaser, similar experiments of stimulated emission were conducted at optical
frequencies. This resulted in the development of coherent light beams and devices,
which came to be known as Lasers. Hence laser is considered as a
'source of coherent
light'.
Both Maser and Laser can be used, either as amplifiers or
oscillators and in general
title, we do not usually specify which we exactly intend. However, at
microwave
frequencies, we more often use it as low noise amplifiers in microwave communication
systems and in radio astronomy. At infra red and optical frequencies, we use it for the
generation of coherent radiation. That is, as an oscillator.
The first successful laser was developed by Theodore Maimann, an
American
physicist in the year 1960. In subsequent years, liquid and gas lasers were devel
Oped. Now there are hundreds of lasers working on a wide range of
is frequencies. Laser
considered as one of the outstanding achievements of modern science due to its
Innumerable and ever increasing number of applications in all walks of human life.
Laser beam has some unique characteristic features which ordinary light do not
possess.
 7.12 Physics for Engineers
7.8.1 Active Medium
The medium in which lasing transition takes place is known as lasing
forms the heart of alaser system. It is a combination of a 'host material'medium
and
and it
active material'. The atoms or ions of the active material alone participate in 'laser
the
ransition. The host material along with the active material providea
for pumping process and for laser action. The active material forms asmall suitable medilasiunmg
the lasing medium. The selection of active material is based on the fr
structureactofiontheir
of
energy levels. The energy levels should be suitable for population inversion,
pumping and availability of lasing levels. We shall discuss each process one byefficient

7.8.2 Optical ResonantCavity

3
LASER

Fig. 7.6 Schematic arrangement of Optical Resonator 1. Totally reflecting mirror,

2. Partially refßecting mirror, 3.Lasing medium 4. Laser Out

oscillator, but
Optical resonator in a laser device is similar to resonant circuit in an
functionality it is much more and forms a very important component of the device. In
set on an optic
its simplest form, it consists of a pair of mirors facing cach other and
between
axis, which defines the direction of laser beam. The active material is placed
length
the mirrors. Solid active material is often taken in the form of a cylinder whose
resonator. One of the
is about ten times its diameter and aligned with the axis of the
the axis of the
mirrors is made partially transparent or provided with a small hole alongdevice. Figurt
resonator. This serves as an output element and let the laser out of the
materna
(7.6) shows the schematic arangement of a simple resonator with an active
inside.
 Laser 7.13
Rosonator,
action

sreleasedspontaneously,in a direction parallel to the optic axis of the

Photons
resonator
arsutficientlycloseto it will travel within the active material along path. The length
sincreasedfurther by multiple reflection by the resonator mirrors. During this travel,
thephoton will trigger stimulatedlemission of radiation along the axis which will keep
multiplyinginaninverted active medium as shown in fig(7.7).
opticalresonator provides selectivity of desired
The photon state by
amplityingradiations whose half integral multiple of wavelength form sustaining and
reSonator.:The photons emitted
thelength of the
spontaneously in other directions and their
stimulated
Avalanches will traverse relatively ashort path in the
medium and will die out soon.
optical resonator serve the important
Thus
amplification and
function selecting the desired photon
of
statefor guide the radiation parallel to the axis of the resonator. It
makes emission process triggered by the uncontrolled
the
stimulatedemission. spontaneous emission into
Thus both the stimulated emission process and the optical
ll the unique features of laser namely high degree of resonant cavity action
monochromaticity and high beam intensity. The
coherence, directionality.
dimensions of
be mirors, transparency of the output mirror, absorption of the resonator the size of
-
medium, popalation

(a)

(b)
g 7.7 Stimulated emission in the presence of optical resonator
 7.14 Physics for Engineers
infiuence the
of the levels etc. are very important factors which
Of the resonators., All these put together are
called the Q-factor or efquality
fective factor
functioniofno
scope of our
resonator. Detailed study of Q-factor is beyondthe present discussion he

LASER

Fig. 7.81. Lasing medium 2.Pumpingsource 3. Resonant cavity 4. Laser out

We shall conclude this discussion on general principles of laser action with ablock
(Fig.7.8).
diagram depicting the essential components of laser

