UNIT – I

RELAYS
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Electromagnetic Relays - Basic Requirements of Relays – Primary and Backup Protection -
Construction Details of – Attracted Armature, Balanced Beam, Induction Type and
Differential Relays – Universal Torque Equation – Characteristics of Over Current, Direction
and Distance Relays. Static Relays – Advantages and Disadvantages – Definite Time,
Inverse and IDMT. Static Relays – Comparators – Amplitude and Phase Comparators.
Microprocessor Based Relays – Advantages and Disadvantages – Block Diagram for Over
Current (Definite, Inverse and IDMT) and Distance Relays and Their Flow Charts.
*****************************************************************************************

Relay: A relay is an automatic device which detects faults and initiates the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty element of the system.
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by
constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal and
fault conditions. The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions
are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle.

Components of a protection system:

A protective system consists of many
sub systems i.e transducers (CT and PT), relays,
circuit breakers and trip circuit containing trip
coil and battery.
The primary winding of a current
transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series
with the line to be protected. The secondary
winding of a current transformer i.e. relay coil
makes the trip circuit when it is energized
sufficiently high to drag the arm to close the
contacts of the trip circuit. The trip coil consists
of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When the short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the
current flowing in the line increases to enormous value. This results in heavy current
flows through the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This
in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and
isolate the faulty section from the rest of the system.

Basic Functional Characteristics of Relays:

The following requirements must be considered while designing the
protective relaying to protect the power system components. They are

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1. Selectivity and Discrimination: It is the ability of the protective system to detect
the point at which the fault occurs and selects the nearest circuit breaker to clear the
fault with minimum or no damage to the system.
A relay can able to discriminate between a fault in the protected section
and the normal condition and it should be able to distinguish whether a fault lies
within its zone or outside the zone. Also, it should be able to discriminate between a
fault and transient condition like power surges and inrush of a transformers
magnetizing current.
A protective relay must able to discriminate between those conditions for
which instantaneous tripping is required and those for which no operation or a time
delay operation is required.
2. Reliability: The protective relaying must be ready to function correctly and
efficiently in operation at all times under any kind of fault and abnormal conditions
of the power system for which it has been designed.
The failure of protective system must be able to failure of any one of the
devices i.e. CT, PT, wiring, DC circuit and circuit breaker. To achieve a high degree of
reliability, greater attention should be given to the design, installation and
maintenance of the various devices. A typical value of reliability of a protective
scheme is 95%.
3. Sensitivity: A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current
exceeds the preset value. This value is called pick-up current. The relay should not
operate when the current is below its pickup value. A relay should be sufficiently
sensitive to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick up value.
4. Stability: A protective system should remain stable even when a large current
flowing through its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its
zone. The concerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault. But the protective
system will not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which fault
has occurred fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the
circuit breaker.
5. Speed: The protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element
of the system as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment, to
maintain the system stability and Decreases the development of additional faults due
to one fault.
The operating time of a protective relay is usually one cycle. Half cycle
relays also available. For distribution systems the operating time may be more than
one cycle.

Primary and Backup Protection:

A power system is divided into various zones for its protection. There is
suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a particular zone, it is
the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty element. The primary
relay is the first line of defence. Due to any reason, the primary relay fails to operate;
there is a backup protective scheme to clear the fault.

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 The backup relays are made independent of those factors which might
cause primary relays to fail. A backup relay operates after a time delay to give the
primary relay sufficient time to operate. When a backup relay operates, a large part
of the system is disconnected from the power source. There are three types of backup
relays:
Remote backup: it is the cheapest and simplest form of backup. They are located at
neighbouring station and backup the entire primary protective scheme (relay, CT, PT,
and CB etc). They are widely used backup for transmission lines.
Relay backup: it is a kind of local backup. Additional relay is provided for backup
that trips the same CB if primary relay fails. This operation takes place without
delay. The principles of operation are selected that are different from those of
primary; they are activated using separate CTs and PTs. They are costlier and they
are used where remote backup is not possible.
Breaker backup: it is also a kind of local back up where number of CBs connected
are more i.e., mainly Bus-bar system. When primary relay activates but the CB fails
the fault is treated as Bus-bar fault. So, all the CBs on that Bus-bar should trip. If
proper CB doesn’t open in specified time after the trip coil is energized, after some
time delay the main relay closes the contacts of the backup relay resulting in opening
of all other CBs.

Basic Relay Terminology:

(a) Operating Force or Torque: The torque which tends to close the contacts of
relay.
(b) Restraining force or Torque: The torque that opposes the operating force or
torque and tends to prevent the closing of the relay.
(c) Pick-up level: the threshold value of the activating quantity above which the
relay will close its contacts.
(d) Pick-up value: the minimum value of the activating quantity for which the
relay gets energized that tends to close the trip circuit.
(e) Reset level: Also called Drop out level, defined as the value of the activating
quantity below which the relay will open its contacts and return to its normal
position.
(f) Reset ratio: it is the ratio of reset value to the pickup value.
(g) Flag: It is a spring or gravity operated device used for indication the operation
of a relay.
(h) Operating time: It is the time taken for the activation quantity to attain a
value equal to pick-up value until the relay operates its contacts.

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 (i) Maximum torque angle: the design angle of the relay that will yield maximum
torque.
(j) Current setting: Adjusting the pickup current to a pre-determined value is
called as current setting.
(k) This is achieved by tapping the relay coil. These taping
values are expressed in terms of percentage full load rating
of CT with which the relay is activated. By varying the
number of turns the activating quantity is varied, that
varies the time of operation of relay to close the trip.
Pick up current = Rated secondary current of CT x Current Setting.
 Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM): it is the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to
the pickup current.

