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 Lesson-1: Functions
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
➢ Discuss the nature of variable and constants;
➢ State the functions and its classification;
➢ Highlights on some worked out examples related to the
functions.

Introduction:
First of all we have to know some important terms, which are frequentlyused in this lesson. These are:

Constant
Page-18
 A constant is a symbol - which never changes over the sets of
mathematical operation. For example, 1, 2, 3 are constants. The
letter a, b, c --- are also considered as constants which are specially
know as arbitrary constants.
Variables
A symbol capable of assuming different values is called a variable.
Variable are usually denoted by the letters of the alphabet; i.e., x, y,
z.
Independent Variable
A variable to which any value can be assigned is called an
independent variable. Independent variables are the causes and the
dependent variables are the effects.
Dependent Variable
A variable whose value depends on the value of the independent
variable is called a dependent variable.
Function
When two variables are so related that one is dependent and another When two variables
is independent, then the dependent variable is known as function of are so related that one
independent variable. For example, let us consider two variables x is dependent and
and y, which are related by the equation y = 4x + 6. We see that if another is
we take x = 1, then we get y = 10; if we take x = 0, we get y = 6 and independent, then the
dependent variable is
thus we see here that x is independent variable and y is dependent known as function of
variable. So we may say that y is the function of x which is denoted
by the symbol, y = f(x). Hence we may conclude that any expression
containing a variable is called a function of that variable. Thus (i) ax
+10, (ii) 2x2 – 5x + 2, (iii) t2 – 1 and (iv) et – 5, where the
expressions (i) and (ii) are functions of x and the expressions (iii)
and (iv) are functions of t. The related variable on which the value of
the function depends is also known as argument of the function.
Type of Functions
The different types of functions have been discussed as under:
a) Linear Function: A linear function represents a relationship betweentwo variables, i.e., one
dependent variable and another independent variable. Generally the functional form of the linear
function is, f(x) =ax + b
where, f(x) is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
b is the value of the dependent variable when x is zero.
a is the coefficient of the independent variable.
The above symbol f(x) is read as "function of x", which represents the
values of the dependent variable, and x represents values of the
independent variable; f(x) varies according to the rule of the function
as x varies. For a linear function, the rule of the function states that 'a'
is to be multiplied by x and this product is to be added to b. This sum
determines the value of the dependent variable f(x).
b) Quadratic Function: The quadratic function is a second degree
function which has important applications in business and economics.
The general form of the quadratic function is, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
where, f(x) is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
a, b and c are the parameters of the functions.
The shape of the quadratic function is determined by the magnitude
and signs of the parameters a, b and c.
c) Polynomial Functions: Linear and quadratic functions belong to the
class of functions termed polynomial functions. The general form of
the polynomial function is
f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + ... + anxn
where, a0, a1, a2, a3, ... an are parameters and n is a positive
integer.
The parameters may be positive, negative or zero. The polynomial
function is linear if n=1 and quadratic if n=2. This can be verified by
comparing this for n=1 with the general form of the linear function,
and n=2 with the general from of the quadratic function.
A polynomial function
in which the largest
A polynomial function in which the largest exponent is n=3 is termed
exponent is n=3 is as cubic function. The general form of the cubic function is f(x) =
termed as cubic a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3
d) Multivariate Functions: Functions in which the single dependent
variable is related to more than one independent variable are termed
as multivariate functions. The general form of multivariate function
is, f(x1, x2) = 2x1+5x1 x2+6x2
where f (x1, x2) is the dependent variable
x1 is an independent variable
and x2 is a second independent variable.
e) Exponential Functions: The exponential function is a specific
function in which a constant is raised to a variable power rather than
a variable raised to constant power. This function with a variable

Page-20
 power is called the exponential function. The general form of
exponential function is , h(x) = k.af(x)
where 'a' is a constant greater than zero and not equal to one
and f(x) is any real number function.
The domain of this function is the set of all real numbers, x, for which
f(x) is defined.
exponential The exponential function states the constant rates of growth. As the
tion states the independent variable increases by a constant amount in the
tant rates of exponential function, the dependent variable increases or decreases
th.
by a constant percentage. Hence, the value of an investment that
increases by a constant percentage each period, the sales of a
company that increase at a constant rate each period, and the value of
an asset that declines at a constant rate each period are examples of
functional relationship that are described by the exponential
functions.
f) Logarithmic Functions: The inverse of the exponential function is
the logarithmic function. The general form of the logarithmic
function is, y = loga x
where, y is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
and 'a' is a constant, termed the base, that is greater than 0
and not equal to 1.
The logarithmic function arises when we ask the question, for what
value of y is ay = x.
If ay = x, then loga x = y and vice-versa. Thus, the exponential
function is corresponding to the logarithmic function, y = loga x is ay
= x.
Rate of Change
The rate of change of a function is the change in the value of the
dependent variable with respect to the change in the value of the
independent variable, i.e.,
∆ f(x) vertical change rise
Rate of change = = horizontal change = run
∆x
If the independent variable x increases by ∆x, the new value of the
independent variable is (x + ∆x). For a linear function when f(x) = ax +
b, the new value of the dependent variable for change in x is f(x + ∆x) =
a(x + ∆x) + b.
To determine the amount of change in the dependent variable as the
independent variable changes by ∆x, the old value of the dependent
variable, f(x) is subtracted from the new value of the dependent variable,
f(x + ∆x). That is, for the linear case,
∆f(x) = f(x + ∆x) – f (x) = a (x + ∆x)+ b – (ax + b)
=(ax + a∆x + b – ax – b) = a.∆x.
 ∆ f(x) a.∆ x
Hence for the linear case, the rate of change is = = a,
∆x ∆x