7.9 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF RUBY

LASER

1. Ruby crystal
2 2. Totally reflecting face
3. Partially reflecting face
4. Xenon flash lamp
6 5. Laser beam
6. Capacitor
7. To power supply
7

Fig. 7.9 Ruby Laser

by an American physicist Theodore

Ruby laser is the first laser developed in 1960
the most (au
widely used lasers even today stone
Maimann. Since then, it is one of precious
of
its high peak output power). Ruby is a transparent pink coloured
 Laser 7.15
aluminiam oxide (Al,O3) known as corundum with
0.0S to 0.5% of triply
chromiumatoms (Crt) as impurity. The pink ionised
colour of ruby is
ofchromium.Cpt replace AI+
from cOFundum to form Cr03due to the presence
Chromium ions (Cr) in ruby act as
the
(ruby), the active
material.
thehost material active centres while Al,O, act as

constructionaldetails

(um)
2.5
E,
2.0

1.5
w
1.0
5sowr
0.5 url[6po
url6po;
0.0

E,
Fig. 7.10 Energy level diagram of Chromium ion

Ruby crystal is taken in the form of a cylindrical shaped rod of

length and lcm in diameter. The ends of the rod are
about 10cm in
to one another. One end is silvered to make it
polished to flat and are parallel
totally reflecting while the other end is
coated with suitable dielectric material to make it partially
as refiecting mirrors of the optical resonator. A reflecting. These ends act
helical shaped xenon
around ruby rod. Suitable reflectors will focus the light into the ruby flash
rod.
lamp is kept
The energy level diagram of chromium in ruby crystal is given below.
The vertical
axIs shows the energy in terms of spatial frequency, often
known as wave
(Teciprocal of wave length.) To convert it into common energy units, the wave number
Sto be multiplied by hc. That is E = hc/A The ruby laser is a number
three level laser system.
e ground level E, also act as lower lasing level. The doublet levels of E act as
pper lasing levels,that is metastable levels. The broad energy levels E, and E, act as
excited levels.
 Laser action
The xenon flash lamp is activated by the discharge of the capacitor
to the
few
power supply. Afew kilo joules of radiant energy is
connecttheedlampparalinlel
released from
milli second. This is equivalent to mega watts of power from the
chromium ions selectively absorb blue (0.4um) and green-yellow lash lamp. Thea
and undergo excitation transitions to E4 and E3 levels respectively.(0.555_4m)
This is radiations
upward lines. From these levels. ions undergo fast non-radiative
doublet levels of E.E. This is shown by slanting arrOWS. The excess shown
transienergy
tions the
to
by
E, ’ E, and E_
atoms (heat energy).
E2 transitions will be given out in the form of
vibration of durilatticeng
The average lifetime in this metastable level being several milliseconds,
inversion takes place in this level. Lasing transition take place between the population
levels of E, and E1, giving out laser at 0.693_um and 0.694um wavelengths in doublet
region of the the red
spectrum.
Even though ruby laser is more coherent than light from conventional
spiky and iregular. That is, emitted in pulse mode. Each laser pulse which
sources, it is
lasts for
several milliseconds contains hundreds of short, sharp pulses called spikes and each
spike has awidth of about lus. This spiked nature of laser pulse is shown in Fig. 7.11
This is primarily due to fast build up of lasing oscillations within the resonant
cavity and consequent depletion of population in the upper lasing level. After one
set of lasing oscillations (transitions) the lasing ceases for a short time, until the flash
lamp. replenishes the population in the lasing levels.
Power
output

Fig. 7.11I Ruby laser pulse containing hundreds of short sharp spikes
 Theefficiencyof atypicaluby laser is rather low and is about
ofa fewthousand joules of input electric energy, only a fewonetens percent or less.of
of joules
Out apPPear at the output as co
coherent light (laser). The rest is used to heat the
energy
medium. This
heat is to be removed by suitable lasing
cooling system for
continuous
action. Sincethe time of laser pulse emission is only a few millisecond, laser
the power
outputofthis
pulse is equivalent to 10 to 20 kw.