PSM =

PSM =

 Time/PSM curve: The curve between the time of operation and PSM of a
relay. Horizontal axis: PSM representing the no. of
times the relay current is in excess of current
setting. Vertical axis calibrated in terms of time
required for relay operation

 Time from time/PSM curve =
(m) Time setting Multiplier (TSM):
 Adjusting the time of operation of the relay using time
setting dial is called time setting multiplier. The dial is
calibrated in steps; these values are multipliers to be used to
convert the time curve into the actual operating time.

Actual relay operating time = TMS x operating time from time/PSM curve.
Procedure to calculate the relay operating time:
 Convert the fault current into relay coil current using CT ratio.
 Calculate PSM, i.e., Express the relay current as multiple of current setting.

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  From time/PSM curve of relay, read the time of operation for the calculated
PSM.
 Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of relay
using TSM.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS:

(i) Based on the technology they use for their construction and operation:
i. Electromechanical Relays (Electromagnetic and thermal relays).
ii. Static Relays.
iii. Numerical (Microprocessor Based) Relays.

(ii) Based on the time of operation:

1. Definite time relay:
A Definite time relay operates a
predetermined time when current exceeds
pickup value. The operating time is
constant irrespective of the magnitude of
the current above pickup value. The
desired definite operating time can be set
with the help of an intentional time delay
mechanism provided in the relaying unit.
2. Instantaneous relay:
An Instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when current exceeds
pickup value. The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of
the current. There is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less.
3. Inverse time relay:
An inverse time relay operates when current
exceeds pickup value. The operating time depends on the
magnitude of the operating current. The operating time
decreases with increase in current.
4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay:
IDMT relay gives inverse time current
characteristics at lower values of the fault current and
definite time characteristics at higher values of the fault
current.
IDMT relays are widely used for the protection of
distribution lines. These relays have provision for current
and time settings.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS:

Electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction or

electromagnetic induction principle for their operation. Such relays are called
electromagnetic relays.
Depending upon the principle of operation, electromagnetic relays are of two
types, i.e., (i) attracted armature type relays, and (ii) induction relays.

1. Attracted armature type relay:

The attracted armature type relay consists of a laminated electromagnet
carrying a coil and a pivoted laminated armature. The armature is balanced by a
counter weight and a pair of spring contact fingers at its free end. This relay can
responds to both AC and DC current and operating speed is high i.e. about 0.5milli
seconds. These are fast operation and fast reset because of small length of travel and
light moving parts.
The electromagnetic force exerted on moving element is proportional to
square of the flux in the air gap. Saturation is neglected then the force is proportional
to square of operating current.

Where F = net force

K1 = a constant
I = current in operating coil
K2 = restraining force
Under normal operation conditions
the current through the relay coil is such
that the counter weight holds the armature
in open position i.e., it withstand and hold the magnetic attraction of the
electromagnet.
when fault occur, the current through the relay coil increases sufficiently
to attract the armature upwards making the stationary contacts attached to the relay
frame and closes the trip circuit that results in operating of circuit breaker and faulty
section is isolated.

2. Solenoid or Plunger type relay:

This is a plunger model. It consists of a solenoid
and an iron plunger, where the iron plunger moves freely
through the axis of the solenoid or suspended by springs.
Under normal operation conditions the current
through the relay coil is such that it holds the plunger by
gravity or springs. When fault occurs, the current through the
relay coil becomes more than the pickup value, causing the
plunger to be attracted by the solenoid. Thus closing the trip circuit and the faulty
circuit is disconnected by CB operation.

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3. Balanced Beam Relay:
Balanced beam relay also a
kind of attracted armature type relay.
This balanced beam type relay shown
in the figure consists of a horizontal
beam pivoted centrally, with one
armature attached to either side. There
are two coils, one on each side. One coil
is energized by the voltage and the
other energized by the current. The beam remains horizontal till the operating force
becomes greater than the restraining force. Current in coil gives the operating force
and in the other, the restraining force. Under normal conditions, the pull due to the
voltage (restraint quantity) will be high and hence the contact remains open. When a
fault occurs, the current increases then the operating force or torque increases more
than the restraining force, the beam tilts and then the contact closes. The relay
then actuates the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker controlling the line /
equipment.
Neglecting spring effect, the net torque is given by

Where = net torque

K1,K2 = constants
I1 = current in operating coil
I2 = current in restraining coil
At the verge of operation net torque is zero, therefore
=> √
Balanced beam type relays are fast and instantaneous.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION RELAYS:

This relays work on the principle of induction motor. i.e., based on the
Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction. They are widely used for protective
relaying using AC quantities only. They are not used for DC quantities because of the
principle of operation.
Induction relays mainly consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in
two alternating magnetic fields of same frequency but displaced in time and space.
The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields
with the currents induced in the disc by another. These relays are mainly classified
as two types they are
a. Induction disc type relay
b. Induction cup relay

