I.

Introduction

1. Sets and Functions

We will regard the word “set” as synonymous with the words “class,” “collection,”
and “family,” and we will not define these terms.
If an element x is in a set A, we write x ∈ A and say that x is a member of A, or that x
belongs to A. If x is not in A, we write x ∈
/ A.
If every element of a set A also belongs to a set B, we say that A is a subset of B and
write A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A. We say that a set A is a proper subset of a set B if A ⊆ B, and if at
least one element of B is not in A. In this case we sometimes write A ⊂ B.

Definition 1. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, and we write A = B, if they contain
the same elements.

Several special sets are denoted by standard symbols. (We will use the symbol := to
mean that the symbol on the left is being defined by the symbol on the right.)

• The set of natural numbers N := {1, 2, 3, . . . },

• The set of integers Z := {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . },

• The set of rational numbers Q := { m

n
: m, n ∈ Z and n ̸= 0},

• The set of real numbers R.

A set is normally defined by either listing its elements explicitly, or by specifying a

property that determines the elements of the set. If P denotes a property that is meaning-
ful and unambiguous for elements of a set S, then we write {x ∈ S : P (x)} for the set of
all elements x in S for which the property P is true. If the set S is understood from the
context, then it is often omitted in this notation.
1.1 Set Operations
Definition 2. (a) The union of sets A and B is the set A ∪ B := {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
(b) The intersection of the sets A and B is the set A ∩ B := {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
(c) The complement of B relative to A is the set A\B := {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ / B}
The set that has no elements is called the empty set and is denoted by the symbol ∅.
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common; this can be
expressed by writing A ∩ B = ∅.
Theorem 1.1. If A, B, C are sets, then
(a) A\(B ∪ C) = (A\B) ∩ (A\C),
(b) A\(B ∩ C) = (A\B) ∪ (A\C).
For a finite collection of sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , their union is the set A consisting of all
elements that belong to at least one of the sets Ak , and their intersection consists of all
elements that belong to all of the sets Ak .
This is extended to an infinite collection of sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , . . . , as follows. The
union is the set of elements that belong to at least one of the sets An . In this case we write

∪∞
n=1 An = {x : x ∈ An for some n ∈ N}.

The intersection is the set of elements that belong to all of these sets An . In this case we
write

∩∞
n=1 An = {x : x ∈ An for all n ∈ N}.

1.2 Functions
In order to discuss functions, we define the Cartesian product of two sets.
Definition 3. If A and B are nonempty sets, then the Cartesian product A × B of A and
B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a ∈ A and b ∈ B. That is,

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

A function f from a set A into a set B is a rule of correspondence that assigns to each
element x in A, a uniquely determined element f (x) in B.
Definition 4. Let A and B be sets. Then a function from A to B is a set f of ordered pairs
in A × B such that for each a ∈ A there exists a unique b ∈ B with (a, b) ∈ f. (In other
words, if (a, b) ∈ f and (a, b′ ) ∈ f, then b = b′ .)

–2–
 The set A of first elements of a function f is called the domain of f and is often denoted
by D(f ). The set B is sometimes called the co-domain. The set of all second elements in
f is called the range of f and is often denoted by R(f ). Note that, although D(f ) = A, we
only have R(f ) ⊆ B.
The notation f : A → B is often used to indicate that f is a function from A into B.
We will also say that f is a mapping of A into B, or that f maps A into B. If (a, b) is an
element in f, it is customary to write b = f (a) or sometimes a 7→ b.
If b = f (a), we often refer to b as the value of f at a, or as the image of a under f.

1.3 Direct and Inverse Images

Let f : A → B be a function with domain D(f ) = A and range R(f ) ⊆ B.

Definition 5. (a) If E is a subset of A, then the direct image of E under f is the subset
f (E) of B given by

f (E) := {f (x) : x ∈ E}.

(b) If H is a subset of B, then the inverse image of H under f is the subset f −1 (H) of
A given by

f −1 (H) := {x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ H}.