Glantpulses
Theoutputlaser energy which is spread over hundreds of short spiked pulses can be
concentratedinto a very short duration giant
pulse using what is known as Q-switching
arangement. The factor
Q or quality factor of a resonator is a measure of its ability to
store energy. The method of opening the resonator so as to let the radiant energy out

ofit is known as Q-switching.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.12 (a) Q-switching by rotating reflector method (b) output power of a
itively Q-switched laser. repet

One method of Q-switching is to have a rotating miror as one of the

reflecting
miTors of the resonator. This is achieved by replacing one of the
mirrors by a totally
Telecting prism, which spins rapidly around its axis; set at right angles to the axis of
the resonator. [see fig.
(7.12a)].
During each rotation, the reflecting side of the prism faces the cavity only for a very
short time. Lasing action takes place only when the mirrors are exactly parallel. If the
rotating prism revolves at the rate of 100rps; the cavity switches from minimum to
maximum in about 10-7,s(0.lus) As aresult, he laser output is in the fom of sudden
7.18 Physics for Engineers

bursts of giant pulses having a width of less than 0.lus and peak powers of the
of 50 MW. This is shown in fig (7.12b). order
7.10 APPLICATIONS OF LASER
walks of
Applications of laser are very many in number and cover all humanof laser
life.
These applications are the direct consequences of the characteristic properties
light. For convenience, we shall classify into two categories, namely
pure science and applications in applied science. applications in
1. Applications in pure science
(a) In Physics: In the field of physics, the very high degree of monochro-
maticity and brightness make it possible to demonstrate new phenomena
involving interaction between radiation and matter. These phenomena are
known as 'non-linear optical effects', since they show non linear depen-
dence in the beam intensity. For example, the dielectric polarization of
a dielectric medium vary non-linearly with electric field vector E, at very
high light intensities. High power laser radiation can alter the physical
behaviours like reflectivity, transparency etc of materials in a reversible
manner. That is, on removal of the tadiations, the original state is restored.
Lasers are useful light sources in the study of optical spectra of materials.
Laser spectroscopy gives higher accuracy and resolution than conventional
spectroscopic techniques. The advent of laser has made possible quick and
reliable Raman spectroscopic study of substances.
(b) In Chemistry: In chemistry tunable lasers opened up the possibility of se
lective excitation of desired atoms and molecules. An atom,in its excited
state usually has one of its outer electrons in an enlarged orbit. It is pre
cisely these outer electrons which participate in chemical reactions. This
leads to the possibility of initiating desired chemical reactions,controlling
the reactions and studying their kinematics.
(c) In Biology: Laser beam can be used for research in biology. Theoret
ically, it is found that a laser beam can be focussed to a spot of diameter
d= f/D where is the wavelength oflight used,f is the focal length or
the lens used and D isthe diameter of the laser beam. Since best focusing
 Laser 7.19

lenses have f/D l,the focussed spot diameters will have the same order
of magnitude as the wavelength of light used. Hence a suitably focussed
laser beam can therefore be conveniently used to irradiate a pre-determined
ntin a cell, which usually have the dimensions of a few microns and to
study its subsequent change in behaviour. Using laser with sufficiently high
pulse energy - it is possible to destroy some chosen cells. Short duration
Jaser pulses (pico second lasers) have made possible the study of a number
of fast process and even to model separate stage of these process.
science
2. Applications in applied
Applications in applied science include applications in industry. engineering,
medicine communication, optical ranging, environmental studies, isotope sepa
ration, laser induced fusion, holography etc. Here we intend to briefly discuss
some of these applications.
(a) Applications on industry
Applications under this head is based on the effects of strong laser beam
on materials working on and includes hole drilling, cutting, welding. heat
treatment of machine parts. etc.A laser beam can be easily focussed to
a spot of diameter 0.1mm. A 1kW laser beam focussed like this would
produce a resultant irradiance of 10°W/mm² on the surface. At 1% of
this power, the material will start mnelting. At 10 to l00% of this power
(10* to l0 W/mm²) the melt starts boiling and intense vaporization re
sults. If the power exceeds 10W/mm'; the vapour gets ionised and plasma
will be formed. The plasma strongly absorbs the laser beam and prevent it
from entering the material. Hence, in material working it is essential to see
that plasma does not occu.
Hole drilling: One or more laser pulses of pulse duration 0.1 to I millisec
onds and power densities 10 to 10°W/mm² are used for drilling holes.
Intense evaporation of material heated by laser pulse cause a ditch on the
surface of the material, which develop further into a hole. Some vapour
of the material will resolidify and will stick to the wall of the hole. This
problem is solved by blowing a jet of air or oxygen through the hole. The
flowing air also help to remove the heat from the hole.
Laser cutting: Laser beam can be used to cut wide range of materials such
as paper, cloth, plywood, glass, ceramics, asbestos sheets, metal sheets
7.20 Physics for Engineers