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Production of torque in Induction Disc relays:
Induction relays mainly consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two
alternating magnetic fields of same frequency but displaced in time and space. The
torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the
currents induced in the disc by another. The two ac. fluxes Ф1 and Ф2 differing in
phase by an angle α induce e.m.f.s in the disc and cause the circulation of eddy
currents i1 and i2 respectively These current lags the respective fluxes by 90°.
Let Ф1 = Ф1max sin ωt
Ф2 = Ф2max sin (ωt - θ) where Ф1 and Ф2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes
and Ф2 lags Ф1 by an angle θ.
Assuming that the path in which the rotor currents flow
have negligible self inductance, the rotor currents will be in
phase with their voltages.
Ф
i1 (Ф1max sin ωt)
Ф1max cos ωt
Ф
And i2 (Ф2max sin (ωt - θ) )
i2 Ф2max cos (ωt - θ)
Now, F1 Ф1 i2 and F2 Ф2 i1
Fig shows that the two forces are in phase opposition.
So net force F at the instant can be considered is
F F2 – F1
Ф2 i1 – Ф1 i2
Ф2max sin(ωt- θ) Ф1max cos ωt– Ф1max sin ωt Ф2max cos (ωt - θ)
Ф1max Ф2max [sin (ωt - θ) cos ωt – sin ωt cos (ωt - θ)]
Ф1max Ф2max sin θ
F α Ф1 Ф2 sin θ ……………..(i)
Where Ф1 and Ф2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.
The following points may be-noted from exp. (i)
 The net force is same at every instant.
 The greater the phase angle θ between the fluxes, the
greater is the net force applied to the disc.
 Maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes
are 90º out of phase.
 The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends
upon which flux is leading.

Induction Disc type relay:

In this type of relays, an aluminium metal disc is allowed to rotate between two
electromagnets. The electromagnets are energised by AC current. The torque is
produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents
induced in the disc by another. These relays are mainly classified as

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i. Shaded pole Induction disc relay:
It consists of a pivoted Aluminum disc free to rotate in the air gap of C shaped
electromagnet. One half of each pole is surrounded by a copper band known as
shading ring. The electromagnet is created by the
relay coil that is wound around it.
The actuating quantity flowing in the coil
produces flux in the electromagnet. Effect of
shading ring is to produce flux in the shaded
portion of the magnet (φs) which is displaced in
phase and space from the flux in the unshaded
portion (φu). the flux φs induced emf E1 in the
disc at 900 to φs . The emf E1 produces current I1
in the disc, which is lag behind E1 by 900.
Interaction between I1 and φu produces
torque which is proportional to the φuI1 cos∞, where I1cos∞ is component of I1 in
phase with φu . greater the ∞, greater the torque.
The torque equation is given by

Where = net torque

K1,K2 = constants
I1 = current in operating coil
If the disc tends to rotate then the relay coil closes the trip circuit which intern
activates the circuit breaker then the faulty section is isolated.

ii. Watt-hour meter type Induction disc relay:

The construction of the relay is similar to the
watt-hour meter commonly used everywhere. It
consists of an E-shaped electromagnet and a U
shaped electromagnet with a disc free to rotate
between them. The upper electromagnet (E shaped)
carries two windings primary winding which is fed
from the secondary winding of the current
transformer and the secondary winding is connected
to the winding on the lower magnet that carries the
current due to emf induced by the primary.
Primary winding on the upper E shaped electro
magnet carries relay current I1 producing flux that
induces emf in the secondary winding. The secondary winding carries current due to
induced emf along the windings of the lower U shaped magnet i.e., I 2 in it. Therefore
flux φ2 induced in the lower magnet that lags behind the flux φ1 by an angle θ. The
fluxes φ1 and φ2 induced in upper and lower magnets respectively differing in phase

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by an angle θ will develop a driving torque proportional to φ1. φ2 sin θ. The advantage
of this type of construction is that it produces high torque.
The operation of induction relay can be controlled by opening secondary coil,
as opening of this coil makes relay inoperative. The time current characteristics of
induction disc relay is inverse characteristics. The time reduces as current increases.
The VA burden depends on rating; it is of the order of 2.5A. These relays are robust
and reliable. Ratio of reset/pickup is high about 95%.

Induction Cup relay:

Induction cup relay work in same
principle of induction disc relay. The basis
construction of this relay is just like four
poles or eight pole induction motor. The
number of poles in the protective relay
depends upon the number of winding to be
accommodated. The figure shows a four pole
induction cup relay.
The rotor consists of a hollow metallic
cylindrical cup. The rotor is free to rotate in
the gap between the stationary iron core and the electromagnets. In this type of relay
the eddy currents are produced in the metallic cup. These currents interact with the
flux produced by the other electromagnet and torque is produced. A control spring
and moving contacts carried on an arm attached to the spindle of the cup. These
relays have inverse time characteristics. The operating time of the relay is 0.01sec.

Universal torque equation of relay:

The universal torque equation explains the working of an electrical relay. The
relay has some arrangement of electromagnetic. These electromagnetic consists
current and voltage windings. The current through the winding produces magnetic
flux. And the torque is produced by the interaction of the flux of the same winding or
between the fluxes of both the windings.
Torque developed by current windings =
Torque developed by current windings =
If both the current and voltage windings are used, the torque developed by the
interaction between the fluxes is given by the equation =
Where θ is the angle between V and I and is the relay maximum torque angle.
If the relay has current, voltage and the torque angle, the torque will be
developed, and it will be given as

where K1, K2, K3 are the tap setting or constant of V and I. The K4 is the
mechanical restraint due to spring or gravity.