1.4 Special Types of Functions

The following definitions identify some very important types of functions.

Definition 6. Let f : A → B be a function from A to B.

(a) The function f is said to be injective (or to be one-one) if whenever x1 ̸= x2 , then
f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ). If f is an injective function, we also say that f is an injection.
(b) The function f is said to be surjective (or to map A onto B) if f (A) = B; that is, if
the range R(f ) = B. If f is a surjective function, we also say that f is a surjection.
(c) If f is both injective and surjective, then f is said to be bijective. If f is bijective,
we also say that f is a bijection.

1.5 Inverse Functions

If f is a function from A into B, then f is a special subset of A × B. The set of ordered
pairs in B × A obtained by interchanging the members of ordered pairs in f is not gener-

–3–
ally a function. However, if f is a bijection, then this interchange does lead to a function,
called the “inverse function” of f.

Definition 7. If f : A → B is a bijection of A onto B, then

g := {(b, a) ∈ B × A : (a, b) ∈ f }

is a function on B into A. This function is called the inverse function of f, and is denoted
by f −1 . The function f −1 is also called the inverse of f.

1.6 Composition of Functions

Definition 8. If f : A → B and g : B → C, and if R(f ) ⊆ D(g) = B, then the composite
function g ◦ f is the function from A into C defined by

(g ◦ f )(x) := g(f (x)) for all x ∈ A.

Theorem 1.2. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions and let H be a subset of C. Then we

have (g ◦ f )−1 (H) := f −1 (g −1 (H)).

Restrictions of Functions
If f : A → B is a function and if A1 ⊂ A, we can define a function f1 : A1 → B by

f1 (x) := f (x) for x ∈ A1 .

The function f1 is called the restriction of f to A1 . Sometimes it is denoted by f1 = f |A1 .

2. Basic Mathematical Logic

2.1 Statements and Their Combinations
All mathematical proofs and arguments are based on statements , which are declar-
ative sentences or meaningful strings of symbols that can be classified as being true or
false. It is not necessary that we know whether a given statement is actually true or false,
but it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both. Consider the following sentences:

• There are infinitely many primes.

–4–
 • 4 is a prime number.

• There are infinitely many twin primes.

• This sentence is false.

The first three are statements: the first is true, the second is false, and the third is either
true or false, but we are not sure which at this time. The fourth sentence is not a statement;
it can be neither true nor false since it leads to contradictory conclusions.
Some statements (such as “1 + 1 = 2”) are always true; they are called tautologies.
Some statements (such as “2 = 3”) are always false; they are called contradictions or
falsities. Some statements (such as “x2 = 1”) are sometimes true and sometimes false
(e.g., true when x = 1 and false when x = 3).
Two statements P and Q are said to be logically equivalent if P is true exactly when
Q is true (and hence P is false exactly when Q is false). In this case we often write P ≡ Q.
For example, we write

(x is Jawaharlal Nehru) ≡ (x is the first prime minister of India).

There are several different ways of forming new statements from given ones by using
logical connectives.
If P is a statement, then its negation is the statement denoted by

not P,

which is true when P is false, and is false when P is true. (A common notation for the
negation of P is ¬P.)
If P and Q are statements, then their conjunction is the statement denoted by

P and Q,

which is true when both P and Q are true, and is false otherwise. (A standard notation
for the conjunction of P and Q is P ∧ Q.)
Similarly, the disjunction of P and Q is the statement denoted by

P or Q,

which is true when at least one of P and Q is true, and false only when they are both false.
(A standard notation for the disjunction of P and Q is P ∨ Q.)

–5–
 √
To contrast disjunctive and conjunctive statements, note that the statement “2 < 2
√ √ √
and 2 < 3” is false, but the statement “2 < 2 or 2 < 3” is true.

2.2 Implications
A very important way of forming a new statement from given ones is the implication
(or conditional) statement, denoted by

(P ⇒ Q), (if P then Q), or (P implies Q).

Here P is called the hypothesis, and Q is called the conclusion of the implication.
In mathematical arguments, we are very much interested in implications when the
hypothesis is true, but not much interested in them when the hypothesis is false.