etc. Over conventional cuts, laser cuts are precise

and
fine with
mechanical distortion, thermal damage and chemical
casy automation and high production rates. The laser
impunity.
It
hemi
lpn
power requiredsi mal
for
cutting depends on the materials to be cut. For examplecutting of
packed to about lcm thickness require 100 to 200 W carbon dioxide cloths
A10kWCO, laser can cut through thick plywood sheet at the
about 2m/minute. To cut through lcm thick glass, we require a
lspeedas er.
of
20kW power. Aschematic diagram of laser cutting is shown in fig. laser
of
Laser welding: Laser welding is superior to familiar
welding, gas welding, electron beam weldingbeametc. Arc twelechnidingques (7.13).
of arc
may into-
duce impurities to the weldment. Electron welding requires
around the weldpoint. Laser welding can be done in the normal vacuum
and being contactless, is free from impurity contamination. Laser atmosphere
be used to weld inaccessible parts of objects and machines,. beam can
Optical
permits us to observe the inaccessible part andI help to guide laser fibre
into the
weld point.
CO, laser of 1to 10kW output power is used in automated
cesses involving diverse metals. Non metallic materials like welglasS
ding and
pro-
quartz can be welded using laser beams of 100 to 300 W power.

Oxygen

Fig. 7.13 Schematic arrangement of a gas laser cutting and drilling

Laser treatment of materials
Laser beam can be used to harden limited regions of finished machine parts
without any mechanical distortions by heating and rapid cooling process
 Laser 7.21

(ie by quenching process). Concentrated high power laser can heat the
Surface of machine parts at the rate of 10°K/s. It can be cooled at the
rate of 10°K/s or still faster by blowing helium or a mixture of helium and
water vapour. These rates of heating and cooling are decades faster than the
conventional quenching methods. This method of heat treatment is used in
automobile engine parts like cylinder blocks, gears etc and of course, can
be used to harden any machine parts.
(b) Micro electronic applications
Iaser beam is used in the fabrication of micro electronic circuit elements
and for fine trimming of components in integrated circuits. Trimming is
done by evaporating selected portions of metals or semiconductor films
deposited on dielectric substrates. Pulsed Nd-YAG lasers are used for this
purpose.
(c) Medical applications
Afinely focused laser beam can be used as a unique surgical knife, capable
of offering bloodless and painless surgery. The surgery is bloodless and
painless for the laser knives not only cuts, but also welds the blood vessels
being cut. Apart from this, laser surgery has the outstanding advantage of
very high sterility, since there is no contact of surgical tool with the body
part.
Laser surgery has become a routine procedure in the treatment of lungs,
liver, tumours, etc. Carbon dioxide and Argon lasers are the most com
mon sources for these applications. Laser radiation is effective in hemor
rhage control due to the cauterizing action (drying action) of laser. Laser is
now commonly used in opthalmology, for the treatment of cataract, glau
coma, detached retina and various tumours. The operation is caried out by
0.01s laser pulse. Laser finds increasing number of therapeutic uses. He
lium Neon laser has shown curing effects on tropic ulcers. poorly healing
wounds, bone fractures and various disease.
(d) Laser in communication
The very high frequency of the optical region of the clectromagnetic spec
trum makes the light beam an ideal carrier wave providing a very wide
frequency band width for signal transmission. Further, light beams are im
mune from magnetic and electric field disturtbances.
7.22 Physics for Engineers

Optcal communication systems using lasers are of two classes.

