CN_Module-1

Introduction – Network Hardware

Network hardware encompasses the physical components of a network that
facilitate data transmission between devices. These components form the
foundation of network architecture and determine its efficiency, reliability,
and scalability. Below is an overview of key aspects of network hardware.
1. Types of Transmission Technology

Divides transmission technology into two main categories:

• Broadcast Links: In this type, a single communication channel is

shared by all devices on the network. Messages are broadcasted, and
devices can selectively receive messages based on their unique
identifiers.
• Point-to-Point Links: These links connect two devices directly.
Messages are sent explicitly between the sender and receiver.

Broadcast links are typically used in local area networks (LANs), whereas
point-to-point links are more common in wide area networks (WANs).

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

2. Classification of Networks

Network hardware often varies based on the size, coverage area, and
intended use of the network:

• Local Area Networks (LANs): Small-scale networks within a single

building or campus. LANs commonly use technologies such as
Ethernet, with switches and routers serving as critical hardware.
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): Medium-scale networks
spanning a city or metropolitan area. These often employ microwave
or fiber-optic links for higher capacity.
• Wide Area Networks (WANs): Large-scale networks that connect
devices across cities, countries, or continents. WANs rely on routers,
leased telecommunication lines, and satellite links for communication.

3. Network Hardware Components

Tanenbaum emphasizes the importance of various physical devices in a

network setup. Key components include:

• Switches: Devices that connect multiple devices in a network and use

packet switching to forward data to the intended recipient.
• Routers: Connect different networks and determine the optimal path
for data transmission.
• Hubs: Simple devices that broadcast incoming data to all connected
devices. Although outdated, hubs were historically used in LANs.
• Network Interface Cards (NICs): Hardware installed in devices to
enable network communication.
• Repeaters: Devices that amplify signals to extend the range of
communication.
• Access Points: Wireless devices that enable connectivity in WLANs
(Wireless LANs).
Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru
4. Transmission Media
The textbook discusses two types of transmission media used in network
hardware:

• Guided Media: Physical cables, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial

cables, and fiber-optic cables. These are widely used in LANs and
WANs.
• Unguided Media: Wireless communication methods, including radio
waves, microwaves, and infrared signals.

Fiber-optic cables are particularly highlighted for their high bandwidth and
minimal signal degradation over long distances.

Software – Reference Models – OSI and TCP/IP Models

• Application Layer: Interfaces directly with end-user applications.

• Presentation Layer: Manages data formatting, encryption, and
compression.
• Session Layer: Controls the sessions between computers, managing
connections.
• Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer and error correction.
• Network Layer: Routes data packets across networks and handles
addressing.
• Data Link Layer: Provides node-to-node data transfer and error
detection.
• Physical Layer: Transmits raw bitstreams over physical mediums.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru
1. Physical Layer
• What it does: It handles the actual transmission of bits (0s and 1s)
over a physical medium like cables or wireless signals.
• Functions:
o Defines how devices connect (e.g., wires, connectors).
o Represents data as electrical, light, or radio signals.
o Determines how fast data can be sent.
o Syncs data bits between sender and receiver.
o Supports connection types like direct (point-to-point) or shared
(multipoint).
o Organizes device layout (e.g., mesh, star, bus).
o Supports communication modes like one-way (simplex), two-
way (half or full-duplex).

2. Data Link Layer

• What it does: Manages the transmission of data in pieces called
frames between two devices in the same network.
• Functions:
o Breaks data into frames for transmission.
o Adds addresses to frames for identification.
o Ensures smooth data flow without overloading devices.
o Fixes errors during transmission.
o Controls which device can use the shared channel.

3. Network Layer
• What it does: Ensures data packets travel from the sender's device to
the receiver's device, even across different networks.
• Functions:
o Provides addresses (logical addressing) like IP addresses.
o Finds the best route for data (routing).

4. Transport Layer
• What it does: Manages the end-to-end delivery of messages between
applications or processes.
• Functions:
o Identifies which app the data belongs to using port numbers.
o Splits large messages into smaller parts and combines them at
the destination (segmentation and reassembly).
o Establishes a connection between devices (either reliable or
quick).
o Controls data flow to prevent overload.
o Fixes errors during transmission.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

5. Session Layer
• What it does: Maintains and organizes communication sessions
between devices.
• Functions:
o Manages conversations (dialog control).
o Syncs communication by adding checkpoints, so if interrupted,
it can resume.