2.3 Contrapositive and Converse

The implication P ⇒ Q is logically equivalent to the implication not Q ⇒ not P, which
is called the contrapositive of the implication P ⇒ Q.
If an implication P ⇒ Q is given, then one can also form the statement Q ⇒ P, which
is called the converse of P ⇒ Q.
The double implication (or the biconditional) statement, is defined by

(P ⇒ Q) and (Q ⇒ P ),

and is denoted by

P ⇔ Q or P if and only if Q.

2.4 Context and Quantifiers

If one goes into the middle of a mathematical lecture and sees the equation x2 = 1 on
the blackboard, it is useful for the viewer to know what the writer means by the letter x
and the symbol 1. Is x an integer? A function? A matrix? A subgroup of a given group?
Does 1 denote a natural number? The identity function? The identity matrix? The trivial
subgroup of a group?
Often the context is well understood by the conversants, but it is always a good idea
to establish it at the start of a discussion. For example, many mathematical statements

–6–
involve one or more variables whose values usually affect the truth or the falsity of the
statement, so we should always make clear what the possible values of the variables are.
Very often mathematical statements involve expressions such as “for all,” “for every,”
“for some,” “there exists,” “there are,” and so on. For example, we may have the state-
ments

For any integer x, x2 = 1

and

There exists an integer x such that x2 = 1.

Clearly the first statement is false, as is seen by taking x = 2; however, the second state-
ment is true since we can take either x = 1 or x = −1.
If the context has been established that we are talking about integers, then the above
statements can safely be abbreviated as

For any x, x2 = 1

and

There exists an x such that x2 = 1.

The first statement involves the universal quantifier “for every,” and is making a state-
ment (here false) about all integers. The second statement involves the existential quan-
tifie “there exists,” and is making a statement (here true) about at least one integer.
These two quantifiers occur so often that mathematicians often use the symbol ∀ to
stand for the universal quantifier, and the symbol ∃ to stand for the existential quantifier.
The statement

(2.1) (∀x)(∃y)(x + y = 0)

(understood for integers) can be read “For every integer x; there exists an integer y such
that x + y = 0.”
The statement

(2.2) (∃y)(∀x)(x + y = 0)

–7–
can be read “There exists an integer y; such that for every integer x; then x + y = 0.
These two statements are very different; for example, (2.1) is true and (2.2) is false. The
moral is that the order of the appearance of the two different types of quantifiers is very
important.
It is important to understand how to negate a statement that involves quantifiers.
The negation of the statement “There exists δ > 0 such that the interval (−δ, δ) does
not contain any point in A” is the following: “For every δ > 0, the interval (−δ, δ) contains
a point belonging to the set A.

3. Proof Techniques
3.1 Direct Proofs
Let P and Q be statements. The assertion that the hypothesis P of the implication P ⇒
Q implies the conclusion Q (or that P ⇒ Q is a theorem) is the assertion that whenever
the hypothesis P is true, then Q is true.
The construction of a direct proof of P ⇒ Q involves the construction of a string of
statements R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn such that

P ⇒ R1 , R1 ⇒ R2 , . . . , Rn ⇒ Q.

Theorem 3.1. The square of an odd integer is also an odd integer.

If we let n stand for an integer, then the hypothesis is:

P : n is an odd integer.

The conclusion of the theorem is:

Q : n2 is an odd integer.

We introduce the following statements:

R1 : n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.

R2 : n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1.
R3 : n2 = (4k 2 + 4k) + 1.
R4 : n2 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1.

–8–
 R5 : n2 = 2m + 1, where m = 2k 2 + 2k.

Observe that P ⇒ R1 ⇒ R2 ⇒ R3 ⇒ R4 ⇒ R5 ⇒ Q.