i. Signaltransmitted through free space (unguided).
ii. Signal transmitted through wave guides. Open space communicati
is limited to a range of few tens of kilometres under terrestrial con-
ditions, owing to the absorption of laser beam by atmospheric water
vapour. However in space beyond the earths atmosphere, the
is very high. CO, and Nd-YAG lasers are used for unguided,range
distance communication through free space. Optical fibres
long
stranded
into optical cables are used as wave guides for the transmission of
signals. Laser communication through optical cables can help ranid
multichannel communication in fast computer networks.
(e) Laser induced fusion
Intense research is going on for nearly half a century for the production
of energy by controlled thermonuclear fusion reaction. Solution of thie
problem would provide mankind with on almost inexhaustible source of
energy.
Fusion reaction would be easiest to achieve in a hot plasm containing deu
terium (D) and tritium (T), the two heavier isotopes of hydrogen. The
highly exothermic reaction can be represented by
D+T 2He +n+ 17.6MeV

where n stands for neutron.

However., the reaction takes place at a temperature of about 100 million
kelvin and compression of plasma to apressure of more than 10,000 million
atmospheres. Such temperatures and pressures cannot be handled easily.
Among the many diferent methods being tried to achieve controlled fusion
in the laboratory, a very prominent one is laser - induced fusion.
A tiny glass pellet, only a fraction of a millimetre in diameter, containing
liquid deuterium and tritium issubjected to irradiation from all around by a
very powerful nanosecond laser pulse, using a beam spliting arrangement.
This leads to a spherically symmetric heating of the micropellet and the
generation of a low density plasma around it. This low density plasma is
then iradiated by a second and more intense laser pulse. Sudden surface
evaporation causes the atmosphere of the pellet to explode and this, accord
 Laser 7.23

ing to the law of conservation of momentum, leads to violent compression

(implosion) at the inner microsphere, developing apressure of more than
10,000 atmosphere. Athird and most powerful laser pulse, directed at the
inner microsphere at this moment of maximum compression results in fu
sion reaction.

QUESTIONS
PART A

1. Briefly explain the basic principles of laser with the help of aschematic diagram.
2. Distinguish between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. Also ex
plain optical coherence associated with stimulated emission.
3. Explain the terms 'population inversion' and 'metastable level'.
4. What is meant by pumping? Explain the process of optical pumping and electri
cal pumping.
5. What is an 'optical resonator ? Briefly explain its role in laser emission.
6. Explain the characteristic properties of laser.

PART B

1. Explain with necessary principle, the working details of Ruby laser.

2. Explain the principle and working of a semiconductor injection laser.
3. Briefly explain all the important applications of laser.
 CHAPTER
8 FIBER OPTICS

8.1 OPTICAL FIBRES

Basically,optical fibre is a very thin cylindrical shaped transparent dielectric material
surrounded by another transparent dielectric material of comparatively low refractive
index, as shown in figure (8.1). The inner cylinder is known as core and the outer
cylinder is known as cladding. Light admitted through one end of the core propagate
through it by repeated total internal refection at the boundary of core and cladding.
Three types of materials are nomally used in the manufacture of fibres. They are
high content silica glass, multicomponent glass and plastic. Acareful selection of raw
material is desired to obtain high quality fibre. Plastic fibres have the advantage of
more flexibility than glass fibres and can be used as a single fibre with diameters of
2mm. But the attenuation characteristics of plastic fibres are more than glass fibres.
Total internal reflection is achieved either by the one step difference in refractive
index between core and cladding, or by very small gradually diminishing steps. Ac
cordingly optical fibres are classified as (1) step index fibre and (2) graded index fibre.

Cladding

Fig. 8.1 Optical Fibre

 8.2 Physics for Engineers

8.2 PRINCIPLEOF PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Light propagates through the optical fibre by repeated total intermal reflection. To-
when light
tal intermal reflection is an optical phenomenon that happens travels from
a medium of lower refractive index to a medium of higher refractive index. When
light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, if the angle of incidence at the denser
medium is gradually increased, the angle of refraction in the rarer medium also in-
creases obeying Snell's law. At a particular value of the angle of incidence, the angle
of refraction becomes 90°. That angle of incidence is called the Critical angle. If the

angle of incidence is further increased, instead of refraction, light undergoes reflecti

and is refiected back to the same medium. That phenomenon is known as Total internal
reflection which obeys the law of reflection.
Normal Normal Normal