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 The operating characteristic of all types of relays is obtained by adding and
subtracting all the other constants and letting others be zero or by adding other
similar terms.
For example – In over current relay the K2 = K3= 0 because of the absence of
the voltage windings. The torque equation becomes

The negative sign attributes to K4 because the spring produces restraining

torque.
Similarly, for directional relay K1 = K2 = 0 and the developed torque will be
given as

Distance Protection (Relays):

Distance protection is widely used protective scheme for the protection of high
and extra high voltage transmission and distribution lines. Distance relay measures
the impedance or some components of impedance at the relay location.
The measured quantity (impedance) is proportional to the line length between
the location of the relay and the point where the fault has occurred. As the measured
quantity (impedance) is proportional to the line length, the measuring relay is called
distance relay.
A distance protection scheme is non-unit system of protection. A single scheme
provides both primary and backup protection.
The distance relays are the following types:
i. Impedance relay.
ii. Reactance relay.
iii. MHO relay (or) Admittance relay.

1. Impedance relays:
An impedance relay measures the
impedance of the line at relay location. When a
fault occurs on the protected line section, the
measured impedance is the impedance between
the relay location and the point where the fault
has occurred. It is proportional to the line length
of the line.

Operating principle of impedance relay:

To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared with
the voltage at the relay location. Current produces the operating torque and voltage is
responsible for restraining torque. The equation for the torque is given by

Where K1, K2 and K3 are the constants.

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 K3 is torque due to the control spring which is very small so that it is neglected.
Then torque equation

For the operation of the relay

or

The Relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the given
constant K (predetermined or pick up value).
Operating characteristics of impedance relay:
Figure shows the operating characteristics
of an impedance relay in terms voltage and
current.
In case of electromagnetic relay, the
characteristics are slightly bent near the origin
due to the effect of the control spring. In case of
microprocessor based or static relay, the
characteristics will be straight line.

The below figure shows the relay

characteristics on R-X diagram, where Z = K
represents a circle and Z < K indicates the area
within the circle. Thus, the zone within the circle
is the operating zone of the relay. K is equal to
impedance of the line which is to be protected. Φ
is the angle between V & I. As the operating
characteristics is circle the relay operation is
independent of the phase angle Φ. If a fault point
is on the protected section of the line, it will be lie
within the circle. For this condition the relay will
operate and send a trip signal to the circuit
breaker. The region outside the circle is blocking
zone.
The impedance relay is a non-directional
relay and high speed relay. It is mostly used
induction cup structure. This relays are used for protection of medium transmission
line against phase faults.

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2. Reactance relay:
A reactance relay measures the reactance of the
line at relay location, and it is not affected by variations
in resistance. Hence, its performance remains
unaffected by arc resistance during the occurrence of
fault. In case of fault on the protected line, the
measured reactance is the reactance between the relay
location and the point where the fault has occurred.
The characteristics of the reactance relay on R–X
diagram is straight line, parallel to the R-axis as shown
in the figure.

Operating principle of reactance relay:

This relay consists of two elements an overcurrent element and a current-
voltage directional element. The overcurrent element produces operating torque and
current-voltage directional element produces restraining torque. The operating torque
is proportional to the I2 and restraining torque proportional to the VI cos(90- Φ).
The torque equation is

Where K1, K2 and K3 are the constants

K3 is torque due to the control spring which is very small so that it is neglected.
Then torque equation

For the operation of the relay

or

The Relay operates if the measured reactance X

is less than the given constant K. The reactance relay
is a non-directional relay and high speed relay. This
relays are used for protection of short transmission
line against phase faults.

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3. MHO (Admittance) relay:

A MHO relay measures a component of

admittance Y Φ. But its characteristics, when
plotted on R-X diagram (impedance diagram) are a
circle passing through the origin. It is a directional
relay as it detects the fault only in the forward
direction. It is also called admittance or angle
admittance relay. It is called a MHO relay because
its characteristics are a straight line when plotted
on admittance diagram (G-B axes).
Operating principle of reactance relay:
In this relay operating torque is obtained by the volt-amperes element and the
controlling element is developed due to the voltage element. The operating torque is
proportional to the VIcos(Φ-
proportional to the V2.
The torque equation is

Where K1, K2 and K3 are the constants

K3 is torque due to the control spring which is very
small so that it is neglected. Then torque equation

For the operation of the relay

or

MHO relays are used for protection of long transmission line against phase
faults.

STATIC RELAYS:
In static relays the comparison or measurement of electrical quantities is
performed by a static circuit which gives an output signal for the tripping of a circuit
breaker.
A static relay employs semiconductor diodes, transistors, zener diodes, logic
gates etc. as its components. Now a day’s integrated circuits are being used in the
place of transistors. They are more reliable and compact.

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Advantages:
 Low burden on CTs and PTs. The static relays consume less power.
 Fast response
 Long life
 High resistance to shocks and vibrations
 Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings.
 Frequent operation causes no deterioration
 Quick resetting
 Compact size
 Greater sensitivity
 Logic circuits are used for complex relaying schemes.
Disadvantages:
 Static relays are temperature sensitive
 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients
 Static relays need auxiliary power supply. This can however be easily supplied
by a battery or a stabilized power supply.

Comparators:
When a fault occurs on a system, the magnitude of voltage and current and
phase angle between the voltage and current may change. These quantities during
faulty conditions are different from those under normal conditions.
The static relay circuitry is designed to identify the changes and to distinguish
between normal and faulty conditions.
The part of the circuitry which compares the two actuating quantities either
amplitude or phase is known as comparators.
There are two types of comparators:
1. Amplitude comparator.
2. Phase comparator.