3.2 Indirect Proofs

There are basically two types of indirect proofs: (i) contrapositive proofs, and (ii)
proofs by contradiction. Both types start with the assumption that the conclusion Q is
false, in other words, that the statement “not Q” is true.
Contrapositive proofs. Instead of proving P ⇒ Q, we may prove its logically equivalent
contrapositive: not Q ⇒ not P.
Theorem 3.2. Let a ≥ 0 be a real number. If, for every ϵ > 0, we have 0 ≤ a < ϵ, then a = 0.
Proof. If a = 0 is false, then since a ≥ 0, we must have a > 0. In this case, if we choose
ϵ0 = a2 , then we have ϵ0 > 0 and ϵ0 < a, so that the hypothesis 0 ≤ a < ϵ for all ϵ > 0 is
false.

Proof by contradiction. This method of proof employs the fact that if C is a contradiction
(i.e., a statement that is always false, such as “1 = 0”), then the two statements

(P and(not Q)) ⇒ C, P ⇒ Q

are logically equivalent. Thus we establish P ⇒ Q by showing that the statement (P and(not Q))
implies a contradiction.
Theorem 3.3. There are infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof. If we suppose by way of contradiction that there are finitely many prime numbers,
then we may assume that S = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } is the set of all prime numbers. We let
m = p1 · · · pn , the product of all the primes, and we let q = m + 1. Since q > pi for all
i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}, we see that q is not in S, and therefore q is not prime. Then there exists
a prime p that is a divisor of q. Since p is prime, then p = pj for some j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}, so
that p is a divisor of m. But if p divides both m and q = m + 1, then p divides the difference
q − m = 1. However, this is impossible, so we have obtained a contradiction.

3.3 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is a powerful method of proof that is frequently used to es-
tablish the validity of statements that are given in terms of the natural numbers. We will
assume the following fundamental property of N.

–9–
Well-Ordering Property of N : Every nonempty subset of N has a least element.
A more detailed statement of this property is as follows: If S is a subset of N and if
S ̸= ∅, then there exists m ∈ S such that m ≤ k for all k ∈ S.

Theorem 3.4. (Principle of Mathematical Induction) Let S be a subset of N that possesses

the two properties:
(1) The number 1 ∈ S.
(2) For every k ∈ N, if k ∈ S, then k + 1 ∈ S.
Then we have S = N.

Proof. Suppose to the contrary that S ̸= N. Then the set N\S is not empty, so by the Well-
Ordering Principle it has a least element m. Since 1 ∈ S by hypothesis (1), we know that
m > 1. But this implies that m − 1 is also a natural number. Since m − 1 < m and since m
is the least element in N such that m ∈
/ S, we conclude that m − 1 ∈ S.
We now apply hypothesis (2) to the element k := m − 1 in S, to infer that k + 1 =
(m−1)+1 = m belongs to S. But this statement contradicts the fact that m ∈
/ S. Since m was
obtained from the assumption that N\S is not empty, we have obtained a contradiction.
Therefore we must have S = N.

The Principle of Mathematical Induction is often set forth in the framework of state-
ments about natural numbers. In this context, the Principle of Mathematical Induction
can be formulated as follows.

Theorem 3.5. For each n ∈ N, let P (n) be a statement about n. Suppose that:
(1’) P (1) is true.
(2’) For every k ∈ N, if P (k) is true, then P (k + 1) is true.
Then P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.

Using the Principle of Mathematical Induction, we will prove the following theorem.

Theorem 3.6. Given two real numbers a and b, a − b is a factor of an − bn for all n ∈ N.

Proof. First we see that the statement is clearly true for n = 1. If we now assume that a − b
is a factor of ak − bk , then

ak+1 − bk+1 = ak+1 − abk + abk − bk+1

= a(ak − bk ) + bk (a − b).

By the induction hypothesis, a − b is a factor of a(ak − bk ) and it is plainly a factor of

bk (a − b). Therefore, a − b is a factor of ak+1 − bk+1 , and it follows from Mathematical
Induction that a − b is a factor of an − bn for all n ∈ N.