which is the slope. The rate of change can be calculated for any function, The rate of change

linear or non-linear, using the same formula. can be calculated fo

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 Notations for Functions
It 'x' is a variable of a function, then it is expressed as f(x), F(x), g(x), ... f1(x), f2(x) ... which
are basically called functions of x. Similarly it maybe expressed as ‘the f function of x’, ‘the
F function of x’ ... etc.
Again, if more than one variable (x, y, z) exist in a particular function, it can be expressed as
f(x, y), F(x, y, z). It is termed as ‘the function of x and y’, ‘the F function of x, y, and z’ etc.
For example, If f(x) = 2x3 – 5x + 3 and F(x, y) = 3xc+5ey – 3xy, then, f(p)=2p3 – 5p + 3
and F(b, d) = 3bc + 3ed – 3bd.

If the interval is a ≤ x
If the value of 'x' exists between a and b then it is termed as domain or interval. If the interval
≤ b, then it is called is a ≤ x ≤ b, then it is called closed domain in which the values of a and b are included.
closed domain in
which the values of a
Again if the interval is a < x < b, then it is called open domain, wherethe mid values of a
and b are included only. The samples of functionsare presented as under:
Again if the interval is
a < x < b, then it is
f (x) = 3x + 5 → It is a linear function
called open domain, f (x) = 3x – 3x + 8
2
→ It is a quadratic function
where the mid values
of a and b are
f (x) = 4x – 9x + 3x – 6
3 2
→It is a cubic function.
 Functions, Limit and Continuity of a
Function
7

From the discussion of this unit, students will be familiar with

different functions, limit and continuity of a function. The principal
foci of this unit are nature of function and its classification, some
important limits and continuity of a function and its applications
followed by some examples.
School of Business

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Unit-7 Page-142
 Bangladesh Open University

Lesson-1: Functions
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Discuss the nature of variable and constants;

State the functions and its classification;

Highlights on some worked out examples related to the
functions.

Introduction:
First of all we have to know some important terms, which are frequently
used in this lesson. These are:
• Constant
A constant is a symbol - which never changes over the sets of
mathematical operation. For example, 1, 2, 3 are constants. The
letter a, b, c --- are also considered as constants which are specially
know as arbitrary constants.
• Variables
A symbol capable of assuming different values is called a variable.
Variable are usually denoted by the letters of the alphabet; i.e., x, y,
z.
• Independent Variable
A variable to which any value can be assigned is called an
independent variable. Independent variables are the causes and the
dependent variables are the effects.
• Dependent Variable
A variable whose value depends on the value of the independent
variable is called a dependent variable.
• Function
When two variables are so related that one is dependent and another When two variables
is independent, then the dependent variable is known as function of are so related that one
independent variable. For example, let us consider two variables x is dependent and
and y, which are related by the equation y = 4x + 6. We see that if another is
we take x = 1, then we get y = 10; if we take x = 0, we get y = 6 and independent, then the
dependent variable is
thus we see here that x is independent variable and y is dependent known as function of
variable. So we may say that y is the function of x which is denoted independent variable.
by the symbol, y = f(x). Hence we may conclude that any expression
containing a variable is called a function of that variable. Thus (i) ax
+10, (ii) 2x2 – 5x + 2, (iii) t2 – 1 and (iv) et – 5, where the
expressions (i) and (ii) are functions of x and the expressions (iii)
and (iv) are functions of t. The related variable on which the value of
the function depends is also known as argument of the function.
Type of Functions
The different types of functions have been discussed as under:

