Set Theory

◼ A set is any well defined collection of objects, called the

elements or members of the set.

◼ Examples:
1. The set of vowels of Alphabets
2. The set of the states in India
3. The set of the rivers in Maharashtra

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 Representation of a set
There are two ways to represent a set
◼ Roster or Tabular form
◼ Set builder form

Description Tabular form Set builder form

The set of A = {0, 1} A = {x : x is a binary digit}
binary digit
The set of vowel B = {a, e, i, o, u} B = {x: x is a vowel in the English
alphabet}
Even integers C = {2, 4, 6, 8} C = {x: x is an even integer
from 2 to 8 between 1 and 8}
Square numbers D = { 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36} D = {x: x = n2 |n is a natural
from 1 to 36 number ≤ 6}
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Some Examples
Find set builder form of following sets:
1) A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}
Ans: A = {x: x = 3p, where 1 ≤ p ≤ 5}
2) B = {-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
Ans: B = {x: x is an integer and -4 ≤ x ≤ 3}

Represent the following sets in tabular form:

1) A = {x: x2-3x+2=0}
Ans: A = {1, 2}
2) B = {x: x is an integer and 1 < x < 7}
Ans: B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} 3
Some Standard Notations for Sets
◼ Empty Set is denoted by Φ.

◼ Set of natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, ....}.

◼ Set of integers: Z or I = {· · · − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . }.

◼ Set of real numbers: R = {…,− 2,… −1,…0, …1,…2, …. }.

◼ Set of rational numbers is denoted by Q.

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Universal Set & Subset
◼ A set is called universal set if it includes every set under
discussion. It is denoted by U.
◼ A set A is said to be subset of a set B iff every element of
A is also an element of B.
Symbolically, it is written as A⊆ B, if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

B
U
Venn Diagram for Subset 5
Proper Subset & Equal Sets
◼ A set A is said to be proper subset of another set B iff
every element of A is also an element of B but there is at
least one element of B that is not in A.
i.e. if A⊆ B but A ≠ B.
It is written as A ⊂ B.

◼ Two sets A and B are said to be equal sets iff every

element of A is an element of B and consequently every
element of B is an element of A.
i.e. A⊆ B and B⊆ A.
It is written as A = B.
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Power Set
◼ If S is any set , then the family of all the subsets of S is
called the power set of S. The power set of S is denoted
by P(S).
◼ Φ and S are both elements of P(S)
◼ If the set S is finite and contain n elements, then the
power set of S will then contain 2n elements.
◼ eg.
1. If A = {1, 2}, then P(A) = {{1}, {2}, {1,2}}.
2. If B = {a, b, c} then
P(B) = {{a{, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {b,c}, {a,c}, {a,b,c}}.
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Operation on sets
Let A & B be two sets and U is universal set.

◼ Union: A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
eg. If A = {-3, 0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
then A ∪ B = {-3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

◼ Intersection: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
eg. If A = {-3, 0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
then A ∪ B = {1, 2}

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Operation on sets
Let A & B be two sets and U is universal set.
◼ Complement: A’= {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
eg. If A = {1, 2} and U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then A’ = {3, 4, 5}
◼ Relative Complement: A - B = {x ∈ A and x ∉ B}.
eg. If A = {-3, 0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
then A - B = {-3, 0}
◼ Symmetric Difference:
A Δ B = (A - B) ∪ (B – A)= {x ∈ exactly one of A and B}
eg. If A = {-3, 0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
then A Δ B = {-3, 0, 3, 4}
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Some Examples
◼ Ex. 1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {3, 4, 5, 6}
then verify that A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

◼ Solution: B ∪ C = {2, 4, 6, 8} ∪ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} = {2, 3, 4}
A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {2, 4}
A ∩ C = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {3, 4}
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {2, 4} ∪ {3, 4} = {2, 3, 4}
Hence, A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

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Some Examples
◼ Ex. 2. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 5} and U = {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
then verify that (i) (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’ (ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’

◼ Solution: (i) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 3, 5, 6} = {1,2, 3, 4, 5}

(A ∪ B)’ = {6}
A’ = {5, 6} and B’ = {1, 4, 6}, A’ ∩ B’ = {6}
Hence, (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
(ii) A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {2, 3, 5, 6} = {2, 3}
(A ∩ B)’ = {1, 4, 5, 6}, A’ ∪ B’ = {1, 4, 5, 6}
Hence, (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’
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Algebra of Sets

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Ordered pair and Cartesian
Product
◼ An ordered pair is a pair of objects whose components
occur in a special order.
In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component
and b is called the second component.

