Chemistry 21/12/2024

Topics
Gas

In the realm of scientific understanding, 'Gas' is a form of matter that freely expands to uniformly
fill any container.

Gases respond strongly to changes in temperature and pressure.

Comprised of particles that move freely and fast.
Unlike solids or liquids, gases are compressible.
Gas particles rarely interact and are far apart.

Liquid

"Liquid" refers to a state of matter where particles are free to move, leading to a definite volume
but not a set shape.

"Liquid" substances take the form of their container.

In a "liquid", particles are in close contact but move freely.
"Liquid" substances can flow and be poured.
The temperature at which a solid converts into a "liquid" is its melting point.

Phase transition

A 'Phase transition' refers to a change in the state of matter of a substance, such as changing
from solid to liquid or vice versa.

- Substances can transition between solid, liquid, gas, and plasma phases.
- Temperature and pressure generally determine the phase of a material.
- Examples of phase transitions include melting, freezing, boiling, and sublimating.
- Each substance has specific phase transition points, called boiling points, freezing points,
etc.

plasma

Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter which consists of a gas of ions and free
electrons.

It's highly responsive to electromagnetic fields.

Stars, including the sun, are made up of plasma.
 Fluorescent tubes and neon signs use plasma.
Plasma cutters are tech devices utilizing this state of matter.

solid

In scientific parlance, 'solid' refers to a state of matter with definite shape and volume due to
particles being closely packed together.

Solids can be classified as either crystalline or amorphous, depending on structure.

In solids, the atoms or molecules are held tightly by intermolecular forces.
Unlike gases or liquids, solids do not flow and are hard to compress.
The kinetic energy in solids is lower compared to liquids and gases.

Key Terms
Amorphous solid

An 'Amorphous solid' is a type of solid that lacks a well-defined crystalline structure, exhibiting a
disordered atomic arrangement compared to a regular, repeating pattern in crystalline solids.

They often have low symmetry and short range order.

Examples include glass, rubber, and many polymers.
Their physical properties can vary with direction due to their lack of internal order.
Unlike crystalline solids, they do not melt at a distinct temperature.

Avogadro's Law

Avogadro's Law states that equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure,
contain the same number of molecules.

This law is named after Amedeo Avogadro.

It is crucial in ideal gas law calculations.
The constant value in this law is Avogadro's Number (6.022 x 10^23 molecules/mol).
This law applies only when the conditions of temperature and pressure are consistent.

Boiling point

Boiling point is the temperature at which a substance transitions from its liquid phase to its
gaseous phase under a given pressure.

It is a unique, specific physical property for each substance.

It's affected by changes in atmospheric pressure.
Pure substances have exact boiling points at a set pressure.
 Mixtures have variable boiling points due to different components.

Boyle's Law

Boyle's Law relates the pressure and volume of a gas, stating that pressure inversely varies with
volume at a constant temperature.

Concept formulated by scientist Robert Boyle in the 17th century.

Applicable for ideal gases under normal conditions.
Can be mathematically represented as P1V1=P2V2.
Allows the prediction of behavior of gases under varying pressures.

Charles's law

Charles's Law, formulated by Jacques Charles, states that the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature (in Kelvin), assuming pressure remains constant.

Helps predict how gases will behave under changing temperature conditions.
When the temperature increases, the gas volume will also increase.
Same rules apply inversely; as temperature drops, volume reduces.
It is crucial in fields like meteorology, engineering, and physics.

compressibility

In the context of substances, compressibility refers to the measure of how easily a substance
can be subjected to compression or volume reduction.

Compressibility is an important physical property that can vary depending on the nature of
the substance.
The compressibility of gases is much higher compared to liquids and solids.
Substances with high compressibility can be easily compressed under applied pressure.
The compressibility of a substance is influenced by factors such as intermolecular forces and
molecular structure.

Condensation

Condensation is a process during which molecules transition from a gaseous phase to a liquid
phase, releasing heat.

This phenomenon often occurs when a gas is cooled.

It is the opposite of evaporation.
Condensation contributes to the water cycle.
Energy exchange is crucial for this process.
Critical Point

A 'Critical Point' refers to a specific temperature and pressure at which the distinction between
gas and liquid phases of a substance disappears.