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 School of Business

a) Linear Function: A linear function represents a relationship between

two variables, i.e., one dependent variable and another independent
variable. Generally the functional form of the linear function is, f(x) =
ax + b
where, f(x) is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
b is the value of the dependent variable when x is zero.
a is the coefficient of the independent variable.
The above symbol f(x) is read as "function of x", which represents the
values of the dependent variable, and x represents values of the
independent variable; f(x) varies according to the rule of the function
as x varies. For a linear function, the rule of the function states that 'a'
is to be multiplied by x and this product is to be added to b. This sum
determines the value of the dependent variable f(x).
b) Quadratic Function: The quadratic function is a second degree
function which has important applications in business and economics.
The general form of the quadratic function is, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
where, f(x) is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
a, b and c are the parameters of the functions.
The shape of the quadratic function is determined by the magnitude
and signs of the parameters a, b and c.
c) Polynomial Functions: Linear and quadratic functions belong to the
class of functions termed polynomial functions. The general form of
the polynomial function is
f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + ... + anxn
where, a0, a1, a2, a3, ... an are parameters and n is a positive
integer.
The parameters may be positive, negative or zero. The polynomial
function is linear if n=1 and quadratic if n=2. This can be verified by
comparing this for n=1 with the general form of the linear function,
and n=2 with the general from of the quadratic function.
A polynomial function
in which the largest
A polynomial function in which the largest exponent is n=3 is termed
exponent is n=3 is as cubic function. The general form of the cubic function is f(x) =
termed as cubic a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3
function.
d) Multivariate Functions: Functions in which the single dependent
variable is related to more than one independent variable are termed
as multivariate functions. The general form of multivariate function
is, f(x1, x2) = 2x1+5x1 x2+6x2
where f (x1, x2) is the dependent variable
x1 is an independent variable
and x2 is a second independent variable.
e) Exponential Functions: The exponential function is a specific
function in which a constant is raised to a variable power rather than
a variable raised to constant power. This function with a variable

Unit-7 Page-144
 Bangladesh Open University

power is called the exponential function. The general form of

exponential function is , h(x) = k.af(x)
where 'a' is a constant greater than zero and not equal to one
and f(x) is any real number function.
The domain of this function is the set of all real numbers, x, for which
f(x) is defined.
exponential The exponential function states the constant rates of growth. As the
ction states the independent variable increases by a constant amount in the
stant rates of exponential function, the dependent variable increases or decreases
wth.
by a constant percentage. Hence, the value of an investment that
increases by a constant percentage each period, the sales of a
company that increase at a constant rate each period, and the value of
an asset that declines at a constant rate each period are examples of
functional relationship that are described by the exponential
functions.
f) Logarithmic Functions: The inverse of the exponential function is
the logarithmic function. The general form of the logarithmic
function is, y = loga x
where, y is the dependent variable
x is the independent variable
and 'a' is a constant, termed the base, that is greater than 0
and not equal to 1.
The logarithmic function arises when we ask the question, for what
value of y is ay = x.
If ay = x, then loga x = y and vice-versa. Thus, the exponential
function is corresponding to the logarithmic function, y = loga x is ay
= x.
Rate of Change
The rate of change of a function is the change in the value of the
dependent variable with respect to the change in the value of the
independent variable, i.e.,
∆ f ( x ) vertical change rise
Rate of change = = horizontal change = run
∆x
If the independent variable x increases by ∆x, the new value of the
independent variable is (x + ∆x). For a linear function when f(x) = ax +
b, the new value of the dependent variable for change in x is f(x + ∆x) =
a(x + ∆x) + b.
To determine the amount of change in the dependent variable as the
independent variable changes by ∆x, the old value of the dependent
variable, f(x) is subtracted from the new value of the dependent variable,
f(x + ∆x). That is, for the linear case,
∆f(x) = f(x + ∆x) – f (x) = a (x + ∆x)+ b – (ax + b)
=(ax + a∆x + b – ax – b) = a.∆x.

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∆ f(x) a .∆ x
Hence for the linear case, the rate of change is = = a,
∆x ∆x
which is the slope. The rate of change can be calculated for any function, The rate of change
linear or non-linear, using the same formula. can be calculated fo
any function, linear
Notations for Functions non-linear, using the
same formula.
It 'x' is a variable of a function, then it is expressed as f(x), F(x), g(x), ...
f1(x), f2(x) ... which are basically called functions of x. Similarly it may
be expressed as ‘the f function of x’, ‘the F function of x’ ... etc.
Again, if more than one variable (x, y, z) exist in a particular function, it
can be expressed as f(x, y), F(x, y, z). It is termed as ‘the function of x
and y’, ‘the F function of x, y, and z’ etc.
For example, If f(x) = 2x3 – 5x + 3 and F(x, y) = 3xc+5ey – 3xy,
then, f(p)=2p3 – 5p + 3 and F(b, d) = 3bc + 3ed – 3bd.