6. Presentation Layer
• What it does: Prepares data for the application layer by translating,
encrypting, or compressing it.
• Functions:
o Converts data into formats the receiver understands (e.g.,
changing text encoding).
o Encrypts data for security and decrypts it at the receiver's side.
o Reduces the size of data (compression).

7. Application Layer
• What it does: Provides network-related services directly to users or
applications.
• Functions:
o Allows remote login to systems.
o Supports file transfer and sharing.
o Enables email communication.
o Manages directories like databases or contact lists.
o Provides access to websites and the internet.

Peer-to-Peer Process
• How communication happens:
1. Data starts at the top layer (Application) of the sender's device
and moves down through the layers.
2. Each layer adds its own information to the data (like addresses
or checks for errors).
3. Data is sent over the network to the receiver.
4. On the receiver's side, the data moves up through the layers,
with each layer removing its specific information.
5. The final data is delivered to the application at the top layer.
• Interfaces: Each pair of layers works together and defines the services
they provide to the layer above or below.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP :

Aspect OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Full Form Open Systems Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol/Internet
Protocol
Layers Has 7 layers (Application, Has 4 layers
Presentation, Session, (Application, Transport,
Transport, Network, Data Internet, Network
Link, Physical) Interface)
Design Conceptual model used for Practical model
Approach understanding networks designed for real-world
communication
Development Developed by ISO Developed by the U.S.
(International Organization Department of Defense
for Standardization)
Usage Primarily theoretical and Widely used in real-
used for learning world networking
systems
Protocol Independent of specific Based on standard
Standards protocols internet protocols like
HTTP, TCP, IP, etc.
Error Handling More focus on defining Handles errors but
error handling and data flow focuses on data
transmission
Flexibility More rigid and detailed More flexible and
layer definitions adaptable for real-world
applications
Reliability Ensures reliable Provides reliability
communication through mainly in the transport
layers layer
Application Supports general-purpose Focused on internet and
Support communication web communication
Connection Supports both connection- Primarily uses
Types oriented and connectionless connectionless protocols
services at the network layer
Implementation Rarely used for direct Frequently used and
implementation implemented in
networks today

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

Example Networks
1. The Internet:
o Not a single network but a collection of interconnected networks using common
protocols and services.
o Originated during the Cold War as a fault-tolerant communication system for the
U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) to survive potential nuclear attacks.
o Evolved from ARPANET, designed with distributed, fault-tolerant architecture
inspired by Paul Baran’s packet-switching concept.

Architecture of the Internet

The Internet's architecture has evolved significantly with the growth of

telecommunications convergence, where a single network supports multiple
services like telephony, TV, and Internet. Users connect to the Internet through an
ISP, enabling their computers to exchange data with other hosts. Common
connection methods include DSL, which uses existing telephone lines via a DSL
modem and DSLAM, and cable systems that repurpose unused cable TV
infrastructure for data transmission. Other options like dial-up and fiber-optic
connections also exist, each differing in bandwidth, cost, and connectivity.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

Third-Generation Mobile Phone Networks

1.1 ARPANET Development:

o Proposed in 1967 by Larry Roberts, combining packet-switching ideas from Paul

Baran and Donald Davies.
o BBN was contracted in 1968 to build the network, using minicomputers called
IMPs (Interface Message Processors) connected by 56 kbps leased lines.
o Built on the concept of store-and-forward packet switching, ensuring data
delivery even if parts of the network failed.

1.2 Initial Deployment:

o Went live in December 1969 with four nodes (UCLA, UCSB, SRI, and the
University of Utah).
o Demonstrated its capability to connect various incompatible host computers and
handle data communication effectively.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

1.3 Expansion and TCP/IP Protocol:

o ARPANET's expansion required better protocols; TCP/IP was developed to

interconnect various networks seamlessly.
o By the 1980s, it became a universal standard, aided by implementations in
Berkeley UNIX, which included networking utilities and the socket programming
interface.

1.4 Domain Name System (DNS):

o Introduced to organize and map host names to IP addresses as the network scaled
up.
o Developed to address the growing difficulty of finding hosts on the expanding
ARPANET.
o DNS maps human-readable domain names to numerical IP addresses.
o It became a distributed database system, storing various types of naming-
related data.
o Critical for the usability and organization of the modern Internet.

1.5. Legacy and Impact:

• ARPANET's architecture, protocols, and technologies became the foundation of the

Internet.
• Innovations like packet switching, fault-tolerant design, and standardized protocols
enabled the rapid evolution of global networking.