Rarer Medium
90°

Denser
Medium
n, i=r

A B C

Fig, 8.2

Applying Snell's law for case B,

sin ie
sin 90

l,= sin
)
Thus the two conditions for Total internal reflection is (1) Light should travel from a
should
denser to a rarer medium and (2) The angle of incidence in the denser medium
be greater than the critical angle for that pair of media.
This is made possible by the selection of the materials for the fabrication of core
and cladding of the optical fibre. The inner cylinder, which is called the core, is made
 Fiber Optics 8.3

of material having a higher refractive index than the material of the outer cylinder
,the cladding. Thus the light that enters into the optical fibre passes from core to the
cladding and undergoes total internal reflection at the core cladding
reflected back to the core and the process repeats enabling light tointerface
and gets
pass through the
fibre.

8.3 TYPES OF FIBRES-STEP INDEX AND

GRADED INDE)X FIBRES
Step Index Fibre is characterized by a core having constant (completely uniform) re
fractive index (n1), through out its bulk. It is surrounded by a cladding of lower re
fractive index (n2). The refractive index decreases from n to ng abruptly at the core
cladding boundary. This is clearly shown in the cross sectional index profile of the
fibre obtained by plotting refractive index of the fibre along x-axis and radial distance
from the axis of the fibre along y-axis. Due to the step like profile, it is called step
index fibre. The light entering through one face of the fibre undergoes repeated total
internal reflections at the core cladding boundary and proceed forward.

Graded Index Fibre

A graded index fibre is characterized by a core made of very thin layers of transparent
material of gradually diminishing refractive index. It is surrounded by a cladding made
of material having stilllower but a constant refractive index.
distance
Radial

no

Fig. 8.3 Index profile of a step index fibre

8.4 Physics for Engineers
Because of the gradual diminishing of the refractive index, the light incident a
one end of gradual bending towards the axis andfinally reflected
back at thethe core undergoes
core-cladding a Light propagates through the fibre by a number of
interface.
such gradual total internalI reflections. The cladding not only prevents the light from
protection to the fibre.
Cscaping. but also add strength. Aexibility and

8.4 NUMERICAL APERTURE

The minimum angle of incidence at the end face of a fibre for which light ray can
the fibre.
propagate through it is called the acceptance angle for
Numerical Aperture of an optical fibre is a measure of its light gathering capacity
and it is defined as the sine of the maximum value of acceptance angle.
Numerical Aperture, N.A= sin am (8.1)
Acceptance angle a is the angle made by the incident light at one end of the core with
its axis.

Core

Fig. 8.4 Light propagation through a step index fibre

Consider a step indexfibre made of a core of refractive index nl and a cladding of

refractive index nz(7Ë > nz). The end faces of the fibre are cut at ight angles to the
axis of the fibre. Figure shows aray of light entering through one end, from air into the
core at an acceptance angle a. After refraction, the ray incident at the core-cladding
interface at an angle o, which is greater than o, the critical angle of the core-cladding
inter face. Hence it undergoes total internal reflection at the boundary and proceed
forward by a number of reflections, as shown in fig. Even for a bent fibre, the light
guidance can occur by a number of total internal refiections.
 Fiber Optics 8.5

Theory

Refractive index of core w.r.t air, "n = sin

Sin a
sin
1.c., no sin a = nË sin (8.2)
From fig 8= /2 -
mo Sin a= n1 COS
(8.3)
For critical rays, a= ams 8 = m = oc, the critical angle
no Sin am = ËcOs (8.4)
Refractive index of core w.r.t. cladding is
1
sin o.
1
sin o =
2n1
cos d, = yl-sin'ó.
COs . = VnË - n
(8.5)
The refractive index of air being unity, nÍ = 1

Therefore N.A. = sin am = nË nË (8.6)

8.5 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE

Optical fibres are used as sensors to measure or monitor displacement. pressure. tem
perature, flow rate, liquid level, chemical composition etc.
Optical fibres has wide applications in security alarm systems, electronic instru
mentation systems, industrial automation etc.
They are used to know the level of atmospheric pollution and presence of foreign
suspended particles. Abeam of light sent from one end of a fibre gets scattered by
the particles, and from the variation of the intensity of the received light the extent of
8.6 Physics for Engineers

pollution can be accounted.