If the interval is a ≤ x
If the value of 'x' exists between a and b then it is termed as domain or
≤ b, then it is called interval. If the interval is a ≤ x ≤ b, then it is called closed domain in
closed domain in which the values of a and b are included.
which the values of a
and b are included. Again if the interval is a < x < b, then it is called open domain, where
the mid values of a and b are included only. The samples of functions
Again if the interval is are presented as under:
a < x < b, then it is
called open domain, f (x) = 3x + 5 → It is a linear function
where the mid values f (x) = 3x2 – 3x + 8 → It is a quadratic function
of a and b are
included only. f (x) = 4x3 – 9x2 + 3x – 6 →It is a cubic function.
The following examples illustrate the use of functions
Example-1:
If p(q) = q2 – r2 + 5 and h (r) = q2 – r2 + 5; what is (i) p (2) and (ii) h
(3)?
Solution:
(a) We are given, p(q) = q2 – r2 + 5
∴ p(2) = (22 – r2 + 5) = 9 – r2
(b) We are given, h (r) = q2 – r2 + 5
∴ h(3) = (q2 – 32 + 5) = q2 – 4
Example-2:
3
2 1 1
x −
Find g(64), If g(x) = − 16 x 2 + 2 x 3
32
Solution:
3
1 1
x2 −
We are given, g(x) = − 16 x 2 + 2 x 3
32

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 Bangladesh Open University

 32 1 1
∴ g(64) =  64 −
3
− 16( 64 ) + 2( 64 ) = (16 – 2 + 8) = 28
2
 32 
 
Example-3:
Find (i) g(a) – g(x – a), if g(x) = x2 + 10
(ii) f(x + a) – f(x); if f(x) = x2 – 3
Solution:
(i) We are given g(x) = x2 + 10
∴ g(a) – g(x – a) = (a2 + 10) – {(x – a)2 + 10}
= a2 + 10 – x2 + 2xa – a2 – 10
= 2xa – x2
(ii) We are given, f(x) = x2 – 3
∴ f(x + a) – f(x) = (x + a)2 – 3 – (x2 – 3)
= x2+2xa +a2 – 3 – x2 + 3
= 2xa + a2
Example-4:
ax+b 1
If f(x) = bx+a , prove that f(x). f( x ) = 1

Solution:
ax+b
We have f(x) = bx+a
1
Replacing x by x on both sides, we get
1
a.x +b
1 a+bx
f(x ) = 1 = b+ax
b.x +a
1 ax+b a+bx
∴ f(x).f( x ) = bx+a × b+ax =1 (Proved)

Example-5:
x2 + x + 5
Find the domain of the following function
x2 − 6 x + 8
Solution:
x2 + x + 5
Let f(x) =
x2 − 6 x + 8
Clearly, f(x) will be undefined if
x2 – 6x + 8 = 0

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School of Business

or, x2 – 4x – 2x + 8 = 0
or, x(x – 4) –2(x – 4)= 0
or, (x – 4) (x – 2) = 0
∴ x = 2 or x = 4
Hence, the domain of the definition of f(x)is:
– a < x < a, but x ≠ 2 and x ≠ 4.

Example-6:
If ey – e– y = 2x, express y as an explicit function of x.

Solution:
We have ey – e– y = 2x (Let z = ey)
1
or, z – z = 2x

or, z2 – 1 = 2zx
or, z2 – 2xz –1 = 0

2 x ± 4 x 2 − 4.1.( −1 )
∴z=
2.1

2 x ± 2 x2 + 1
or, ey =
2

or, ey = x ± x2 + 1

or, loge ey = loge (x ± x2+1 )

or, y = loge (x ± x2+1 ), which expresses y as an explicit function of x.

Example-7:
The taxi fare is Tk.10 for 1 km or less from start and Tk.5 per km or any
fraction thereof for additional distance. If the fare be Tk.y for a distance
of x km, express y as a function of x.

Solution:
From the problem it is clear that
y =10 when 0 < x ≤ 1
and y = 10 + 5 when 1 < x ≤ 2
y = 10 + 2(5) when 2 <x ≤ 3
y=10+3(5) when 3 < x ≤ 4.
and in general,
y = 10 + p(5) when p < x ≤ p+1
when p = 0 or a positive integer.

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 Bangladesh Open University

Hence, the functional relation between y (in Tk.) and the distance
traveled x (in km) is given by y = 10 + p(5) when p < x ≤ p+1, where p
= 0 or a positive integer.

Example-8:
x
Find the range of the function
1+x2
Solution:
x
Let y =
1+x2
or, x2y + y = x
or, x2y – x + y = 0
1+ 1-4y2
∴x= 2y
Since x is finite and real, we have
y ≠ 0, and 1 – 4y2 ≥ 0
or, (1 – 2y) (1+2y) ≥ 0
∴ –1/2 ≤ y ≤ 1/2
1 1
Therefore, the required range of the given function is: – 2 ≤ y ≤ 2 and y
≠0
or, –1/2 ≤ y < 0 and 0 < y ≤ 1/2.