2. What is ATM?
• The concept of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), revolves around a high-speed,
connection-oriented network technology designed for efficient data transfer across various
applications
• ATM is a cell-based switching technology used for high-speed communication.
• It transmits data in small, fixed-sized units called cells (53 bytes in size).
o 5 bytes for the header.
o 48 bytes for the payload (data).
• Unlike traditional packet-switched networks, ATM maintains a fixed size for all cells,
which simplifies switching and reduces delays.

Key Features of ATM

1. Connection-Oriented:
o Before data transfer begins, a connection (virtual circuit) must be established
between the sender and receiver.
o Two types of connections:
▪ Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs): Pre-configured paths.
▪ Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs): Dynamically set up for each session.
2. Quality of Service (QoS):
o ATM supports different service levels for diverse applications like voice, video,
and data.
o Applications can specify requirements for delay, bandwidth, and error rates.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

 3. Small Cell Size:
o Fixed 53-byte cells allow fast and efficient switching in hardware, reducing
latency.
o The small size is especially beneficial for real-time applications like video or
voice calls.
4. Integration of Services:
o ATM was designed to handle various types of traffic: data, voice, and video, all
within the same network.
5. Scalability:
o It supports speeds ranging from a few Mbps to several Gbps, making it suitable
for both local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).

How ATM Works

1. Data Segmentation:
o Larger data packets are divided into fixed-size cells.
2. Cell Switching:
o ATM switches route cells across the network using information in the cell
headers.
3. Reassembly:
o At the destination, the cells are reassembled into the original data format.

Advantages of ATM

• High-Speed Communication: Supports gigabit speeds.

• Low Latency: Ideal for real-time applications like video conferencing.
• Flexible QoS: Meets the needs of different types of applications.

Disadvantages of ATM

• Complexity: Setting up virtual circuits adds overhead.

• Cost: ATM hardware and infrastructure are expensive compared to newer technologies.
• Obsolescence: Modern alternatives like Ethernet and MPLS have largely replaced ATM
due to their simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

Practical Use Cases

• Historically used in telecom networks for voice and video transmission.

• Played a major role in early broadband ISPs and enterprise networks before being
replaced by faster and more cost-efficient technologies.

3. Ethernet (Wired Communication)

Ethernet is one of the most widely used wired LAN technologies, offering high-speed and
reliable communication within a limited geographical area such as homes, offices, or
campuses. It adheres to the IEEE 802.3 standard.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

3.1. Architecture

Ethernet operates in a bus or star topology. In a bus topology, all devices share a common
communication medium, whereas in a star topology, all devices connect to a central
switch or hub.

3.2. Protocol and Operation

Ethernet employs the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) protocol to manage access to the shared communication medium:

• Carrier Sense: Devices check if the medium is idle before transmitting.

• Multiple Access: Multiple devices can attempt to use the network simultaneously.
• Collision Detection: If two devices transmit simultaneously, the collision is detected, and
each device waits for a random backoff time before retransmitting.

3.3. Speed Variants

Over time, Ethernet has evolved to support higher speeds:

• Standard Ethernet: 10 Mbps

• Fast Ethernet: 100 Mbps
• Gigabit Ethernet: 1 Gbps
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet and beyond: Up to 400 Gbps

3.4. Advantages

• High reliability and performance

• Support for full-duplex communication (data flow in both directions simultaneously)
• Cost-effective due to widespread adoption and scalability

Example:

Imagine a small office where desktop computers, printers, and servers are connected via
Ethernet cables to a central device, such as a switch. This setup ensures fast and stable
communication between devices.

4.Wireless LAN: (Wireless Communication)

What is a Wireless LAN? A Wireless Local Area Network (LAN) allows computers and
devices to connect and communicate without cables. This is done using radio waves
instead of wires, making it easy to set up networks in homes, offices, or public spaces like
cafes and libraries. A Wireless LAN (WLAN) allows devices to communicate over the
air without physical cables. WLANs use Wi-Fi as their most common technology,
making them highly flexible and convenient.