Amplitude comparator:
An amplitude comparator compares the magnitude of two input quantities
irrespective of the angle between them. One of the inputs is the operating quantity
and the other a restraining quantity. When the amplitude of the operating quantity
exceeds that of restraining quantity, the relay sends a tripping signal to the circuit
breaker.

Phase comparator:
A phase comparator compares two input quantities in phase angle irrespective
of their magnitudes and operates; if the phase angle between them is less than or
equal to 900.

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Duality between Amplitude Comparator and Phase Comparator:
An amplitude comparator can be converted into phase comparator and vice
versa if the input quantities to the comparator are modified.
Consider the operation of amplitude comparator which has two input signals M
and N. it operates when | | >| |. Now change the input quantities to (M+N) and (M-
N).As its circuit is designed for amplitude comparison, now with the changed input, it
will operate when | | | |. This condition will be satisfied only when the

phase angle between the M and N is less than 900.it means that the comparator with
the modified inputs has now become a phase comparator for the original input
signals M and N. this has been illustrated with the phasor diagrams shown in figure.
Phase comparator compares the phases of input signals M and N, operates
when the phase angle between two signals M and N is φ < 900.
Now change the inputs to (M+N) and (M-N). with these changed inputs, the
comparator will operate when the angle between the (M+N) and (M-N) i.e. τ < 900.
This condition will be satisfied only when | | >| |.
In other words, the phase comparator with the modified inputs has now
become a amplitude comparator for the original input signals M and N.

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Types of Amplitude Comparators:
As the ratio of the instantaneous values of sinusoidal inputs varies during the
cycle, instantaneous comparison of two inputs is not possible unless at least one of
the signals is rectified. These are various techniques to achieve instantaneous
comparison
a. Rectifier bridge type comparator
b. Phase splitting type comparator
c. Sampling comparator

Rectifier bridge type comparator:

The rectifier bridge type comparators are widely used for realization of over
current and distance relay characteristics. The operating and restraining quantities
are rectified and then applied to a slave relay.

There are two full wave rectifiers, one for the operating quantity and the other
for restraining quantity. The output of these bridges is applied to a dc 17olarized
relay. When the operating quantity exceeds the restraining quantity then the relay
operates.

Phase splitting type comparator:

The Input is split into six components 600 apart, so that the output after
rectification is smoothed within 5%. As both input signals to the relay are smoothed
out before they are compared, a continuous output signal is obtained.

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 17

Sampling comparator:
In sampling comparators, one of the inputs is rectified and it is compared with
other input at a particular moment. The instantaneous value of the other input is
sampled at a particular desired moment.

Types of Phase Comparators:

1. Vector product phase comparator
2. Coincidence type phase comparator

1. Vector product phase comparator

In these comparators, the output is proportional to the vector product of the ac
input signals. These are classified as Hall Effect type Phase comparator and
Magneto-resistivity phase comparator.
Hall Effect type Phase comparator: Hall Effect is utilized to realise this
comparator. Indium antimonide and indium arsenide are suitable semiconductors for
this purpose. These devices have low output, high cost and shows errors due to
rising of temperature.
Magneto-resistivity phase comparator: some semiconductors show
resistance variation property when subjected to a magnetic field. Two input signals
are applied are V1 and V2. V1 is applied to produce a magnetic field through a
semiconductor disc. V2 sends a current through the disc right angles to the magnetic
field. The current flowing through the disc is proportional to V1V2 cosΦ. Where Φ is
the angle between V1 and V2. Therefore this can be used as a phase comparator. This
device is better than the Hall Effect type comparator because it gives higher output
and construction is simple.

2. Coincidence type phase comparator

In Coincidence type phase comparator, the
period of coincidence of two input signals is
measured and compared with a predetermined
angle, usually 900. Figure shows the period of
coincidence represented by ψ. If the two signals
have a phase difference Φ, the period of
coincidence . If Φ is less than 900, ψ
will be greater than 900. The relay is required to
trip when Φ is less than 900, i.e. ψ>900.
The following methods are used to measure
the period of coincidence
a. Phase splitting type phase comparator
b. Integrating type phase comparator
c. Rectifier bridge type phase comparator
d. Time-bias type phase comparator

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Phase splitting type phase comparator:
In this method in which both the input
signals M and N are split into two components M -
45°, M 45°, N -45°, and N 45° with respect to
the original signal as shown in figure(a).
The four components are then fed into an AND
gate which gives an output when all the four inputs
are simultaneously positive at any time in the cycle
as shown in figure (b). The coincidence of all the four
signals is possible when the phase angle Φ satisfies
the condition -90° ≤ Φ ≤ 90°. It is technique of direct comparison.

Integrating type phase comparator:

In this the coincidence time is measured for
each cycle by integrating the output of AND gate to
which input signals are applied. First figure shows
the two sinusoidal input signals. The hatched area
shows the time of overlap (coincidence) of the two
inputs. The period of coincidence represented by ψ. If
the two signals have a phase difference Φ, the period
of coincidence . If Φ is less than 900, ψ
will be greater than 900. If these two input signals
are applied to an AND gate, the output of the gate is
a series of square pulses. AND gate gives square
wave output during the period of coincidence and no
output for the rest of the period of the cycle.