–10–
4. Cardinality
4.1 Finite and Infinite Sets
When we count the elements in a set, we say “one, two, three, . . . ,” stopping when we
have exhausted the set. From a mathematical perspective, what we are doing is defining
a bijective mapping between the set and a portion of the set of natural numbers. If the
set is such that the counting does not terminate, such as the set of natural numbers itself,
then we describe the set as being infinite.
The notions of “finite” and “infinite” are extremely primitive, and it is very likely that
the reader has never examined these notions very carefully. In this section we will define
these terms precisely and establish a few basic results.

Definition 9. (a) The empty set ∅ is said to have 0 elements.

(b) If n ∈ N, a set S is said to have n elements if there exists a bijection from the set
Nn := {1, 2, . . . , n} onto S.
(c) A set S is said to be finite if it is either empty or it has n elements for some n ∈ N.
(d) A set S is said to be infinite if it is not finite.

Theorem 4.1. If S is a finite set, then the number of elements in S is a unique number in N.

Theorem 4.2. The set N of natural numbers is an infinite set.

Theorem 4.3. Suppose that S and T are sets and that T ⊆ S.

(a) If S is a finite set, then T is a finite set.
(b) If T is an infinite set, then S is an infinite set.

4.2 Countable Sets

We now introduce an important type of infinite set.

Definition 10. (a) A set S is said to be countably infinite if there exists a bijection of N
onto S.
(b) A set S is said to be countable if it is either finite or countably infinite.
(c) A set S is said to be uncountable if it is not countable.

Definition 11. Two sets A and B have the same cardinality if there exists a bijection f : A → B.

The construction of an explicit bijection between sets is often complicated. The next
two results are useful in establishing the countability of sets, since they do not involve
showing that certain mappings are bijections.

–11–
Theorem 4.4. Suppose that S and T are sets and that T ⊆ S.
(a) If S is a countable set, then T is a countable set.
(b) If T is an uncountable set, then S is an uncountable set

Theorem 4.5. The following statements are equivalent:

(a) S is a countable set.
(b) There exists a surjection of N onto S.
(c) There exists an injection of S into N.

Theorem 4.6. The set Q of all rational numbers is countably infinite.

Theorem 4.7. If Am is a countable set for each m ∈ N, then the union A = ∪∞

m=1 Am is countable.

4.3 Example of an Uncountable Set

Theorem 4.8. The set {0, 1}∞ is uncountable.

Proof. Suppose not i.e., the set {0, 1}∞ is countable. Then we can exhaustively list all the
elements of {0, 1}∞ . Let {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . } be an exhaustive listing of {0, 1}∞ . We have,

x1 = x11 x21 x31 x41 . . .

x2 = x12 x22 x32 x42 . . .
x3 = x13 x23 x33 x43 . . .
..
.

Define a new element x with ith entry for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . as follows:


1 if xii = 0,
xi =
0 if xii = 1.

By construction, x ∈ {0, 1}∞ and x ̸= xk for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . This is a contradiction to

{x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . } being an exhaustive listing of {0, 1}∞ . It therefore follows that {0, 1}∞
is uncountable.

4.4 Cantor’s Theorem

Theorem 4.9. If A is any set, then there is no surjection of A onto the set P(A) of all subsets of
A.

–12–
Proof. Suppose that f : A → P(A) is a surjection. Since f (a) is a subset of A, either a
belongs to f (a) or it does not belong to this set. We let

D := {a ∈ A : a ∈
/ f (a)}.

Since D is a subset of A, if f is a surjection, then D = f (a0 ) for some a0 ∈ A.

We must have either a0 ∈ D or a0 ∈ / D. If a0 ∈ D, then since D = f (a0 ), we must have
a0 ∈ f (a0 ), contrary to the definition of D. Similarly, if a0 ∈ / D, then a0 ∈/ f (a0 ) so that
a0 ∈ D, which is also a contradiction.
Therefore, f cannot be a surjection.

Cantor’s Theorem implies that there is an unending progression of larger and larger
sets. In particular, it implies that the collection P(N) of all subsets of the natural numbers
N is uncountable.

–13–