Key Features:

1. Access Points (APs):

o A central device, often called a wireless router or base station, connects devices
wirelessly and also links them to the Internet. It acts as a hub for communication.
o APs are commonly mounted in ceilings or walls.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

 2. Client Devices:
o Devices like laptops, smartphones, or tablets communicate with the AP using
built-in wireless adapters.
3. Standards and Speeds:
WLANs operate in unlicensed frequency bands, such as 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz:
• 802.11b: Speeds up to 11 Mbps (2.4 GHz)
• 802.11g: Speeds up to 54 Mbps (2.4 GHz)
• 802.11n: Speeds up to 600 Mbps (2.4/5 GHz)
• 802.11ac: Gigabit speeds (5 GHz)
• 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Improved efficiency and performance in congested environments

4. Types of Connections:
o Infrastructure Mode: Devices connect to an AP, which handles all
communication and Internet access.
o Ad Hoc Mode: Devices communicate directly with each other without an AP,
useful for quick, small-scale networks .

5. Frequency Bands:
o WiFi typically operates in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, making it
compatible worldwide.
o These frequencies can experience interference from other devices like
microwaves or cordless phones .
6. Reliability Challenges:
o Wireless signals can be affected by walls, furniture, or other obstacles.
o To counter issues like signal fading, modern techniques such as Multiple Input
Multiple Output (MIMO) are used to enhance reliability and speed 【
11:11†source】.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

Advantages of Wireless LANs:

• Flexibility: No need for cables, Easy installation and expansion, Reduces cabling costs
• Mobility: Users can move devices freely within the network range.
• Scalability: Adding new devices is simple compared to wired networks.

Limitations:

• Interference: Shared frequency bands can lead to slower speeds in crowded areas.
• Security: Wireless networks are more susceptible to unauthorized access, so encryption
protocols like WPA2 are essential to secure communication.
• WLANs use CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) instead of CSMA/CD due to the
difficulty of detecting collisions in a wireless medium. Security protocols such as
WPA3 ensure the confidentiality and integrity of data transmitted over WLANs.

4.1. Comparison
Feature Ethernet Wireless LAN (WLAN)
Medium Wired (cables) Wireless (radio signals)
Standards IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.11
Speed Up to 400 Gbps Up to several Gbps (Wi-Fi 6)
Security Physical control over cables WPA2/WPA3 encryption
Installation Complex due to cabling Easy and quick
Mobility Limited High

Ethernet and Wireless LANs

Both Ethernet and Wireless LANs are essential technologies in computer networks, as
discussed in Andrew S. Tanenbaum's Computer Networks. These technologies allow
devices to communicate and share resources in local area networks (LANs).

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

Practical Example:

Consider a smart home:

• Ethernet: Used for connecting stationary devices like smart TVs or gaming consoles for
uninterrupted performance.
• WLAN: Used for mobile devices like smartphones, tablets, or IoT devices for
convenience.

In summary, Ethernet and WLANs complement each other, with Ethernet providing high-
speed, stable connections and WLANs offering mobility and flexibility.

Ethernet is one of the most widely used technologies for local area networks (LANs).
Here's a simplified explanation based on the detailed content from your textbook:

Guided Transmission Media -

The physical layer in a network is responsible for transferring data (bits) from one device
to another. Various physical media are used for this transmission, and each has specific
advantages in terms of speed, delay, cost, and maintenance. Below is a detailed
explanation of key points about guided transmission media, particularly magnetic media
and twisted pairs:

1.2.1 Magnetic Media

1. Data Transportation Using Magnetic Media

o Data is written onto magnetic tapes or removable media like DVDs, physically
transported to another location, and then read back.
o Example: A company might ship tapes instead of using high-speed internet for
transferring massive amounts of data.
2. High Bandwidth at Low Cost
o Magnetic tapes can hold vast amounts of data. For instance, a single Ultrium tape
can store 800 GB, and a box of 1000 such tapes can hold 800 TB.
o Transporting these tapes is cost-effective and has an impressive effective
bandwidth (e.g., 70 Gbps over 24 hours or 1700 Gbps if delivered within an
hour).
3. Cost Comparison
o Shipping a gigabyte of data via magnetic tapes costs less than a cent, which is
much cheaper than most networks.
4. Limitation
o The delay in transferring data via magnetic media is significant since
transportation takes hours or days.