The below figure shows the block diagram of phase comparator. The
sinusoidal inputs are first converted into square waves then are applied to an AND
gate. The output of AND gate is chain of pulses as show in below figure (b). This is for
Φ < 900, i.e. ψ > 900. The relay provides a trip output. The output of the AND gate is

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 19

applied to integrator. The out of the integrator is shown in figure(c). This output is
applied to a level detector which finally gives a TRIP signal.
Fig(d) and (e) shows the outputs of the AND gate and the integrator,
respectively. This is for ψ = 900.
Fig(f) and (g) shows the outputs of the AND gate and the integrator, respectively
for ψ > 900. For this condition, the relay does not operate.
Rectifier bridge type phase comparator:
Rectifier bridge type phase comparators are widely used for realisation of
distance relay characteristics. Figure shows Rectifier
bridge type phase comparator. There are two input
signals M and N. To compare the phases of M and N,
the bridge compares the amplitudes of (M+N) and (M-
N). This circuit gives two trip signals per cycle. The
current flowing in the polarised relay is IR = [(M+N) -
(M-N)]. Therefore, the phase of M and N is compared.
The output device shown in the figure is a polarised
DC relay. It can be replaced by an integrator circuit
and thyristor.
Time-bias type phase comparator:
Time-bias type phase comparator has been show in the figure. In this the
inputs are applied to an AND gate which gives a square block output during the
coincidence period of the two sinusoidal inputs. The output from the AND gate is fed
to another AND gate through two different channels. One directly and the other
through a delay circuit. The delay circuit gives a delayed output. The output is
delayed by an angle δ from the starting point of the block as shown in figure.

If the block and pulse (output of

the delayed circuit) still coincide. The
second AND gate will give an output, as
shown in figure (b). If the block and
pulse do not coincide, the second AND
gate does not give any output as shown
in figure (c). This technique is more
suitable for multi-input comparators.

Overcurrent Relays:
A relay which operates when the actuating current exceeds a pick up value.
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay:
The block schematic diagram of
the static instantaneous Overcurrent
relay is shown in the figure.

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 The current derived from the CT is fed to the input transformer which gives a
proportional output voltage. The input transformer has an air gap in the iron core to
give linearity in the current/voltage relationship up to the highest value of current
expected and is provided with tapping on its secondary winding to obtain different
current settings. The output voltage of the transformer is rectified through
a rectifier and then filtered at a single stage to avoid undesirable time delay in
filtering, so as to ensure high speed of operation. A limit made of a zener diode is also
incorporated in the circuit to limit the rectified voltage to safe values even when the
input current is very high under fault conditions. A fixed portion of the rectified and
filtered voltage (through a potential divider) is compared against a preset pick-up
value by a level detector and if it exceeds the pick-up value, a signal through
an amplifier is given to the output which issues the trip signal. The output device
may either be a static thyristor circuit or an electromagnetic slave relay.

Definite Time Overcurrent Relay:

The operating time of overcurrent relays are constant irrespective of the level of
the fault current. In this case, an intentional time delay is introduced through a
timing circuit. The figure below shows that the simplified block diagram of a definite
time overcurrent relay. The input current signal derived from the main CT is
converted to a proportional voltage signal by the input transformer and then rectified,
filtered and compared with the preset threshold value of the level detector (1). If the
voltage exceeds the preset threshold value, the level detector gives an output voltage,
thereby the charging of the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit starts. As soon as the
voltage across the capacitor exceeds the preset threshold value (VT) of level detector
(2), a signal through the amplifier is given and time setting, respectively.

If VT is the threshold value

of the level detector, the time
TC required to reach this voltage
depends upon the charging time
of the capacitor C of the RC
timing circuit, given by,
TC = RC loge [V / (V-VT)]
Where V is the voltage applied to the capacitor, VT is the threshold voltage.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay:

The operating time of the inverse-time overcurrent relays decreases with
increasing fault current. For this relay with inverse-time characteristic, the charging
of the capacitor of the timing circuit takes place from a voltage proportional to
current.

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 21

 The block diagram of the inverse-time overcurrent relay is shown in the figure.
The current signal is converted to a proportional voltage signal by the input
transformer and then rectified, filtered and compared with a reference voltage of
the level detector (1) set by the potentiometer P1. Under normal conditions i.e., when
the input current is low switch S1 is ON, short circuiting the capacitor C of the RC
timing circuit and switch S2 is OFF. As soon as the input voltage exceeds the preset
reference voltage of the level detector (1), switch S1 is switched OFF and switch S2 is
switched ON and the charging of capacitor C of the timing circuits starts from a
voltage proportional to the current. Switches S1 and S2 are made of static
components. When the voltage across the capacitor C of the timing circuit exceeds
the reference voltage of the level detector (2) as set by potentiometer P3, a signal is
given to the output device through an amplifier. Finally, the output device issues the
trip signal. Here the plug setting multiplier is given by the transformer secondary tap
and potentiometer P1 and the time multiplier setting is determined by potentiometers
P2 and P3.

Directional Overcurrent Relay:

The directional overcurrent relays incorporates a directional unit which
responds to power flow in a specified direction. The directional relay senses the
direction of power flow by means of a phase difference (Φ) between voltage (V) and
current (I). When Φ exceeds a certain relay operates. The directional relay is a
double actuating
quantity relay with one
input as current I from
CT and the other input
as voltage V from PT.

The above figure

shows that the simplified block diagram of the directional overcurrent relay.
The inputs V and I are applied to phase comparator. A phase shifter is added in
voltage input circuit before applying it to the phase comparator to achieve the
maximum output of the phase comparator under fault conditions. The output of the

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 22

phase comparator is given to the level detector and then to the output device through
an amplifier. If the output of the phase comparator exceeds the preset reference
voltage of the level detector, the output device issues the trip signal.