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School of Business

Questions for Review

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. What do you mean by constant and variable?
2. Define a function. What do you mean by domain interval and
range of a function?
3. If f(x – 1) = 7x – 5, find f(x) and f(x+2)
4. If f(x) = x2 – x, then prove that f(h+1) = f(–h)
1 4xh
5. If f(x) = 2 show that f(x + h) – f(x – h) = – 2 2 2
x (x -h )

If f(x) = loge 1-x , show that f 

1+x 2x 
6.  = 2f(x)
1+x2
x-3
7. If y = f(x) = 2x+1 and z = f(y), express z as a function of x.

x-2
8. Find the domain of the following function 2
x -3x+2
x2
9. Find the range of the function
1+x2
Multiple Choice Questions (Find the most appropriate answer)
1. Given f(x) = 3x – 9; find f(x2 –1)
(i) x2 – 12 (ii) 3x2 – 12
2
(iii) 4x – 6 (iv) 3x2 – 10
x2
2. Find the domain of the functions y =
1+x2
(i) x ≤ 2 and x ≥ 5 (ii) x < –6 and x > e
(iii) x > 2 and x < –1 (iv) a < x < a
x
3. Find the range of the function y = 2
x -5x+9
(i) 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 (ii) 0 ≤ y ≤ 1
1 1
(iii) –11 ≤ y ≤ 1 (iv) y ≤ 2 and y ≥ 9/2

4. If log x + log y = 2x, express y as an explicit function of x:

bx + d c2 x
(i) y = (ii) y =
ax + c x
e2 x + 2
(iii) y = (iv) y = loge (x ± x2-1 )
2x

5. If f(x) = 10x2 –13x + 13, solve the equation f(x) = 16

(i) 2, 5 (ii) 2/5,1/3 (iii) 3, 7 (iv) 3/2,-1/5

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 Bangladesh Open University

3x-5
6. If y = f(x) = 2x-m and f(y) = x, find the value of m.
(i) m = 6 (ii) m = 3 (iii) m = 7 (iv) m = 8

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 School of Business

Lesson-2: Limit
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Discuss the nature of fundamental theorems on limit;

Apply the different methods of evaluating the limit.
Introduction
The concept of limit is an operation, which determines whether the value
Limit determines
whether the value of a
of a function exists in the neighborhood of a point at which the function
function exists in the is undefined. It is completely new concept in mathematics and is
neighborhood of a considered to be the basis of calculus. Now-a-days, this concept has
point at which the wide application in the theoretical discussion in different branches of
function is undefined. science including mathematics and in the solution of different problems
in economics. In this lesson we shall make a brief discussion on the limit
of a function and the application of fundamental theorems in evaluating
limit of a function.
Limit of a Function
Generally, we are concerned with what happens to the value of the
dependent variable f(x) as the value of the independent variable x
approaches some constant a. For example, the function f defined by f(x)
= x+2 and notice what happens to the value of f(x) as the value of x
moves closer and closer to 2.
Let us set up a table of x and corresponding f(x) values, as
x : 1.9 → 1.99 →1.999 →1.9999 2.0001 → 2.001 → 2.01 → 2.1
f(x): 3.9 → 3.99 → 3.999 → 3.9999 4.0001 → 4.001 → 4.01 → 4.1

Fundamental Theorems of Evaluating Limit of a Function

The following theorems are most useful in the evaluation of limits.
For any real number a, assuming that lim f ( x ) and lim lim g ( x ) exist:
x→ a x→ a

1. For any real constant k, lim k = k

x→a

2. For any real number n, lim x n = a n

x→a

3. lim n f(x) = n lim f ( x ) in the root is defined

x→a x→a

4. lim k . f ( x ) = k . lim f ( x )
x→ a x→ a

5. lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x )

x→a x→a x→a

6. lim f ( x ).g( x ) = lim f ( x ). lim g ( x )

x→ a x→a x→a

f(x)
7. lim = lim f ( x ) / lim g ( x ) ; if lim g ( x ) ≠ 0
x→ a g( x ) x→a x→a x→a

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 Bangladesh Open University

8. If n is any positive integer, then

1 1
(a) lim+ =0 (b) lim− =0
x →∝ xn x →∝ xn
9. If n is any positive integer, then
1 1
lim+ n
= + ∝ and lim+ n = + ∝ (if n is even) or - ∝ (if n is odd)
x →0 x x →0 x

10. lim log f ( x ) = log lim f ( x )

x→ a x→ a

x→a
n
[
11. lim [ f ( x )] = lim f ( x )
x→a
] n

The following examples illustrate the uses of these theorems.