surveillance
They are used for remotee monitoring and
WAN etc.
Ihey are used in Cable TV. CCTV, LAN,
They are used for signalling and decorative purposes
They are used for transfer of infrared energy
Fibre optic systems maintain high secrecy, so they are used in defence communi-
submarines, missiles etc.
cation systems in controlling ships, aircrafts,
optical fibres
Intranct and Internet connections are made through
bandwidth so that it can accommo
A fibre optic communication system has a large
are suitable for the transmissi
date a large number of channels. Fibre optic systems
of digital data generated by computers
They are used to send alarge number oftelephone signals without any interference
monitor many significant no
Optical fibres are used as biosensors to measure and
rameters in the human body, including temperature, blood pressure, blood flow, Oxygen
in the blood
saturation levels and to estimate the proportion of haemoglobin
which are far below the skin
They are used to test the tissues and blood vessels
They are also used toexamine heart, pancreas etc.
the in
Endoscope is a tubular optical instrument using optical fibre to visualise
types of
ternal parts of human body without performing surgery. There are different
endoscopes.

1. Gastroscope is used to examine the stomach and to photograph tumors and ulcers
2. Bronchoscope is used to see upper passages of lungs.
3. Orhoscope isused to see the smallspaces within joints
4. Peritoncoscope is used to test the abdominal cavity, lower parts of liver and gall
bladder

5. Cytoscope is used to tumors,inflammation and stones in the urinary bladder

6. Colonoscope is used to test female pelvic organs
 Fiber Optics 8.7

8.6 FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(Block Diagram)
Optical fibre is now replacing wire transmission lines in communication system, be-
cause of quite a number of advantages (discussed above). The block diagram of an
optical communication system is given.
The major components of optical communication system are an optical transmitter.
optical fibre transmission line and an optical receiver. Unit I is the subscriber's tele-
phone where sound wave is converted into Corresponding electrical signal. This signal
is carried to unit 2 - an 'encoder'. It converts continuous electric signal
into coded dig
ital pulse, by means of an analogue to digital converter. Unit 3 is an optical transmitter.
It usually consists of a miniature semiconductor laser or an
LED. The diode turns on
and off according to the bit stream to be sent and thus the light source is
with the signal to be transmitted.
modulated
OPTICALFIBRE TRANSMISSION NETWORK
Transmitter Receiver

L
1. Subscriber 's Telephone
2. Encoder 3.Optical Transmitter
4. Optical Fibre Link

Fig. 8.5 Block diagram of an optical

communication system
This encoded optical signal is
transmitted through
receiving end unit 5 is a semiconductor photo detector optical fibres (unit 4). At the
which converts optical signal
back into electric pulses. Unit 6 is a decoder,
which
logue signal (with the help of digital to analogue convertsUnitdigital pulses into ana
telephone where the sound is reproduced. converter). 7is the subscribers

QUESTIONS
PART A
1. Explain step index fibre and graded index fibre.
 NUMERICALS Physicsf8.or8
3. 2. 1. 1. 4. 3. 2.
(b) Consider
(a) is AandCalculate axis advantages What DiscussExplainDetine
doped
(d) (c) (b) (a) glass-clad
n2
Assumingin wil show the the the the of is
propagating
through a =the
be externalcritical
anumerical refractive to 1.5. an (he numerical
the
that
step-index giv e step the of
optical
guided fibre maximum an
advantage use Engineers
all internal a index of
= rays critical index is optical fibre aperture
through
5°, aperture. fractional made optical
fibre fibre,
calculate making value ? of
acceptance
reflection of with fibre
Explain
with cladding index so optical fibre of
it. that of an
distancelkm of an nË core over PART B in
the angle angle
it the ibre optical
= angle difference glass gets conventional telecommunication.
number 1.5, angle
of light over fibre.
n2
guided
of incidence
<9.36° and
=
(Ans. refractive
of propagation conventional Derive
length of 1.48 0.0006. through
total within transmission
and
1.4991, that an
through
intermal index
Find the a
the core ray through transmissionexpression
1.5 fibre
fibre radius 88°, can lines.
1749781)
(Ans. reflections
the made and with make it.
fibre. from 2.98°, the 35.8°)
(Ans What for
a nË
= cladding lines. it.
the 25jum.0.052) =with are
axis 1.6I the the