Structure Of Atom

23 March 2024 08:35

INTRODUCTION
• "Atom" word means "indivisible".

Dalton's atomic theory

S.no Claim Limitation

1. atom is indivisible Atom consists of sub-atomic
particle. e- = electron
p+ = proton
n = neutron
2. Atom belonging to same Isotopes - same atomic no. But
elements will be same in all different mass no. Ex - C12,
aspects. C14
3. Atoms belonging to different Isobars - diff. Atomic no. But
elements will be different in same mass no. Ex - Ca, K,
all aspects Ar all have 40u

#Knowledge cloud

Electron - J.J Thomson

Proton - Goldstein
Neutron - Chadwick
 **Proton is 1850 heavier than electron**

** If atom is room, than nuclei is like bag**

Discovery of sub atomic particles

1. Discovery of cathode rays

Cathode rays - beam of electron emitted from cathode and travel to

anode in discharge tube.

#we have to maintain low pressure as it remove hinderens among the

particle.

# can use any gas.

Properties of cathode ray experiment

• Produce electrical and magnetic field

• Have mechanical energy and travel in straight line.
• Do not depend on nature of gas and electrode
• Reflect towards positive plate means that electrons are moving

# use of perforated anode is to create lightning effect.

 2. Discovery of anode rays/canal rays

Anode rays - beam of positive ions

Properties of anode rays

1. Move in straight line.

2. Depend on nature of gas
3. Deflected in pres. Of E.F and M.F.
4. Mechanical motion.

3. Discovery of neutron

# its mass is slightly greater than proton

Atomic model

1. Thomson's model of atom/plum pudding model/watermelon

model

Claim - mass of atom is uniformly distributed

Feature - neg. And pos. Charge are equal in magnitude

Limitations - cannot explain rutherford's experiment

2. Rutherford's model
S.no. Observation Conclusion
1. Most of the alpha-particle Most of the space in
passes without delflection. atom is empty.
2. Very few particle Retrace its There is a positive
path nucleus in the centre.

Limitation- acc. to Maxwell's classic theory, accelerated particle

radiate energy, so after some time, electron should fall into the
nucleus.

Relation between radius of nucleus & mass number.

Some basic concept

Atomic no. (Z) - no. of proton

Mass no. (A) - no. of proton + no. of neutron

Representation:

Isoelectronic species - same no of electron. Ex. Na+, Mg2+

Isotone - same no. of neutron, diff. A & Z. Ex. Carbon, oxygen.

Isodiapher - same isotopic no. (A-2Z)(diff. B/w neutron and proton)

diff. Element. Ex. Na, Al.

Isoster - species having same number of electron and atom. Ex. N2

and CO.

Electromagnetic waves
 Its components:
1. Electric field 2. Magnetic field

Produced by varying E.F and M.F which are perpendicular to each

other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation

# travel in straight line

# do not deflected in E.F & M.F

Black body radiation

Black body is an ideal body which emits or absorbs radiation of

all frequency. The radiation emitted by these bodies are known
as black body radiation.

# the only factor on which the intensity and frequency of the

emitted radiation depends is temperature.

Energy is proportional to its intensity and independent to

wavelength and frequency.

Planck's quantum theory

According to this theory, energy cannot be absorbed or released continuously but it is

emitted or released in the form of small packets called quanta. In case of light this quanta is
known as photon.
 Energy*number = power*time
Photoelectric effect
When light of a suitable frequency is allowed to incident on a metal, ejection of electrons
take place.
This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect.

#one photon of suitable frequency can eject only one electron.

# If intensity is constant and frequency will increase there is increase in photocurrent due
ro kinetic energy.

# If frequency is constant and intensity is increase there is increase in number od

electron.

# firstly energy is needed to eject electron.

Stopping potential - the minimum opposing applied at which velocity of ejected electron
become zero.

Bohr's model of atom

It is only applicable to those atom that have only one electron.(hydrogen and hydrogen like
species) because if there is more than one electron, there will be repulsion between them.

Postulates of Bohr's model of atom

1. The electrons in the atom can move around the nucleus in define nucleus of fixed radius and
energy known as orbit/shell/energy level/stationary states etc.

2. The energy of electron in the orbit does not change with time. However, it can move from
lower energy level to higher energy level if energy is absorbed or emit energy when it goes
 from higher energy level to lower energy level.

3. The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occur between two
stationary states that differ in energy by delta E, is given by

4. The angular momentum(integral multiple of h/2pi) of an electron in quantized.

Mathematical form
Electron experience two forces, Coulomb force, centrifugal force.

Both the forces are equal in magnitude.

1. Bohr's radius.

Therefore. Radius is fixed for every species.

2. Calculation of Velocity of nth orbit.

3. Number of revolution by electron.

4. Calculation of energy in nth orbit.

P.E = Kq1q2/r
# as the value of n(orbit number) increases, the value of energy between orbit decrease .

# as the value of n increases, the radius increases.

Spectrum
Defination: the pattern of radiation obtained after dispersion.

Study of spectra is known as spectroscopy.