Example-1:
3+ x − 3− x
Compute lim
x →0 x

Solution:
3+ x − 3− x 3+ x + 3− x
lim ×
x →0 x 3+ x + 3− x
(3 + x)−(3− x ) 2 2 1
= lim = lim = =
[
x →0 x . 3 + x + 3−x x →0 ]
3+ x + 3− x 2 3 3

Example-2:
g( x + h ) − g( x )
Evaluate lim ; where, g(x) = 7x + 9
h →0 h

Solution:
g( x + h ) − g( x )
lim
h →0 h
= lim
[7( x + h ) + 9 ] − [7 x + 9 ]
h →0 h
7 x +7h + 9 −7 x − 9 7h
= lim = lim
h →0 h h→ 0 h

= lim 7 = 7. The constant function 7 is continuous.

h →0

Example-3:
e x − e− x
Evaluate lim
x →0 x

Solution:

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e x − e− x
lim
x →0 x
 x2 x3 x4   x2 x3 x4 
1 + x + + + + ..........  − 1 − x + − + − .....
 2! 3! 4!   2! 3! 4!
= lim    
x →0 x
 x 3 x 5 x7 
2 x + + + + .......
= lim 
3! 5! 7! 
x →0 x
 x 2
x 4
x6 
= lim 2  1 + + + + ....... = lim (2 × 1) = 2
x →0
 3! 5! 7!  x →0
Example-4:
1 − cos x
Prove that lim =0
x →0 x
Solution:
1 − cos x
lim =0
x →0 x
x x
2 sin 2 Sin2 2
= lim 2 = lim
x →0 x x →0 x
2
x
sin 2
= lim 2 × lim sin x = (1 × 0) = 0
x →0 x x →0 2
2

Example-5:
Find (a) lim ( 3 x 2 − x + 6 ) (b) lim ( 2 x 2 + 1 )( 3 x − 4 )
x→2 x→3

Solution:
(a) lim ( 3 x 2 − x + 6 )
x→2

= lim 3x2 – lim x + lim 6

x→2 x→2 x→2

= [3(2)2 – 2 + 6] = (12 – 2 + 6) = 16

(b) lim ( 2 x 2 + 1 )( 3 x − 4 )
x→3

= [ lim 2x2 + lim 1] [ lim 3x – lim 4]

x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3

= [2.(3)2 + 1]. [3.(3) – 4]

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= [(18+1).(5)] = (19 × 5) = 95

Example-6:
x2 − 4
lim
x→2 x−2

Solution:
0
Here Substituting x = 2, we get 0 which does not exist.
x2 − 4
Hence by rationalizing, lim
x→2 x−2
( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
= lim [as x ≠ 2; ∴ x – 2 ≠ 0]
x→2 (x−2)
= lim (x+2) = (2 + 2) = 4
x→2

x2 − 4
∴ lim = 4.
x→2 x−2
Some Important Limits

The following formulae are also used for evaluating the limit of a
function.
xn − an
(1) lim = n.a n − 1
x →0 x−a
1 n
 1
(2) lim ( 1 + n ) n = lim  1 +  = e.
n →0 n →∝  n
( 1 + x )n − 1
(3) lim =n
n →0 x
sin x
(4) lim =1
n →0 x
Example-7:
 2 1
14  8 x 2 + 16 x + 3
Find (a) lim  2 x ( x + x ) + 3 x 3 −  (b) lim
x x →∝ 2 x 3 − x + 3

x →1

Solution:
 1
14 
(a) lim  2 x 2 ( x + x ) + 3x 3 − 
x →1
 x
1
= (2 lim x2).( lim x + lim x ) + 3 lim x1/3 – 14 lim
x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1 x
= 2 (12) (1 + 1) + 3 (11/3) – 14 1 = –7.
1
 

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8 x 2 + 16 x + 3
(b) lim
x →∝ 2 x 3 − x + 3

8 x 2 + 16 x + 3
= lim x3
3
x →∝ 2x − x + 3
x3
8 16 3
+ 2 + 3
= lim x x x
x →∝ 1 3
2− 2 + 3
x x
0  1 
=  where , lim = 0 
2 x →∝ x 
= 0.

Example-8:
(
Show that, lim x 2 − 3 x + 5 = 3
x→2
)
Solution:
(
We have lim x 2 − 3 x + 5 = 3
x→2
)
= lim x2 – lim 3x + lim 5
x→2 x→2 x→2

= lim x. lim x – 3 lim x + 5

x→2 x→2 x→2

= (2 × 2 – 3 × 2 + 5) = (4 – 6 + 5) = 3 (Proved)

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Questions for Review

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. Give the definition of limits of a function.
2. Mention the fundamental theorems of evaluating a function.
3. Find lim (3x2 + 2)
x→2

1
4. If f(x) = x , find lim f(x)
x →0

x2 − 3x + 2
5. Evaluate lim
x →1 x −1
2x + 3
6. Evaluate lim
x →∝ x+1
 1+ x − 1− x 
7. Evaluate lim  
x →0
 x 
 3 1