Regarded as the highest temperature and pressure at which a substance can exist as a liquid
and gas.
Above this point, there's a single phase known as a supercritical fluid.
The properties of the supercritical fluid can be changed by adjusting temperature and
pressure.
Critical points are vital in understanding phase diagrams and transitions.

Crystalline solid

A 'Crystalline solid' is a type of solid material characterized by its highly ordered structure,
formed by repeating patterns of its particles in three dimensions.

- 'Crystalline solids' have fixed and distinct melting points.

- Examples of 'Crystalline solids' include salt, diamonds, and quartz.
- The specific arrangement of particles contributes to a 'Crystalline solid's' distinct physical
properties.
- 'Crystalline solids' can show anisotropy, exhibiting different properties when measured in
different directions.

Dalton's law of partial pressures

Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the
partial pressures of its individual gases.

Partial pressure is the pressure that each gas would exert if it alone occupied the volume.
Each gas in a mixture behaves independently of the others.
This law is applicable to ideal gases and real gases at low pressure and high temperature.
The law is essential in understanding gas exchange in the lungs and scuba diving.

Density

Density in scientific context refers to the mass of a substance divided by its volume, often
measured in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).

Higher density objects sink in lower density fluids.

Temperature and pressure may affect density.
Water is commonly used as a reference with a density of 1 g/cm³.
Density calculations are crucial in fields like material science and fluid dynamics.
Deposition

Deposition is a phase transition where gas transforms directly into a solid without passing
through the liquid state.

Deposition drives processes like frost and snow formation.

Examples include water vapor forming ice on a cold window.
It is the reverse process of sublimation.
Deposition is an exothermic process, releasing heat.

Dipole-dipole interactions

Dipole-dipole interactions refer to attractive forces between the positive end of one polar
molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule.

These interactions increase with the polarity of the molecule.

They are weaker than covalent or ionic bonds but stronger than dispersion forces.
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction.
The boiling and melting points of a substance can indicate the presence of dipole-dipole
interactions.

Equilibrium

Equilibrium refers to the state in a reversible reaction where the forward and backward reactions
occur at the same rate.

In equilibrium, concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time.

Le Chatelier’s principle describes how systems in equilibrium respond to disturbances.
Equilibrium constants express the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations
at equilibrium.
Equilibrium doesn't mean reactants and products are equal, but their reaction rates are.

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes into a gas or vapor, usually due to an
increase in temperature or a decrease in pressure.

During evaporation, only the liquid molecules at the surface have enough energy to escape
and become a vapor.
Evaporation is an endothermic process, meaning it absorbs heat from the surroundings.
The rate of evaporation increases with higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and lower
humidity.
Evaporation is an important part of the water cycle, as it helps to form clouds and eventually
leads to precipitation.
freezing

Freezing is a phase transition where a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered
below its freezing point.

Each substance has a unique freezing point.

Energy is released during freezing, an exothermic process.
The opposite of freezing is melting.
Freezing includes creation of crystalline lattice structures.

Gas laws

Gas laws describe the behavior of gases, including their volume, temperature, and pressure.

Boyle's law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional
to its pressure.
Charles's law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
its temperature.
Gay-Lussac's law states that at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional
to its temperature.
The combined gas law combines Boyle's, Charles's, and Gay-Lussac's laws into one equation.

Graham's law of effusion

Graham's law of effusion states that the rate of effusion or diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molar mass.

The law is applicable at constant temperature and pressure.

Lighter gases effuse or diffuse faster than heavier gases.
Derived by Scottish chemist Thomas Graham in the 19th century.
Can be used to compare the rates of effusion for different gases.

Hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen bonding is a unique type of intermolecular force occurring when a hydrogen atom
bonded to a highly electronegative atom interacts with another electronegative atom.

It is stronger than van der Waals forces but weaker than covalent or ionic bonds.
Common molecules that engage in hydrogen bonding include H2O, NH3, and HF.
Hydrogen bonds influence properties like boiling point and solubility.
These bonds are crucial in shapes of molecules and macrostructures, such as DNA.
Ideal gas

An 'Ideal Gas' is a theoretical concept assuming gases exhibit perfect behavior under low
pressure and high temperature conditions.