1.2.2 Twisted Pairs

1. What Are Twisted Pairs?

o A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. Twisting
reduces interference and improves signal quality.
o Commonly used in telephone systems and for ADSL (Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line) internet connections.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

 2. Applications
o Used for analog (e.g., voice calls) and digital (e.g., internet) transmissions.
o They are cost-effective and widely used in local area networks (LANs).
3. Twisted Pair Varieties
o Category 5 (Cat 5): Common in office buildings; supports up to 100 Mbps
Ethernet.
o Category 6 (Cat 6) and Category 7 (Cat 7): Higher specifications to handle
faster speeds (up to 10 Gbps). Cat 7 cables include shielding to reduce
interference.
4. Crosstalk and Signal Quality
o Twisting reduces crosstalk (interference between wires), ensuring better signal
quality.
o More twists per meter in Cat 5 and above result in reduced signal degradation
over longer distances.
5. Full-Duplex, Half-Duplex, and Simplex Links
o Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously (like a two-lane road).
o Half-Duplex: Data flows one way at a time (like a single-track railroad).
o Simplex: Data flows in one direction only (like a one-way street).
6. LAN Usage
o Twisted pairs are commonly used in Ethernet connections, with newer standards
utilizing all four pairs for faster speeds (e.g., 1 Gbps and above).
7. Advantages
o Low cost and adequate performance for most applications.
o Suitable for several kilometers of transmission without repeaters.

Key Takeaways

• Magnetic Media: Best for cost-effective bulk data transfer but slow for real-time
communication.
• Twisted Pairs: Widely used for telecommunication and networking due to their low cost,
ease of use, and decent performance.
• Advancements: Newer cable categories (Cat 6, Cat 7) are optimized for high-speed
communication, supporting modern data demands.

1.2.3 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable (or "coax") is a widely used transmission medium known for its better
shielding and higher bandwidth compared to unshielded twisted pair cables. This makes
it capable of transmitting data over longer distances at higher speeds.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

 • Types of Coaxial Cables:
o 50-ohm cable: Designed for digital transmission (e.g., computer data networks).
o 75-ohm cable: Designed for analog transmission (e.g., cable TV and older
transmission systems).
o The distinction between the two types is historical and linked to early antenna
design.
• Construction of Coaxial Cable:
o A stiff copper wire core for data transmission.
o An insulating material surrounds the core.
o A braided outer conductor provides shielding to reduce interference.
o The entire cable is covered with a protective plastic sheath.
• Advantages:
o Offers high bandwidth (up to a few GHz for modern cables).
o Provides excellent noise immunity due to its shielding.
• Uses of Coaxial Cable:
o Previously used for long-distance telephone lines (now replaced by fiber optics).
o Still widely used in cable television and metropolitan area networks.

1.2.4 Power Lines as a Transmission Medium

Power lines, which are typically used to deliver electricity, can also be repurposed for
data communication both inside and outside homes.

• History of Power Line Communication (PLC):

o Used for low-rate communication (e.g., remote meter reading by electricity
companies).
o Recently adapted for high-speed communication within homes (e.g., local area
networks or broadband).
Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru
 • How It Works:
o Data signals are added to the existing power signal on the same wires.
o For example, a TV and receiver can communicate over the power line simply by
plugging into electrical outlets.
• Advantages:
o Convenience: No need for additional cables or wireless systems; the existing
power network is used.
o Simple Setup: Devices only need to be plugged into a wall socket for both power
and data.
• Challenges:
o Designed for Power, Not Data: Electrical wiring isn’t optimized for high-
frequency data signals, leading to signal loss and interference.
o Electrical Noise: Appliances switching on/off create noise that disrupts data
signals.
o Antenna Effect: Household wiring can act as an antenna, picking up or radiating
unwanted signals.
o Frequency Restrictions: Data signals must avoid licensed frequencies (e.g.,
amateur radio bands).
• Modern Solutions:
o Despite challenges, advanced techniques now enable speeds of 100 Mbps or
more over household wiring.
o These systems use error-resistant communication schemes to handle noise and
frequency issues.
o Many products rely on proprietary standards, and efforts are underway to
establish international standards for power-line networking.

1.2.5 Fiber Optics

1. Speed and Growth of Fiber Optics

• Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission in network backbones, high speed LANs
(although so far, copper has always managed catch up eventually), and high-speed
Internet access such as FttH (Fiber to the Home).
• Over the past decades, data transmission rates have grown from 45 Mbps to 100 Gbps,
with potential for much higher speeds using fiber optics.
• Unlike CPUs, which are nearing physical limits, fiber technology can theoretically
achieve up to 50 Tbps, but current limitations are due to converting electrical signals to
optical signals.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

2. Components of Fiber Optics System

• Light Source: Generates light signals to represent data (e.g., a pulse for 1 bit, no pulse for
0 bit).
• Transmission Medium: A thin glass fiber that guides the light signals.
• Detector: Converts the received light pulses back into electrical signals.