◼ Let A and B be two sets. Cartesian Product of A and B,

denoted by A
A x B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A or b ∈ B}

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Properties of Cartesian Product
For the four sets A, B,C and D

◼ (A ∩ B) x (C ∩ D) = (A x C) ∩ (B x D)

◼ (A – B) x C = (A x C) – (B x C)

◼ (A ∪ B) x C = (A x C) ∪ (B x C)

◼ A x (B ∩ C) = (A x B) ∩ (A x C)

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Cardinal Number in a Set
◼ The cardinal number of a set A is the number of
elements in the set A. It is denoted by |A| or n(A).
◼ Properties:
1. |A ∪ B|= |A| + |B|- |A ∩ B|
2. |A – B|= |A|- |A ∩ B|
|B – A|= |B|- |A ∩ B|
3.|A ∪ B ∪ C|= |A| + |B| + |C|-| A ∩ B|- |A ∩ C|-
|B ∩ C|+ |A ∩ B ∩ C|

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Examples
◼ In a group of 70 persons, 37 like coffee, 52 like tea and
each person likes at least one of the two drinks. Calculate
i) number of person who like both coffee and tea
ii) number of person who like coffee but not tea
◼ Solution: Let A be the set of person who like coffee and B
be the set of person who like tea.
Given that,|A| = 37,|B|= 52 & |A ∪ B |= 70
|A ∩ B |= |A| + |B|- |A ∪ B|= 19
Number of person who like both coffee and tea = 19
|A – B|= |A|- |A ∩ B|= 18
Number of person who like coffee but not tea = 18 34
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Computer Representation of Sets
◼ Let U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 4, 6} then the bit
strings for A and B are as follows:

◼ A is represented as 110000

◼ B is represented as 010101

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Complement, Union & Intersection
using bit strings
◼ The complement of a set can be obtained by simply
changing 1 to 0 and 0 to 1.

◼ The bit string for the union is the bitwise OR of the

strings of the two sets.

◼ The bit string for the intersection is the bitwise AND of

the strings of the two sets.

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Example
◼ If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}.
Find the bit string for the set A and B and use bit string
to find A’, union, intersection of sets A and B.
◼ Solution: The bit string is of length 6.
A is represented as 111100
B is represented as 001111
A’ is represented as 000011, A’ = {5, 6}
Union: 111100 ∪ 001111 = 111111, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Intersection: 111100 ∩ 001111 = 001100, A ∩ B = {3, 4}

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Partition of a Set
◼ Partition of a set A is a collection of nonempty subsets
A1, A2, ……, An called blocks such that each element of
A is in exactly one of the blocks. That is
1. A is the union of all the subsets, A1∪A2∪……∪An=A
2. The subsets are pair wise disjoint, Ai ∩ Aj= Φ for i ≠ j
◼ Example: Find all the partitions of S = {2, 3, 4}
◼ Solution: Partitions of S are as follows:
1. {{2, 3, 4} 2. {{2}, {3, 4}}
3.{{3}, {2, 4}} 4.{{4}, {2, 3}}
5.{{2}, {3}, {4}}
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Partition of a Set

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Relation

◼ Let A and B be two sets.

◼ R is a set of ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
◼ Every such ordered pair is written as a R b and read as ‘a is related
to b’
◼ R is called a binary relation from A to B.

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Properties of Relation

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Equivalence Relation

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Equivalence Class

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Representation of relation by Graph

Node/Vertex

Edge

loop

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Representation of relation by Matrix

1 3 4
1 1 1 0
𝑀𝑅 = 3 0 1 0
4 0 0 1
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Function

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One-to-one Function

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Onto Function

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Bijective Function

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Hasse Diagram

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Peano axioms

Peano axioms, also known as Peano’s postulates, in

number theory. The five Peano axioms are:
◼ Zero is a natural number.
◼ Every natural number has a successor in the natural
numbers.
◼ Zero is not the successor of any natural number.
◼ If the successor of two natural numbers is the same,
then the two original numbers are the same.
◼ If a set contains zero and the successor of every
number is in the set, then the set contains the natural
numbers.
Principal of Mathematical Induction

◼ Step 1: Inductive / Induction Base

◼ Step 2: Inductive / Induction Hypothesis

◼ Step 3: Inductive / Induction Step

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◼ Prove by principal of mathematical
induction that is a multiple of
14 for n ≥ 0.

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