Follows the Ideal Gas Law (PV=nRT), symbolizing pressure, volume, molar amount, gas
constant and temperature.
Deviation from ideal behavior is measured using the Van der Waals equation.
Real gases show ideal behavior at low pressures and high temperatures.
These hypothetical concepts enable understanding and predictions of real-world gas
behavior.

Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces refer to the forces of attraction between molecules, influencing various
properties like boiling point, melting point, and surface tension.

These forces can be categorized into three main types: London dispersion, Dipole-dipole, and
Hydrogen bonding.
Stronger intermolecular forces result in higher boiling and melting points.
They also govern physical characteristics like viscosity and volatility.
The nature and magnitude of these forces depend on the size and shape of molecules.

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the behavior of gases based on the idea that they are
composed of many small particles in random, constant motion.

It assumes particles are in constant, random, straight-line motion.

Collisions between these particles are perfectly elastic.
There's negligible attraction or repulsion between particles.
The average kinetic energy is proportional to temperature.

London dispersion forces

London dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular force. They are temporary attractive
forces that occur when electrons in an atom or molecule are not evenly distributed.

London dispersion forces affect all molecules, including nonpolar and symmetric.
Higher atomic or molar mass increases the magnitude of these forces.
They are responsible for states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) at low temperatures.
The forces increase with increasing surface area or polarizability.
Melting Point

The 'Melting Point' signifies the specific temperature at which a solid substance changes its
state to a liquid under standard pressure conditions.

A substance's 'Melting Point' is unique and helps identify it.

It's commonly used in purity testing as impurities alter the 'Melting Point'.
The 'Melting Point' not only depends on temperature but also on applied pressure.
Some materials, like glass and amorphous polymers, don't have a clear 'Melting Point' but
gradually soften.

Phase diagram

A 'Phase diagram' illustrates the physical state of a substance under varying temperatures and
pressures, depicting boundaries between solid, liquid, and gas phases.

Each area within the diagram represents a specific phase, i.e., solid, liquid, or gas.
Lines on the diagram denote phase transitions, such as melting or boiling.
The 'triple point' is where all three phases coexist.
The 'critical point' indicates the temperature and pressure beyond which distinct liquid and
gas phases are indistinguishable.

Real Gas

Real gas is a gas that behaves similarly to ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure, but
deviates from ideal behavior at low temperature and high pressure.

Real gases have volume and molecules in them occupy space, unlike ideal gases.
Real gases can experience intermolecular attractions and molecular size effects, which affect
their behavior.
The van der Waals equation is commonly used to describe the behavior of real gases.
The compressibility factor (Z) is used to measure the deviation of a real gas from ideal
behavior.

Sublimation

Sublimation is a physical process where a substance transitions from a solid directly to a gas,
skipping the liquid phase, when heated under certain conditions.

Dry ice, frozen carbon dioxide, typically sublimates at atmospheric pressure.

Sublimation involves absorption of heat energy, hence it's an endothermic process.
Deposition is the reverse process of sublimation, where gas converts directly to solid.
In nature, sublimation can be witnessed when snow or ice evaporates in cold weather without
melting first.
Surface tension

Surface tension is the attractive force between molecules at the surface of liquid. It causes liquid
surfaces to shrink into shapes having smallest surface area.

It's the result of cohesive forces between similar molecules

It enables capillary action, which makes fluid move up a narrow tube
High surface tension results in smaller liquid droplets
Temperature affects surface tension: it decreases as temperature increases

Thermal Energy

Thermal Energy describes the total sum of kinetic and potential energy associated with the
random movement of atoms and molecules in a substance.

It depends on temperature and mass of a substance.

When substances heat up, the thermal energy increases.
Thermal Energy transfer results in change of state
It is a type of internal energy of a system.

Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction of a moving
fluid, effectively dictating the speed at which it can flow.

A high viscosity indicates a slow-flowing fluid, like honey.

Temperature affects viscosity; as temperature increases, viscosity decreases.
Gases and liquids both have viscosity.
Viscometers are used to measure viscosity.