8. Prove that lim log  2 x 2 − 3 x 2 − 1  = 2 log 3.
 
 
x→4

2 x2 − x − 3
9. Evaluate lim
x → −1 x2 − 2x − 3
1 + 2 x − 1 − 3x
10. Find the value of lim
x →0 x

Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the most appropriate answer)

x− a
1. Find the value of lim
x→a x−a
1 1
i) ii) iii) 2 a iv) a
a 2 a
x2 − 5 x + 6
2. Evaluate lim
x→2 x3 − 5 x + 2
1 1 1
i) ii) iii) iv) –7
5 −3 −7

1 − x3 − 1 − x
3. Evaluate lim
x →0
1 + x2 − 1 + x
-1
i) –1 ii) –6 iii) 1 iv) 2

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elog x − 1
4. Evaluate lim
x → −1 e x −1 − 1
5 2
i) ii) iii) 1 iv) 2
3 7
g( x ) − g( 1 )
5. If g(x) = − 25 − x 2 , find the value of lim
x→1 x −1
1 1 1 1
i) ii) iii) iv)
2 2 6 6 2

ax 2 − b
6. If lim = 4, find the values of a and b.
x→2 x−2
i) a =2, b =3 ii) a=1, b=3 iii) a=1, b=4 iv) a=6, b=4.

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Lesson-3: Continuity
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Discuss the nature of continuity of a function;

Apply the conditions for continuity of a function.

Nature of Continuity
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an open or closed interval if it A function f(x) is said
is continuous at all points in the interval. For example, the function f(x) to be continuous in an
= x2 is continuous in the closed interval -4 ≤ x ≤ 3 when it is continuous open or closed
interval if it is
at every point in the interval. continuous at all
points in the interval.
If the function f(x) is not continuous at x = a, we say that the function
f(x) is discontinuous at x = a and the point x = a is called a point of
discontinuity of the function. The function f(x) is said to be
discontinuous at x = a if,
(i) f(a) is undefined i.e. f(x) does not possess a definite finite
value at x = a
or, (ii) lim f(x) does not exist
x→a

or, (iii) lim f(x) exists but lim f(x) ≠ f(a)

x→a x→a

Continuity of a Function
The important concept of continuity of a function is developed from the
theory of limit. A function 'f' is continuous at x = a if and only if all of
the following conditions apply to f at a.
1) f(a) is defined, i.e., the domain of f includes x = a;
2) lim f(x) exists;
x→a

3) lim f(x) = f(a), whether x approaches to a from the left or

x→a
from the right.
Continuity at an Interval
If a and b are real numbers and a < b, then the set {x | a < x <b} is
called an open interval and is denoted by [a, b]. The set {x | a ≤ x ≤b} is
called a closed interval and denoted by (a, b). The half-open interval {x |
a ≤ x < b} is symbolized (a, b] whereas the half-closed interval {x | a < x
≤ b} is symbolized [a, b). In each case a and b are the endpoints of the
interval, and any x value such that a < x < b is interior point.
A function f is
A function f is continuous on an open interval if it is continuous at each continuous on an
open interval if it is
number in that interval. continuous at each
A function f is continuous on a closed interval (a, b) provided the number in that
interval.
following conditions are satisfied:
1. f is continuous over the open interval (a, b)
2. f(x) → f(a) as x → a from within (a, b)
3. f (x) → f(b) as x → b from within (a, b)

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The following examples illustrate the requirements/conditions for

continuity of a function.

Example-1:
x2 − 4
Show that f(x) = is not continuous x = 2 but continuous at x = 3.
x−2
Solution:
The conditions to be satisfied by a function before we can say that it is
continuous at a particular point say x = a are: f(a), lim f(x) and lim f(x)
x →a − x →a +
should have definite and finite values and these are all equal.
x2 − 4
Let us examine whether these conditions are satisfied by f(x) =
x−2
for x = 2.
Here x = 2, therefore we have
22-4 0
(i) f(2) = 2-2 = 0 , which is undefined.
Again by the method of finding the left hand and right hand side
limits, we have
x2 − 4 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
(ii) lim− = lim−
x →2 x − 2 x →2 (x−2)
= lim− (x + 2)
x →2

= lim (2 – h + 2) = 4
h →0

∴ L.H.S. limit = 4.
x2 − 4 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
Again, lim+ = lim+
x →2 x − 2 x →2 (x−2)
= lim+ (x + 2)
x →2

= lim (2 + h + 2) = 4
h →0

∴ R.H.S. limit = 4.