Hydrogen spectrum

When an electric discharged(energy)is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the h2 molecule

dissociate and The energetically excited h atom produced emit E.M radiation of discrete
frequency.

Rydberg formula

Value of rnot in energy = 2.18 × 10^-18

 Bohr atomic model

Calculation of longest and shortest wavelength

For max. Lambda, take n2 = n2 +1

For min. Lambda, take n2 = infinity

Limitation of Bohr atomic model

1. Zeeman effect- splitting of spectral lines in present of M.L.

2. Stark effect - splitting of spectral lines in present of E.F.
3. Atom is 3d but orbits are 2d
4. De Broglie - dual nature of atom
5. Heisenberg uncertainty rule.
6. Multi electronic species.
De broglie
Acc. To him, every matter has dual nature.

mc^2 = hc/lambda

2πr = nLambda

Dual nature of matter can only be seen in microscopic species and not in microscopic
species.

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

It is impossible to determined The exact position and momentum(velocity) of sub atomic
particle simultaneously.

# valid for microscopic species only.

#rules out the existence of definite path.

Quantum wave mechanical theory

The branch of science that takes us into the dual behaviour of matter.

Schrodinger wave equation:

Condition on wave equations:

• Psi Must be finite

• Must be continuous
• Must be single value
• First derivative of wave equation must be continuous
 Important features of quantum model

• Energy of electron is quantized.

• The exact position and velocity of an electron cannot be determined
simultaneously. Hence, wr find probability of electron in different positions.
• The wave function for an electron represent an atomic orbital in an atom.

The significant value of psi is known as eigen functions, and the corresponding energy
values are called eigen values.

Quantum numbers
The set of four Quantum numbers that helps in determining the position of
electron.

n, l, m are derived from S.W.E

Diamagnetic - atom with only paired electron are repelled slightly when placed in a
magnetic field.

Paramagnetic - atom with one or more than one unpaired electron attract each other
when placed in a magnetic field.

Energies of orbitals and energy level

diagram

One electron species

○ Energy only depend on principle quantum number

Degenerate level: same energy levels

Degeneracy: number of orbitals having same energy.

Multi electron species

○ Depend on n and l.
○ The energy of orbitals in the same sub shell decreases with an increase in atomic
number.

Shielding effect/Screening effect: the phenomenon of the reduction of the force of

attraction of the nucleus on the outermost valence electrons due to the presence of
the inner shell electrons

Z*(z effective) = Z – sigma(shielding constant)

 Factors:
○ Shape of orbitals
○ No. Of inner shell electron.(more electron more value of sigma)

S>p>d>f

Note- more attractive force results in the decrease in energy(i.e. more negative).
More screening effect, more energy value(comes to 0)

In P.Table
Increase coming from top to bottom, and decrease going from left to Right

1. Bohr bury rule(n+l) rule

Fill the electron in that orbital which has minimum value of (n+l).

If (n+l) is same, then fill orbital which has lower n value.

Electron configuration
1. Aufbau principle

Electron are filled in various orbitals in order of their increasing state.

2. Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity

• It states that electron pairing will not take place unless and until all the orbital in a
subshell have been singly occupied.
• Maximum multiplicity means that electron should be filled in such a way, there
should be maximum total spin(S).
 3. Pauli exclusion principle

• No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
• Electron in same orbital should be of opposite sign.

From this, we conclude orbital only have maximum of two electron.

Exceptional Electron configuration

This is because half or fully filled subshells are more stable.

Reason:
1. exchange energy: shifting of electrons from one orbital to another within the same
sub-shell.

2. symmetrical distribution: The electronic configurations in which all the orbitals of the
same sub-shell are either completely filled or half filled are more stable than next one.

Electron configuration can also be written in condensed form

Spherical nodes and nodal plane

Spherical node or radial node: The spherical surface where the probability of finding an
electron is zero.

Formula, = n-l-1

Nodal plane: The plane in which the probability of finding an electron is zero.

Formula, = l

Total number of nodes= n-1

Orbital wave functions, Probability distribution

#nucleus and infinite are not added to node.
#the angular wave function depends only on l and m and independent of n.

For probability density maximum, the electron density is at nucleus.

Graph
 Some points regarding the wave function

Shape of atomic orbitals

1. S-subshell

▪ Spherically symmetrical
▪ Size increases with increase in n
▪ The electron is located further away from the nucleus as the n increases.
▪ Nodal planes=0

2. P-subshell

▪ Dumb-bell shape
▪ Directional
▪ Two lobes

# In the absence of external magnetic field, the three p orbitals have same energy.
However, it changes due to the presence of magnetic field.

3. D-sub-shell
▪ Double dumb-bell
▪ 4 lobes
▪ Angular nodes=2

Axial orbitals Non-axial orbitals

In which electron density is present along the In which electron density is not present along the
axis. Ex- px axis Ex - dxy

Cengage extra gyan

• Nucleus with n/p = 1 are more stable as compared to those which have more than 1.5
this ratio.

Mass of photon
# to make a negative ion, firstly empty 4s shell than 3d

***The End***