There are two main types of phase comparators used for the purpose. One of
these is the Hall Effect type comparator which has been used in USSR, whereas all
other countries have preferred the rectifier bridge type of comparator due to its lower
cost and the higher output obtainable as compared to the Hall elements.

Advantages of Numerical (microprocessor) relays:

1. Fast operation: Their operation is fast compared to electromagnetic and
static relays.
2. Sophisticated.
3. Low cost: a single circuit can be adapted protect several sections in a power
system. Thus reducing the cost in employing protective schemes.
4. More Accurate: As the operation is performed with the conversion of analog
quantities to digital quantities which are then used for manipulating the operation of
relays. Which are more accurate
5. Reliable: as the complexity of the circuit is reduced, this increases the
reliability of the relay scheme.
6. Flexible: one circuit can be adopted for any type of protecting scheme just by
changing the program, so they are more flexible.
7. Compact: as the complexity of the relay scheme is reduced to a smaller size
i.e. which makes the entire arrangement is a compact structure.
Same interface can be adopted to obtain different relaying characteristics i.e.,
over current, directional, impedance, reactance, mho etc.
8. Used in distance and differential protection.

Microprocessor based overcurrent relay:

An over current relay is the simplest form of protective relay which operates
when the current in any circuit exceeds a certain predetermined value i.e. pick up
value.

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 23

It is mainly used for protection of distribution lines, industrial motors etc. using
multiplexer (AM3705), the microprocessor can sense the fault currents of a number
of circuits. If a fault current in any circuit exceeds the pick-up value, the
microprocessor sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker of the faulty circuit. The
block schematic diagram of the interface for the overcurrent relay is shown in figure
above.

The current from CT is converted to voltage signal using I to V converter and it

is rectified to obtain D.C. voltage proportional to the load current by rectifier. The
output of the rectifier is fed to multiplexer. The microprocessor sends a command to
switch on the desired channel of the multiplexer to obtain the rectified voltage
proportional to the current in a particular circuit. The output of the multiplexer is fed
to the ADC to obtain the signal in digital form. The microprocessor sends a signal to
the ADC for starting the conversion and after the end of conversion the
microprocessor reads the signal to examine whether the conversion is completed or
not. After the completion of conversion the microprocessor reads the current signal in
digital form and then compares it with pick- up value.
In case of instantaneous relay, the trip signal is sent to open the circuit
breaker contacts as soon as the digital signal is greater than the pickup value.
In Definite time over current relay, on comparing the digital signal with pickup
value, if it exceeds the microcomputer sends the
tripping signal to the circuit breaker after a
predetermined time delay.
To obtain Inverse time characteristics, the
operating times for different values of currents
are noted for a particular characteristic, and
these values are stored in memory in a tabular
form called look-up table. The microprocessor
first determines the fault current and then
selects the corresponding time of operation from
look-up table. A delay subroutine (program) is
started and trip signal is sent after desired time
delay.
The same program is adopted for IDMT
relay scheme by changing the data in the look-
up table.
In order to avoid false tripping of an over
current relay due to transients the program can
be modified slightly. When the fault current
exceeds the pick-up value, the fault current is
measured once again by the microprocessor to
confirm whether it is a fault current or transient.
In case of transients which persist for a short

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duration, the measured current above pick-up value will not appear in the second
measurement, but if there is an actual fault, it will again appear in the second
measurement also, and then the microprocessor will issue a tripping signal to
disconnect the faulty part of the system. This is represented using a flow chart.

Microprocessor based Impedance relay:

The characteristic of impedance is realized by comparing voltage and current at
relay location. The ratio of voltage (V) to current (I) gives the impedance of the line
section between the relay location and the fault point. The rectified voltage (Vdc) and
rectified current (Idc) are proportional V and I, respectively. Therefore, for comparison
Vdc & Idc are used. The following condition should be satisfied for the operation of the
relay.

Where K1, K2 and K are constants. The values of K

for different zones of protection are calculated and stored
in the memory as data to obtain the desired characteristic.
The characteristics of the three zone impedance relays are
shown in figure. Here Z1, Z2 and Z3 are the values of the
impedance for 1, 2 and 3 zones of protection, respectively.
As the impedance relay is non-directional, a directional
unit is also incorporated to give a directional feature so
that the relay can operate for the fault in forward direction
only. The block schematic diagram of the interface for the
impedance relay is shown in figure.

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 The levels of the voltage and current signals are stepped down to the electronic
level by using PTs and CTs.
The current signal derived from the CT is converted into proportional voltage
signal using a current to the voltage converter. The voltage and current signals are
then rectified using precision rectifiers to convert into DC. The rectified voltage and
current signals are fed to two different channels of the multiplexers which are
switched on sequentially by proper commands from the microcomputer. The output
of the multiplexer is fed to the ADC through a sample and hold circuit.
The multiplexer (AM3705) sample and
hold (LF398) and an 8bit A/D converter
ADC0800 from the Data Acquisition System
(DAS).
The DAS is interface to the
microprocessor using 8255A programmable
peripheral interface (PPI).
The microcomputer reads Vdc and Idc,
calculates the impendence Z seen by relay
and then compares Z and Z1, i.e.; the
predetermined value of impendence for first
zone of protection. If Z is less than Z1, the
microcomputer sends a tripping signal to the
trip coil of the circuit breaker
instantaneously.
If Z is greater than Z1, the comparison
is made with Z2 which is value of impedance
for the second zone of protection. If Z is less
than Z2 the microcomputer takes up delay
subroutine and sends the trapping signal to
the trip coil after predetermined delay. If Z is
greater than Z2 but less than Z3, a greater
delay is provided before that trapping signal
is sent. If Z is more than Z3, the
microcomputer again reads the voltage and
current signals and proceeds according to its
program.
The impedance relay characteristic is given and the program flowchart is
shown in figure.