Here, lim− f(x) = lim+ f(x) ≠ f(2)

x →2 x →2
2
x −4
∴ f(x) = is not continuous at x = 2.
x−2
Now, for x = 3,
32-4
i) f(3) = 3-2 = 5 and

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x2 − 4 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
ii) lim− = lim−
x →3 x − 2 x →3 (x−2)
= lim (3 – h + 2) = 5
h →0
∴ L.H.S. limit = 5.
x2 − 4 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
Again, lim+ = lim+
x →3 x−2 x →3 (x−2)
= lim (3 + h + 2) = 5
h →0
∴ R.H.S. limit = 5.

Here, lim− f(x) = lim+ f(x) ≠ f(3)

x →3 x →3
2
x −4
∴ f(x) = is continuous at x = 3.
x−2

Example-2:
Show that f(x) = 3x2 + 2x – 1 is continuous at x = 2. Also prove that f(x)
is continuous for all values of x.
Solution:
The condition is to be satisfied by a function if we can say that it is
continuous at a particular point say x = a, where lim− f(x) = f(a)
x →a

= lim+ f(x)
x →a

Let us examine whether these conditions are satisfied by f(x) = 3x2 + 2x

– 1 for x = 2.
Here a = 2, therefore, we have (i) f(2) = (3. 22 + 2.2 – 1) = 15.
Again by the method of finding the left and right hand side limit, we
have
(ii) lim− (3x2 + 2x – 1) = lim {(3(2 – h)2 + 2(2 – h) – 1} = 15
x →2 h →0

∴ L.H.S. limit = 15.

Again (iii) lim+ (3x2 + 2x – 1) = lim {(3(2 + h)2 + 2(2 + h) – 1} = 15
x →2 h →0

∴ R.H.S. limit = 15.

We find the values of the function at x = 2, the LHS limit and RHS limit
and all of these exist and finite and equal. Thus the f(x) = 3x2 + 2x – 1 is
continuous at x = 2.
We shall show further that f(x) = 3x2 + 2x – 1 is continuous for all
values of x.
Let x = k be any value of x arbitrarily selected and find out whether
given function is continuous at x = k
Here a = k, therefore f(k) = 3k2 + 2k – 1 (finite number) .... (1)

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Also, lim− (3x2 + 2x – 1) = lim {(3(k – h)2 + 2(k – h) – 1}

x →k h →0

= lim (3k2 – 6kh +3h2 – 2k + 2h – 1)

h →0
2
= (3k + 2k – 1) ........(2)
Similarly we find that, lim+ (3x2 + 2x – 1) = 3k2 + 2k – 1 .......... (3)
x →k

From (1), (2) and (3) we deduce that the given function is continuous at
x = k.
Since k is any arbitrary value of x, therefore, f(x) is continuous for all
values of x.

Example-3:
x2 − 3x − 4
Find the points of discontinuity of the function
x3 − 2 x2 − 5 x + 6
Solution:
x2 − 3x − 4
Let f(x) =
x3 − 2 x2 − 5 x + 6
We know that if a function is undefined at x = a, then x = a is a point of
discontinuity of the function. Therefore, the points of discontinuity of
f(x) are the values of x at which f(x) becomes undefined. The values of x
for which f(x) is undefined are the roots of the equation.
x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
or, x2(x – 1) – x(x – 1) – 6(x – 1) = 0
or, (x – 1) (x2 – x – 6) = 0
or, (x – 1) (x2 – 3x + 2x – 6) = 0
or, (x – 1) [x(x – 3) + 2(x – 3)] = 0
or, (x – 1) (x + 2) (x – 3) = 0
∴ x = 1 or x = –2 or x = 3
Hence, the points of discontinuity of f(x) are : x = 1, x = 3 and x = –2.

Example-4:
2 x2 − 8
The function f(x) = is undefined at x = 2. What value must be
x−2
assigned to f(2), if f(x) is to be continuous at x = 2.
Solution:
2( x 2 − 4 )
We have, lim+ f(x) = lim+
x →2 x →2 ( x −2)
2( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
= lim+
x →2 ( x −2)

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= lim [2(2 + h + 2)] = 2(2+2) =8.

h →0

Similarly, lim− f(x) = 8

x →2

∴ lim+ f(x) = lim− f(x) = 8

x →2 x →2

Therefore, lim f(x) = 8

x→2

Now, the function f(x) will be continuous at x = 2 if lim f(x) = f(2); i.e.,
x→2
if f(2) = 8.
Hence the required assigned value of f(2) is 8.

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Questions for Review

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. Define the continuity of f(x) at x = a. When is the function said to be
continuous in the closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b?
2. Define the discontinuity of f(x) at x = a.

2x2+6x-5
3. Indicate the points of discontinuity of the function: .
12x2+x-20

x3-8
4. The function f(x) = 2 is undefined at x = 2. Redefine the function
x -4
so as to make it continuous at x = 2.

x2-9
5. It f(x) = x-3 when x ≠ 3; state the value of f(3) so that f(x) is
continuous at x = 3.

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