3. Principle of Total Internal Reflection

• Light signals are kept inside the fiber using a physics principle called total internal
reflection.
• When light hits the boundary of the glass and air at a specific angle (critical angle), it
reflects back into the glass instead of escaping.
• This reflection allows light to travel long distances with minimal loss.

4. Multimode and Single-Mode Fibers

• Multimode Fiber: Allows light to bounce inside the fiber at multiple angles, suitable for
short distances.
• Single-Mode Fiber: Has a very thin core and allows light to travel in a straight line. It’s
more expensive but ideal for long-distance communication (e.g., 100 Gbps over 100 km).

5. Advantages of Glass in Fiber Optics

• Fiber optics use extremely transparent glass made from sand, which is inexpensive and
abundant.
• This glass is so clear that if oceans were filled with it, the seabed would be visible from
the surface.

8. Challenges in Fiber Optics

• Cost: Installing fiber to homes (last-mile connectivity) is expensive.

• Energy Use: It takes more energy to transmit data over fiber than to compute.
• These factors create trade-offs between computation and communication in different parts
of the Internet.

Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber optic cables are special cables used to transmit data using light signals. Unlike
coaxial cables, they don't have a braided layer but consist of the following main parts:

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru

 1. Core:
o This is the central part made of glass where the light travels.
o Multimode fibers have a thicker core (about the size of a human hair, 50
microns).
o Single-mode fibers have a thinner core (8 to 10 microns).
2. Cladding:
o Surrounds the core and is also made of glass.
o It has a lower index of refraction to keep the light contained within the core.
3. Jacket:
o A thin layer of plastic that protects the cladding.
4. Sheath:
o Multiple fibers are bundled together and enclosed in a protective outer sheath.

How Fiber Cables are Used and Installed

1. Terrestrial Fibers:
o Buried within 1 meter of the ground, but can be damaged by digging or animals.
2. Underwater Fibers:
o Near the shore, they are buried in trenches with special equipment.
o In deep water, they are laid on the ocean floor and are vulnerable to fishing
equipment or marine life.

Connecting Fibers

Fibers can be joined in three ways:

1. Connectors:
o Fibers are plugged into sockets, making them easy to rearrange.
o They lose 10-20% of light during transmission.
2. Mechanical Splicing:
o The ends of fibers are aligned and clamped in place.
o This method loses about 10% of light and requires skilled technicians.
3. Fusion Splicing:
o Fibers are melted together for a permanent connection.
o This provides the best quality but still causes slight signal loss.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE,Bengaluru

Light Sources in Fiber Optics

Comparison of Fiber Optics and Copper Wire

Aspect Fiber Optics Copper Wire
Much higher, suitable for high-end Limited, less suitable for modern
Bandwidth
networks data needs
Repeater Distance Requires repeaters every 50 km Requires repeaters every 5 km
Not affected by power surges,
Interference Susceptible to electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference, or power
Resistance interference and power issues
failures
Environmental Resistant to corrosive chemicals, ideal May degrade in corrosive
Resistance for harsh environments environments
Lightweight; two fibers (1 km) weigh Heavy; 1,000 twisted pairs (1
Weight
~100 kg km) weigh ~8,000 kg
Space Efficiency Thin, saves space in cable ducts Bulky, takes up more space
Security Does not leak light; difficult to tap Easier to tap and less secure
Higher cost due to bulk and
Cost of Installation Lower installation cost for new routes
weight
Requires specialized skills; fragile and Familiar technology; easier to
Ease of Handling
prone to damage if bent handle
Unidirectional; needs two fibers or
Communication
frequency bands for two-way Bidirectional by design
Direction
communication
Interface Costs Higher than electrical interfaces Lower, more affordable
Dominates fixed data communication Limited future use, especially
Future Viability
for long distances for long distances

Advantages Over Copper

1. Higher Bandwidth: Carries more data.
2. Longer Distance: Needs fewer repeaters.
3. Immunity to Interference: Resists environmental factors.
4. Lightweight and Space-Saving: Thin and easy to install.
5. Security: Hard to tap or intercept signals.

Challenges

• Fragility, unidirectional communication, and higher interface costs are notable drawbacks.

Assistant Professor Shreedhar kumbhar, Dept. MCA, RRCE, Bengaluru