Microprocessor based Reactance relay:

The characteristics of a reactance relay are realized by
comparing the instantaneous value of the voltage at the moment of
current zero against the rectified current. The instantaneous value of
voltage at the moment of current zero is VmsinΦ, as shown in figure.

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For the operation of the relay, the condition to be satisfied is as follows.
VmsinΦ < K1Idc

< K (As Vm and Idc are proportional to r.m.s values V and I, respectively)

Z sinΦ < K
X<K
The block schematic
diagram of the interface for
the realization of reactance
relay is as shown
The microcomputer
reads the output of the zero
crossing detectors to
examine whether the
current has crossed its zero
point. As soon as the
current crosses its zero point, the
microcomputer sends a command to the
multiplexer to switch on channel S5, and gets
the instantaneous value of the voltage, i.e.
VmsinΦ through the A/D converter. Then the
microcomputer sends a command to the
multiplexer to switch on the channel S7 to get
the rectified current. Thereafter, the
microcomputer calculates X, the reactance as
seen by relay and compares it with X1,
predetermine value of the reactance for the
first zone of protection. the microcomputer
sends a tripping signal instantaneously, if
measured value of X<X1.
if X > X1, but less than X2 ,tripping
signal sent after predetermined delay. If X is
more than X2 but lies within the protection
zone of the directional unit which also acts as
third unit as shown in figure, that tripping
signal is sent after a grater predetermine
delay. As the reactance relay is non-
directional relaying unit, directional relay is
used in conjunction with it to provide
directional features. The directional unit also
serves the purpose of the third unit. the
directional unit used for reactance relays has

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the characteristics of a mho relay passing through the origin. The program of the
directional unit is incorporated in the main program of the reactance relaying
protective scheme. if the fault point lies within the protection zone of the directional
unit then only the reactance relay program is taken up to cheek the position of the
fault point i.e., whether it lies in the I, II, III zone of protection. Depending up in the
zone of protection, the tripping signal is sent with or without delay. The program
flowchart is shown.

Microprocessor based MHO relay:

The characteristic of a mho relay is realized by
comparing the instantaneous value of current at the
moment of voltage peak against the rectified voltage. The
value of current at the moment of voltage peak is ImcosΦ, as
shown in figure. The condition to be satisfied for the
operation of the relay is as follows.
Φ- >

<

M<K
Where K1, K2 and K are constants.

By changing a mho characteristic can be shifted towards the R axis to

increase its tolerance to arc resistance, as shown in figure. The value of is not kept
more than 750 to have a reasonable tolerance for arc resistances when a fault occurs
near the bus.
The block schematic diagram of the interface for realization of mho relay is
shown in figure below. The voltage signal is fed to the phase-shifter to get a phase-
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 28
shift of 900. Then the output of the phase
shifter is fed to the zero-crossing detector to
get the required pulse. The microcomputer
reads the output of the zero-crossing detector
and checks whether the voltage has crossed its
peak value. After getting the pulse at the
instant of voltage peak, the microcomputer
sends a command to the multiplexer to switch
on the channel S7 to get the instantaneous
value of the current at the moment of peak
voltage. This instantaneous value of the
current which is equal to ImcosΦ is fed to an
A/D converter. After the conversion is over, the
digital output of the converter is stored in the
memory .The microcomputer then gets the
rectified voltage Vdc through the multiplexer
channel S5 and the A/D converter. This
quantity is also stored in the memory. After
obtaining this data the microcomputer
computes V/IcosΦ which is proportional to
Vdc/ImcosΦ and is equal to M. The calculated
value of M is compared with the predetermined
value of M1 which remain stored in the
memory. M1, M2, and M3, are the
predetermined value of M for I,II,III zones of
protection respectively. If M is less than M1, the
trip signal is sent instantaneously. If M is
greater than M1 but less than M2, the tripping signal is sent after a predetermined
delay. If M is greater than M2 but lee than M3, a greater delay is provided to send the
tripping signal. If M is greater than M3, the microcomputer goes back to the starting
point, starts reading the voltage and current signals and again proceeds according to
the program. The program flowchart is shown in the figure.
Reach: It is the maximum length of the line up to which the relay can protect.
Over Reach: Sometimes a relay may operate even when a fault is beyond its present
reach.
Under Reach: Sometimes a relay may fail to operate even when the fault point is
within its reach is called Under Reach.

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1. A relay is connected to a 400/5A current transformer and set a 150%
with a primary fault current of 2400A. Calculate the Plug setting
multiplier.

Sol: PSM = =

Fault current in relay coil = = = 30A

Pick up current = Rated secondary current of CT x Current Setting.

= 5 x 1.5 = 7.5A

PSM = = =4

2. Determine the time of operation of a 5 A, 3secs over current relay

having a current setting of 125% and a time setting multiplier of 0.6
connected to supply circuit through a 400/5 A current transformer, when
the circuit carries a fault current of 4000A. Use the curve shown in figure.

Sol: Rated secondary current of CT =5A

Pick up current = 5 x 1.25 = 6.25A

Fault current in relay coil = = = 50A

PSM = = =8

Actual Relay Operating time = TSM x operating time from time/PSM

curve.

= 0.6 x 3.5 = 2.1 sec.

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION (P.V.K, SVCE, TPT) Page 30